Managing Human Resources: Ingrid L. Potgieter Nadia Ferreira Editors

Ingrid
L. Potgieter
Nadia Ferreira Editors
Managing
Human
Resources
The New Normal
Managing Human Resources
Ingrid L. Potgieter • Nadia Ferreira
Editors
Managing Human Resources

The New Normal
Editors
Ingrid L. Potgieter Nadia Ferreira
Department of Human Resource Department of Human Resource
Management Management
University of South Africa University of South Africa
Pretoria, South Africa Pretoria, South Africa
ISBN 978-3-031-09802-4 ISBN 978-3-031-09803-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
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We dedicate this book volume to scholars
and practitioners who are enthusiastically
researching novel solutions and trying to
innovative ways in managing human
resources within the new normal working
context, characterized by the fast-emerging
digital workplace and rapid changes (such
as remote working and social distancing)
due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Preface
This book Managing Human Resources: The New Normal, is timely in its reflection
on the notion of managing human resources within the new normal working context
and career space. Scholars and practitioners agree that Industry 4.0 has both
expanded the possibilities of digital transformation and increased its importance to
the organisation and employees. Organisations were planning to slowly and steadily
adapt to the challenges and opportunities presented by Industry 4.0. The COVID-19
pandemic has spread disorder amongst almost all global economies and businesses,
and HR has been at the epicentre of it. COVID-19 accelerated the change and forced
many organisations, those ready as well as those not yet ready, to adapt and evolve
in order to survive. What was once considered abnormal has overnight changed to
what we refer to as the new normal. The pandemic has spread chaos in global econ-
omies as well as in small, medium, and large organisations. Human resource man-
agement has been right in the centre of this storm. With many organisations on the
bridge of recovery, the role of human resource management has become even more
important.
Due to the new normal, organisations are forced to reconsider their business
models. Organisations, and specifically human resource practitioners and industrial
psychologists, are expected to guide their employees safely towards the new nor-
mal. On a strategic level, that may include revision of company policies and strate-
gies that may inform either remote working or safe return to office procedures.
Policies on remuneration and performance management need to be revised and
adapted. Further changes to a business model may include strategies to emerge suc-
cessfully from the current crisis, but also to deal with any future, unexpected crisis
or challenges.
Organisational culture will be forced to reform. All of these sudden and drastic
changes will highly impact on all employees as well as on the managements of
human resources. On an individual level, human resource practitioners and indus-
trial psychologist would need to consider employee well-being, coping strategies,
communication, social dynamics, psychological flexibility of employees, adaptabil-
ity and many more difficulties that employees may face due to the new normal.
vii
viii Preface
Scholars and practitioners interested in these changes, challenges and opportuni-

ties presented by the new normal are called towards bringing innovative solutions
and emerging issues for research and practice to the successfully manage human
resources in the new normal.
This book is about advancing knowledge and understanding on the innovative
ways of managing human resources in the new normal. The book aims to craft a
coherent narrative around the following two streams of thought which we trust will
help advance theory, research and practice in managing human resources in the
new normal:
Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics of Strategic Human Resource
Management. This section includes multi-disciplinary perspectives on the changes
necessary regarding the management of human resource on a strategic level. This
book proposes guidelines to adapt and develop strategies, policies and procedures to
deal with managing human resources in the new normal. These include both dealing
with the current crisis and quest to recover from the disruption of the coronavirus
pandemic, and also how to deal with future challenges and opportunities.
Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New Normal on the

Psychology of Employees. This section includes advance theories, research and
recommendations on guiding employees through the changes brought on by the new
normal. Chapters critically evaluate contextual and personal enablers and impeding
factors including potential processes and interventions that facilitate managing
human resources in the new normal. Perspectives on the potential future manifesta-
tion of constructs relating to managing human resources in the new normal such as
adaptability, employability, commitment, and employee well-being and flourishing
are included.
Impact of the New Normal on Individuals with Special Needs

This section specifically looks at the unique needs and requirements of individuals
with special needs (such as autism, multiple sclerosis and disabilities) and how the
new normal working context impacts on their ability to function and perform within
the reformed working space.
The primary audience for this book volume is advanced undergraduate and post-
graduate students in industrial and organisational psychology and human resource
management, as well as scholars in both academic and applied work settings.
Industrial and organisational psychologists and human resource professionals will
also have an interest in this book volume.
The issues and challenges of new technological innovations such as AI, remote
working and other innovations for dealing with changes of the new normal working
context are included. The book helps craft a coherent, innovative narrative on the
phenomenon of human resource management in the fast-emerging digital work-
place. The chapters’ contents are research and evidence based and very recent.
We highlight some of the overarching issues that are emerging in our introduc-
tory chapter (Chap. 1) and concluding chapter (Chap. 18). The themes highlighted
Preface ix
in Chaps. 1 and 18 may suggest to the reader new avenues for thinking about our
new normal and how to manage human resources within this new normal
career space.
Each chapter makes its own outstanding contribution by reporting on current
research highlighting key constructs and processes underlying managing human
resources in multi-disciplinary domains and across the lifespan. Right now, what is
considered our new normal is on the forefront and is important for both organisa-
tions and individuals in their efforts to balance and cope with the opportunities as
well as challenges presented by our new normal working context. The issues we
have raised (in Chaps. 1 and 18) are intended to help the reader grasp the delibera-
tion and deep structure of the construct as it appears in each frontline chapter in this
volume. We trust that the reader finds the book volume and its collection of chapters
on the construct inspiring, insightful and overflowing with possibilities for applica-
bility in social science research and organisational practice in the new normal
workplace.
Pretoria, South Africa Ingrid L. Potgieter

April 2022 Nadia Ferreira
Acknowledgements
As authors, we acknowledge that our understanding of the role of the strategic and
psychological underpinnings of the new normal working context has been shaped
by many research scholars, practitioners, colleagues, clients and students, past and
present, in the international and multicultural workplace and educational contexts.
We are truly grateful for these brilliant individuals who have shared their practices,
wisdom and insights with us in person and through the professional scholarly litera-
ture. Scholars and practitioners are seeking novel solutions for helping organisa-
tions and their employees find positive ways of managing human resources in
uncertain changing times. This book volume reflects a snapshot of the new, emerg-
ing thoughts and directions for research and practice that organisations, individuals
and practitioners may benefit from. As editors, we would also like to offer our deep
gratitude to the team of authors we worked with on this book for their quality con-
tributions, hard work and their forbearance.
The book volume and its chapters have been independently peer reviewed by
scholars before publication. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions and rec-
ommendations made by the following reviewers:
Lize Stoffberg
Arien Strasheim
Sabine Raeder
Irma Eloff
Fathima Essop
Ronel Nienaber
Melinde Coetzee
Illizanne Howard
Jacqueline Bosman
Johannes Cronje
Leigh-Anne Paul Dachapilli
Bright Mahembe
Quadra Mjoli
Marissa Brouwers
xi
Contents
1 Introductory
Chapter: Conceptualising Human Resource
Management in the Context of the New Normal�� 1
Ingrid L. Potgieter and Nadia Ferreira
Part I Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics of Strategic

Human Resource Management
2 Reinventing
Strategic Human Resource Management�� 9
Cecile M. Schultz
3 The
COVID-19 Pandemic: Managing Unplanned Change as
the New Normal in the Workplace �� 31
Chantal Olckers and Eileen Koekemoer
4 Designing
for Humans: A Revised Consumer Experience-Based
Approach Towards People Management Practices�� 53
Dieter Veldsman and Marna van der Merwe
5 Novel
Tools as New Challenges to HRM Communicational
Practices (and the Increasingly Important Social Role of the
Manager)�� 75
Marta Szeluga-Romanska and Anna Modzelewska
6 The
New Normal: Managing Virtual Work From
a Human Resources Perspective �� 97
Rudolf M. Oosthuizen
7 Remuneration
in the New Normal�� 115
Mark Bussin
8 Remuneration
Strategies in the New Normal�� 131
Magda Bezuidenhout
xiii
xiv Contents
Part II Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New

Normal on the Psychology of Employees
9 Well-Being
in a Post-Pandemic World – A Positive Psychological
Perspective�� 151
Adéle Bezuidenhout
10 Working
Remotely in the New Normal: Towards a Conceptual
Framework for Managing Employee Well-Being �� 165
Melissa Du Plessis
11 Agile
Coping in the New Normal Post-COVID Career Space:
Does Your Cognitive Orientation Matter?�� 193
Ingrid L. Potgieter
12 Promoting
Employees’ Mental Health in the Post-COVID
New Normal: Using a Peer Support Model �� 211
Lee Za Ong, Chung-Yi Chiu, and Ngonidzashe Mpofu
13 Career
Adaptability as a Predictor of Employees’ Career Agility
and Career Embeddedness�� 229
Nadia Ferreira
14 Managing
Human Resources in the New Normal: How Are Small
Business Owner-Managers Responding?�� 249
Willie Tafadzwa Chinyamurindi
Part III Impact of the New Normal on Individuals with Special Needs

15 Context
of Digitalized Employment for Older Adults with Autism
Spectrum Disorder in the New Normal �� 269
Elias Mpofu, Michał T. Tomczak, Nathan Hutson, Lucy Gafford,
and Rongfang Zhan
16 Working
with Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis During
the New Normal�� 291
George Mamboleo and Stuart Rumrill
17 Human
Resource Considerations for Supporting Employees
with Neurological Disorders: Multiple Sclerosis
and Spinal Cord Injury �� 307
Ngonidzashe Mpofu, Muna Bhattarai, and Sasha D. Smith
Part IV Integration and Conclusion

18 Reflection
on the Impact of the New Normal on the Management
of Human Resources�� 327
Nadia Ferreira and Ingrid L. Potgieter
Index�� 333
About the Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Ingrid L. Potgieter is Professor of Human Resource Management in the

Department of Human Resource Management at UniSA. She is a registered indus-
trial psychologist at the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) since
2009 and also a registered human resource practitioner with the South African
Board for People Practices (SABPP). Ingrid completed her MCom in human
resource management and industrial psychology in 2009 at the University of
Pretoria. She completed her DCom in industrial psychology at UniSA in 2012. She
is also an author and co-author of several published articles in local and interna-
tional journals. She has presented several papers at national and international con-
ferences. Ingrid is a section editor for the South African Journal of Industrial
Psychology and has edited and co-edited a number of scholarly books published by
an international publisher. She is further selected as the vice chair for the SABPP
HR Research Initiative Committee (HRRI).
Nadia Ferreira is Professor of Human Resource Management in the Department

of Human Resource Management at the University of South Africa, Pretoria, South
Africa. She is a registered human resource practitioner with the South African
Board for People Practices (SABPP) and an NRF-rated researcher. Her research
interests include issues of organisational psychology, career adaptability, organisa-
tional commitment, job embeddedness, and career and retention psychology in mul-
ticultural work contexts. Since 2019, Ferreira has been a section editor for the South
African Journal of Industrial Psychology. She has published in numerous accred-
ited academic journals and has edited, co-authored and contributed chapters to
scholarly books locally and internationally on the themes of human resource man-
agement, retention and career well-being. Ferreira has presented numerous aca-
demic papers at national and international conferences.
xv
Contributors
Sasha D. Anderson Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education, University

of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Adéle Bezuidenhout Department of Organisational Studies and Human Resource
Management, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, NH, USA
Magda Bezuidenhout Department of Human Resource Management, University
of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
Muna Bhattarai College of Nursing, Texas A&M University, College
Station, TX, USA
Mark Bussin University of Pretoria, Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS),
Pretoria, South Africa
Willie Tafadzwa Chinyamurindi University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
Chung-Yi Chiu Health Promotion and Rehabilitation Lab, Department of
Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign,
College of Applied Health Science, Champaign, IL, USA
Melissa Du Plessis Department of Human Resource Management, University of
South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
Nadia Ferreira Department of Human Resource Management, University of
Lucy Gafford Workplace Inclusion and Sustainable Employment, University of
North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
Nathan Hutson Public Service, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
Eileen Koekemoer University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
George Mamboleo West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
Anna Modzelewska Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
xvii
xviii Contributors
Elias Mpofu Rehabilitation and Health Services, University of North Texas,

Denton, TX, USA
School of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
School of Human and Community Development, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, South Africa
Ngonidzashe Mpofu Department of Counseling, Clinical Rehabilitation
Counseling Program, Idaho State University, College of Health, Pocatello, ID, USA
Chantal Olckers University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
Lee Za Ong Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology,
Marquette University, College of Education, Milwaukee, WI, USA
Rudolf M. Oosthuizen Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology,
University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
Ingrid L. Potgieter Department of Human Resource Management, University of
Stuart Rumrill Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
Cecile M. Schultz Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
Marta Szeluga-Romanska Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
Michał T. Tomczak Faculty of Management and Economics, Gdańsk University
of Technology, Gdańsk, Poland
Marna van der Merwe SHL, Somerset West, South Africa
Dieter Veldsman Academy to Innovative HR, Rotterdam, Netherlands
University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Rongfang Zhan Rehabilitation and Health Services, University of North Texas,
Denton, TX, USA
Chapter 1
Introductory Chapter: Conceptualising
Human Resource Management
in the Context of the New Normal
Ingrid L. Potgieter and Nadia Ferreira
Introduction
Together with global demographic and economic trends, the increased competition
for competitive intelligence, the radical changes to the workplace and skills require-
ments emanating from Industry 4.0 as well as remote working policies have created
a perfect storm for human resource management. The changes within the workplace
apply not only to the way in which work is done, but also to everyday life, as organ-
isational systems do not exist without human beings. Managing employees as
human beings and helping them cope within this perfect storm is therefore of utmost
importance. This book ‘Managing Human Resource: The new normal’, is appropri-
ate in its reflection on the opinion and understanding of how human resources
should be managed in the new world of work we find ourselves in. This book fills
an important gap in current research by addressing the under-researched phenome-
non of managing human resources within the new normal working context. Various
interesting outlooks of changes are offered in the chapters of this book, which have
made it possible to deliver a unique outlook on the concept of new and innovative
ways of managing human resources within the new normal working context. The
new normal working context is conceptualised by rapid implementation and
changes in the use of technology (emanating from industry 4.0), remote working,
flexibility and social distancing (The Editors).
I. L. Potgieter (*) · N. Ferreira

Department of Human Resource Management, University of South Africa,
e-mail: visseil@unisa.ac.za; ferren@unisa.ac.za
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
I. L. Potgieter, N. Ferreira (eds.), Managing Human Resources,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_1
2 I. L. Potgieter and N. Ferreira
Managing Human Resources in the New Normal
Industry 4.0 has both expanded the possibilities of digital transformation and
increased its importance to the organisation and employees. Organisations were
planning to slowly and steadily adapt to the challenges and opportunities presented
by Industry 4.0. The COVID-19 pandemic has spread disorder amongst almost all
global economies and businesses, and HR has been at the epicentre of it. COVID-19
accelerated the change and forced many organisations, those ready as well as those
not yet ready to adapt and evolve in order to survive. What was once considered
abnormal has overnight changed to what we refer to as the new normal. The pan-
demic has spread chaos in global economies as well as in small, medium and large
organisations. Human resource management has been right in the centre of this
storm. With many organisations on the bridge of recovery, the role of human
resource management has become even more important.
Due to the new normal, organisations are forced to reconsider their business mod-
els. Organisations, and specifically human resource practitioners and industrial psy-
chologists, are expected to guide their employees safely towards the new normal. On
a strategic level, that may include revision of company policies and strategies that
may inform either remote working, or safe return to office procedures. Policies on
remuneration and performance management need to be revised and adapted. Further
changes to a business model may include strategies to emerge successfully from the
current crisis, but also to deal with any future, unexpected crisis or challenges.
Organisational culture will be forced to reform. All of these sudden and drastic
changes will highly impact on all employees as well as on the managements of
human resources. On an individual level, human resource practitioners and indus-
trial psychologist would need to consider employee well-being, coping strategies,
communication, social dynamics, psychological flexibility of employees, adaptabil-
ity and many more difficulties that employees may face due to the new normal.
Scholars and practitioners interested in these changes, challenges and opportuni-
ties presented by the new normal were called towards bringing innovative solutions,
and emerging issues for research and practice to the successful management of
human resources in the new normal working context.
This book is about advancing knowledge and understanding on the innovative
ways of managing human resources in the new normal. The book collection aims to
craft a coherent narrative around the three streams of thought which we trust will
help advance theory, research and practice in managing human resources in the
new normal.
This book volume clearly illustrates that new, novel insights into the evolving
nature of managing human resources within the context of the new normal is essen-
tial. It is a first step in collating all the changes and impact that the management of
human resources have on both organizational/strategic level and individual/
employee level. The book is valuable in its re-evaluation of managing human
resources, and the commensurate supportive human resources and work design
practices for the digital era. It may stimulate further research and the evidence-
based case studies and practical guidelines may be valuable for practitioners.
1 Introductory Chapter: Conceptualising Human Resource Management… 3
Some of these practical and theoretical guidelines include reinventing strategic

human resource management, changes, challenges and opportunities brought about
by the COVID-19 pandemic, a human experience-based approach towards people
management, new tools and threats to HRM communicational practices, managing
the virtual work from a human resources perspective, performance management and
remuneration frameworks in the new normal context, employee remuneration strat-
egies, well-being in the new world of work (a positive psychology perspective),
framework for managing employees well-being, agile coping, promoting the use of
peer support models taking into consideration employees’ mental health, career
adaptability as predictor of career agility and career embeddedness, humanizing the
work place, digitised employment for older adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder,
individuals with multiple sclerosis in the new normal and supporting practices for
employees with neurological disorders. For an overall impression, we refer the
reader here to Chap. 18 for a rundown of the multi-level contextual research and
practice themes that developed from the various chapter contributions.
It is clear from the chapters that digital technologies are integrated in various
aspects of life and work and present benefits and challenges for organisations,
employers and employees. With the enforced, and now more widely use of remote
working, technology and online communication is part of most work cultures.
Hamburg (2019) stresses that organisations should be more creative in creating new
working environments and take into consideration their culture around the digital
developments in the workplace, in order to ensure productivity and the management
of employees or individuals.
The scope of this book volume is on one hand to help craft a coherent, innovative
narrative on the phenomenon of new and innovative ways of managing human
resources within the new normal working context. The book provides theoretical
premises and research perspectives, and also evaluates the practical utility of theory
and research ideas for management and employee practices in the Industry 4.0
organisational context. Suggestions for practice, strategies, policies, procedures and
psychological interventions are included in the chapters. In addition, we sincerely
hope that the various chapter contributions in this book volume will stimulate the
thinking about and implementing of strategies to manage human resources more
effectively in the new normal context and satisfy the expectations of both the indi-
vidual and the organisation.
Theoretical lenses have been added to better explain the different aspects affect-
ing the management of human resources in the new normal. These include theories
such as HR competencies theory (see Shultz, Chap. 2), theories of planned change
(see Olckers and Koekemoer, Chap. 3), HR operating model (see Veldsman and van
der Merwe, Chap. 4), virtual work theory (see Oosthuizen, Chap. 6), remuneration
theories (see Bussin, Chap. 7 and Bezuidenhout, Chap. 8), positive psychology (see
Bezuidenhout, Chap. 9), employee well-being (see du Plessis, Chap. 10), coping
theory (see Potgieter, Chap. 11), peer support model (see Ong et al., Chap. 12) and
career adaptability theory (see Ferreira, Chap. 13). The multiple theoretical lenses
explore the management of human resources from different viewpoints and the
importance to approach it within the digital workplace.
Outline of the Book Volume
To ease understanding and enhance the reading of the various aspects affecting the
management of human resources in the new normal, we have categorised (as illus-
trated in Fig. 1.1) the chapters in four core themes. Each of these sections provides
the reader with a snapshot overview of the core focus and contribution of the rele-
vant chapters.
art I: Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics

P
of Strategic Human Resource Management
The chapters by Shultz (Chap. 2), Olckers and Koekemoer (Chap. 3), Veldsman and
van der Merwe (Chap. 4), Szeluga-Romanska and Modzelewsha (Chap. 5),
Oosthuizen (Chap. 6), Bussin (Chap. 7) and Bezuidenhout (Chap. 8) include multi-
disciplinary perspectives on the changes necessary regarding the management of
human resource on a strategic level. This chapter proposes guidelines to adapt and
develop strategies, policies and procedures to deal with managing human resources
in the new normal. This includes both dealing with the current crisis and quest to
recover from the disruption of the corona virus pandemic, and also how to deal with
future challenges and opportunities.
Managing Human Resources:

The New Normal
Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Critical Issues in Critical Issues in Impact of the New
Understanding the Understanding the Integration &
Normal on Conclusion
Dynamics of Impact of the New Individuals with
Strategic Human Normal on the Special Needs
Resource Psychology of
Management Employees
Chapters 14-17 Chapter 18

Chapters 2 to 8 Chapters 9 to 13
Source: Author’s own work
Fig. 1.1 Conceptual overview of the book volume. (Source: Author’s own work)
1 Introductory Chapter: Conceptualising Human Resource Management… 5
art II: Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New

P
Normal on the Psychology of Employees
The chapters by Bezuidenhout (Chap. 9), du Plessis (Chap. 10), Potgieter (Chap.
11), Ong et al. (Chap. 12) and Ferreira (Chap. 13) include advance theories, research
and recommendations on guiding employees through the changes brought on by the
new normal. These chapters critically evaluate contextual and personal enablers and
impeding factors including potential processes and interventions that facilitate man-
aging human resources in the new normal. Perspectives on the potential future man-
ifestation of constructs relating to managing human resources in the new normal
such as adaptability, employability, commitment, employee well-being and flour-
ishing are included.
art III: Impact of the New Normal on Individuals

P
With Special Needs
The chapters by Chinyamuridi (Chap. 14), Mpofu et al. (Chap. 15), Mamboleo and
Rumrill (Chap. 16) and Mpofu et al. (Chap. 17) specifically look at the unique needs
and requirements of individuals with special needs (such as autism, multiple sclero-
sis and disabilities) and how the new normal working context impact on their ability
to function and perform within the reformed working space.
Part V: Integration and Conclusion
The chapter by Ferreira et al. (Chap. 18) brings together overarching issues for
future research and organisational practices at this particular stage in reflecting key
contributions and recommendations for managing human resources within the new
normal working context. The core themes that emerged in each chapter are pre-
sented as a synopsis for readers to consult when working through this book volume.
Conclusion
We acknowledge that managing human resources in the new normal context is a cur-
rent and relevant topic and that the chapter contributions only provide a snapshot of
the theory, research and dynamics of relevance and interest in the digital workplace.
The audience for this book is advanced undergraduate and post-graduate students
as well as scholars and practitioners in human resource management and indus-
trial and organisational psychology field of expertise. In addition, organisational
decision-makers, human resource managers and professionals, wellness counsellors

and public policy makers will have an interest in this book. We trust that the readers
of this book will find the theory, reported research and practices that illuminate the
critical issues in understanding the impact of the new normal on the managing of
human resources helpful to enrich their own understanding of the multi-level issues
underpinning managing human resources. We hope that the thoughts and sugges-
tions presented in the various chapters will stimulate further research endeavours
that will contribute to much-needed innovative evidence-based human resource
management practices that benefit both individuals and their organisations in the
rapid changing digital workplace.
Reference
Hamburg, I. (2019). Implementation of a digital workplace strategy to drive behaviour change

and improve competencies. https://www.intechopen.com/books/strategy-and-behaviors-in-the-
digital-economy/implementation-of-a-digital-workplace-strategy-to-drive-behavior-change-
and-improve-competencies. Accessed 19 Oct 2020.
Ingrid L. Potgieter is a Professor in Human Resource Management at the Department of Human

Resource Management at UNISA. She is a registered industrial psychologist at the Health
Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) since 2009 and also a registered human resource
practitioner and the South African board for people practices (SABPP). She is also selected the
vice chair of the SABPP HR Research and Initiative Committee. Ingrid Potgieter completed her
Mcom degree in Human Resource Management and Industrial Psychology in 2009 at the University
of Pretoria. She completed her Dcom Industrial Psychology degree at Unisa in 2012. She is also an
author and co-author of several published articles in local and international journals. She presented
several papers at national and international conferences. Ingrid Potgieter is a section editor for the
South African Journal of Industrial Psychology and edited and co-edited a number of scholarly
books published by an international publisher.
Nadia Ferreira is a Professor in Human Resource Management at the Department of Human

Resource Management at UNISA. She is a registered human resource practitioner with the South
African Board for People Practices (SABPP). Nadia Ferreira completed her MCom degree in
Human Resource Management and Industrial Psychology in 2008 at the University of Pretoria.
She completed her DCom Industrial Psychology degree at Unisa in 2012. She is also an author and
co-author of several published articles in local and international journals. In addition, she pre-
sented several papers at national and international conferences. Nadia Ferreira is a section editor
for the South African Journal of Industrial and Organisational Psychology.
Part I
Critical Issues in Understanding the
Dynamics of Strategic Human Resource
Management
Conceptual Overview of the Book Volume
Part I: Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics of Strategic Human

Resource Management (Chaps. 2–8)
Part II: Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New Normal on the
Psychology of Employees (Chaps. 9–13)
Part III: Impact of the New Normal on Individuals with Special Needs
(Chaps. 14–17)
Part IV: Integration and Conclusion (Chap. 18)
Overview
The chapters by Schultz (Chap. 2), Olckers and Koekemoer (Chap. 3), Veldsman
and van der Merwe (Chap. 4), Szeluga-Romanska and Modzelewska (Chap. 5),
Oosthuizen (Chap. 6), Bussin (Chap. 7) and Bezuidenhout (Chap. 8) include
8 Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics of Strategic Human Resource Management
multi-disciplinary perspectives on the changes necessary regarding the management

of human resource on a strategic level. These chapters propose guidelines to adapt
and develop strategies, policies and procedures to deal with managing human
resources in the new normal. This includes both dealing with the current crisis and
quest to recover from the disruption of the corona virus pandemic, and also how to
deal with future challenges and opportunities.
Chapter 2
Reinventing Strategic Human Resource
Management
Cecile M. Schultz
1. What Is Already Known About the Theme?

• The unknown HRM challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
• HRM strategies to use to combat the COVID-19 pandemic.
• HRM competencies are needed to combat the influence of the COVID-19
pandemic.
2. What New Insights Are Contributed by This Chapter?
• The unknown SHRM challenges in the new normal are identified.
• SHRM policies, procedures, practices and strategies in the new normal are
identified.
• SHRM competencies needed to develop and implement policies, procedures,
practices and strategies in the new normal are identified.
3. What Are the Practical Implications for Practice?
• SHMR professionals need to be aware of which challenges they are facing in
the new normal.
• SHRM professionals need to take note of which policies, procedures, prac-
tices and strategies need to be developed in the new normal.
• SHRM professionals need to possess certain competencies to successfully
operate in the new normal.
C. M. Schultz (*)
Department of People Management and Development, Tshwane University of Technology,
e-mail: SchultzCM@tut.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_2
10 C. M. Schultz
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic necessitates SHRM professionals to make a shift in the

understanding of how working in the office versus working from home influences
the behaviours and actions of employees (Collings et al., 2021b). The Industrial
Revolution 4 (IR4) is on our doorstep and digitalisation and automation, as strategic
processes can cause major challenges in the workplace (Sima et al., 2020). With
SHRM, the HR department should build a link between the employees and the long-
term direction of an organisation. It is essential to work towards making the new
normal more efficient. This requires HR leaders to be innovative in introducing new
ways and techniques to make remote working more productive. Since the COVID-19
pandemic, a hybrid working model brought about a significant change in the per-
ceptions of remote working. The pandemic has accelerated the rethinking of strate-
gic HRM policies, procedures and strategies (Achaya, 2021). There is a strong
belief that employees who feel valued by their employer are productive and contrib-
ute to the organisation’s objectives (dos Santos & Pedro, 2020).
This chapter proposes the SHRM competencies and guidelines on how to develop
strategies, policies, practices and procedures to deal with managing SHRM in the
new normal.
On a theoretical level, this study contributes to a better understanding of strategic
HRM in the new normal, strategic HRM competencies as well as the future of stra-
tegic HRM. SHRM competencies were grouped into four categories that are not
found in other research studies: SHRM cognitive competencies, SHRM values,
SHRM behavioural competencies and SHRM interpersonal competencies. A theo-
retical framework was proposed for the further use and research of scholars in the
field of strategic HRM.
The practical contribution resides in the shaping, transformation and positioning
of strategic HRM in the new normal. The identification of current and future strate-
gic HRM challenges will assist managers and HR practitioners to better prepare and
deal with strategic HRM in the future world of work. Policies, procedures and strat-
egies can be developed based on the findings of this study. SHRM competencies
were identified to ensure the successful development and implementation of SHRM
policies, procedures, practices and strategies.
Theoretical Background
SHRM Challenges
SHRM is defined as an organisational orientation to achieve organisational goals

through people (Chen & Indartono, 2011). According to Wright and McMahan
(1992, p. 298), SHRM is defined as ‘the pattern of planned HR deployments and
activities intended to enable an organization to achieve its goals’. In this definition,
2 Reinventing Strategic Human Resource Management 11
the vertical and horizontal dimensions of SHRM are evident. On a vertical level,
SHRM links HRM practices with strategic management processes, and on a hori-
zontal level, SHRM focuses on the synchronisation among various HRM practices
(Bouaziz & Hachicha, 2018). According to Armstrong and Taylor (2014), SHRM
needs to align HR strategies with business strategies. Overall organisational perfor-
mance can be improved by transforming SHRM into digital SHRM (Zehir
et al., 2020).
Given the numerous challenges South Africa faces within the context of the
Fourth Industrial Revolution, HR professionals need to address challenges such as
Industry 4.0 and career management, leadership in the new world of work, HR
Information Systems (HRIS), HR metrics, HR service delivery and innovation as
well as HR risk management (Kokt, 2020). Limited SHRM research has been con-
ducted about the importance of communication and the ability of leaders to respond
effectively to a crisis such as a pandemic (Collings et al., 2021b). COVID-19 has
negatively impacted many communities around the world and research about SHRM
and corporate social responsibility is, therefore, necessary (Crane & Matten, 2020).
SHRM aims to influence an organisation’s employees to create economic value but
the actual research on the use of behavioural economics is insufficient (Dash, 2020).
Behavioural economics is a fairly new field that combines acumens from psychol-
ogy, economics and decision-making to better understand human behaviour
(Gino, 2017).
SHRM Policies, Practices, Procedures and Strategies
SHRM involves the design and implementation of policies and practices to ensure
that employees contribute to achieving the goals of an organisation (Sepahvand &
Khodashahri, 2021, p. 440). Turner (2020) mentions that engagement-driven SHRM
is necessary to align people, policies and practices with organisational goals to
ensure a positive and healthy employee life cycle experience. Policies need to be
developed to manage SHRM properly (Alfawaire & Atan, 2021). Mello (2019)
mentions that strategic workforce planning, work redesign, recruitment, selection,
training and development, performance management, compensation, labour rela-
tions, employee separation and retention management are practices that must be
managed strategically.
SHRM research has been criticised for not including original and up-to-date HR
practices (Harney & Collings, 2021). SHRM practices such as flexibility and job
design need more attention (Boon et al., 2019). SHRM strategies and practices will
contribute to shaping the behaviour of employees to achieve strategic organisational
goals. It is important to develop winning edge strategies and practices because inter-
nal and external changes may make existing value-creating resources outdated
(Eneh & Awara, 2016). SHRM practices influence the flexibility and agility of an
organisation (Bouaziz & Hachicha, 2018) and should align with the organisational
intention about its future direction (Sepahvand & Khodashahri, 2021). Van Zyl et al.
12 C. M. Schultz
(2017) found retaining strategies to be important. Das Gupta (2020) states that the
development of HR strategies revolves around the intentions and plans to improve
organisational competitiveness, resourcing, motivating, valuating, learning and
development as well as reward and employee relations. Armstong and Taylor (2020)
opine that employee engagement, talent management and learning and develop-
ment, evidence-based strategic HRM, employee well-being strategies and HR ana-
lytics should be part of the HR strategy.
SHRM Competencies
Malik et al. (2020) state that due to the AI-based technological disruption and other
IR4 challenges, there is a need for new SHRM competencies. Venegas et al. (2017)
mention that competencies consist of skills, motives, knowledge, self-concept and
traits. Ulrich, Kryscynski, Brockbank and Ulrich (2017) state that there are nine
essential HR competencies:
• Strategic positioner: Able to position a business to win its market.
• Credible activist: Able to build relationships of trust by having a proactive point
of view.
• Paradox navigator: Able to manage tensions inherent in business (including
long-term and short-term tensions, and top-down and bottom-up tensions).
• Culture and change champion: Able to make change happen and manage organ-
isational culture.
• Human capital curator: Able to manage the flow of talent by developing people
and leaders, driving individual performance and building technical talent.
• Total rewards steward: Able to manage employee well-being through financial
and non-financial rewards.
• Technology and media integrator: Able to use technology and social media to
drive and create high-performing organisations.
• Analytics designer and interpreter: Able to use analytics to improve
decision-making.
• Compliance manager: Able to manage the processes related to compliance by
following regulatory guidelines.
Ulrich et al. (2021) suggest a competency model to simplify complexity and this
includes the mobilisation of information, advancing human capability, accelerating
business and the fostering of collaboration. Gill et al. (2018) accentuated authentic
leadership as an important competency to build a strong human resource manage-
ment system. SHRM competencies further include flexibility, agility and cognitive
abilities to be able to respond quickly to the changing organisational context (Saha,
2021). SHRM professionals need to collaborate and co-create. Hewett and Shantz
(2021, p. 2) define strategic HR co-creation as ‘a continuous process in which HR
and stakeholders create value through collaborative efforts to problem-solve and
innovate in the design and use of HR practices to help them to better satisfy
stakeholders’ needs’. Storey et al. (2019) suggest that the competencies of HR pro-
fessionals should be assessed not only by the HR professional but by those who
observe the HR professional because people generally judge themselves by their
intent, but others judge them by behaviour. It is therefore important to evaluate both
intent and behaviour.
To reinvent SHRM in the new normal, it is important to first identify what the
SHRM challenges in the new normal are. Policies, procedures, practices and strate-
gies can then be planned accordingly. It is important to ensure that strategic HR
professionals possess the necessary SHRM competencies for the successful devel-
opment and implementation of such policies, procedures, practices and strategies as
illustrated in Fig. 2.1.
This framework leads to three burning questions:
• Within SHRM, what needs to be reinvented? (SHRM challenges)
• How can SHRM be reinvented? (SHRM policies, procedures, practices and
strategies)
• Which competencies are needed to reinvent SHRM? (SHRM competencies)
Problem Statement and Objectives
The COVID-19 pandemic, the IR4 and other future challenges highlight a need for
SHRM to be reinvented. To reinvent SHRM in the new normal, the challenges first
need to be identified. Thereafter relevant policies, procedures, practices and strate-
gies need to be identified, developed and implemented. To do this, SHRM profes-
sionals need to possess certain competencies. There is, however, limited SHRM
literature on such challenges, policies, procedures, practices, strategies and
competencies.
SHRM policies,
SHRM challenges in the procedures, practices and
new normal strategies in the new
normal
SHRM competencies
needed in the new normal
Fig. 2.1 Theoretical framework for reinventing SHRM

14 C. M. Schultz
The objectives of this study were, therefore, threefold:

• To identify SHRM challenges in the new normal.
• To identify policies, procedures, practices and strategies of SHRM in the
new normal.
• To identify the SHRM competencies needed in the new normal.
Research Design
This study was led within interpretivism (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016).
Interpretivism focuses on contextualised environments and concedes that knowl-
edge and reality are not objective, but influenced by people within that context and
environment. Phenomenology was used as the research design as this division of
epistemology allows the researcher to interpret the data, and as such can never be
fully objective and removed from the research (Collins, 2010).
Research Method
The researcher employed a qualitative research method, to allow for an in-depth

analysis of secondary data. Van Maanen (1979) defines qualitative research as a col-
lection of interpretive techniques aimed at characterising, decoding and otherwise
understanding the meaning of specific social events, as opposed to their frequency.
Denzin and Lincoln (2011) point out that qualitative researchers analyse natural
phenomena in order to establish or explain their meaning in terms of what individu-
als attribute to them. The reason for choosing secondary data and not the views of
HRM practitioners is that this chapter focuses on reinventing SHRM and I am of the
opinion that different existing scholarly data about this challenging topic will add
more value than the perceptions of HRM practitioners.
Population and Sampling
The literature review is an integral component of a study that uses secondary data.
The literature search followed the standard pattern of a research literature review
(Cooper & Schindler, 2011). Through a review of previous research, a better under-
standing of the breadth and depth of the existing body of work was established and
areas for subsequent research were identified. Databases were used that included
journal articles published by reputable publishers and deemed in the review to be of
high quality. Each journal’s title dictated its initial relevance. If the title implies that
the content discussed is used to conduct a literature review, the complete reference
for the article, including author, year, title and abstract, was obtained for further
evaluation. Conducting a literature review is further subdivided into subtopics, such
as developing and validating the review methodology, expressing the research prob-
lem, conducting the search, screening for inclusion, assessing quality, extracting
data, determining and incorporating data and finally, reporting the findings.
As part of the population for this study, the articles that were published from
January 2020 to August 2021 were used to ensure that recent research on SHRM in
the new normal was included. It included original works of interest and relevance.
As part of the sample of this study, inclusion and exclusion criteria were used.
The following inclusion criteria were used to identify the most-cited scholarly arti-
cles that were published on SHRM in the new normal:
• Keyword: Strategic HRM and COVID 19, reinventing strategic HRM, COVID-19
and strategic HRM, Industrial Revolution 4 and strategic HRM, the Industrial
Revolution 5 and strategic HRM, current strategic HRM challenges, future stra-
tegic HRM challenges strategic HRM competencies, strategic HRM knowledge,
strategic HRM skills, strategic HRM abilities, strategic HRM behaviours, strate-
gic HRM personal characteristics, strategic HRM strategies, strategic HRM poli-
cies, strategic HRM procedures, strategic HRM and the new normal and the
future of strategic HRM.
• Year: 1 January 2020–30 August 2021.
• Databases: Scopus, ProQuest, Wiley Online Library and Science Direct.
The above criteria were identified as delimiting the search. Delimitations are the
intentional constraints that researchers impose on their search strategy
(Alexander, 2020).
Data Collection
Following established methods, a systematic literature review within the academic

fields was conducted, followed by a computerised search of the literature. Analysts
must identify the progress of knowledge in earlier studies (Xiao & Watson, 2017).
By studying relevant literature, researchers gain a better understanding of the scope
and extent of the prevailing body of work and can introduce areas for further
research. Many databases (e.g. the Web of Science, ProQuest and Scopus) provide
for the direct upload of search results into reference management software.
In conducting a systematic search for papers, the researcher used the Boolean
operator. Boolean Operators are simple words such as ‘and, not or’ to create a very
broad or very narrow search (Gumley, 2001). During the screening process, the
researcher discovered articles that, while relevant, did not meet the inclusion crite-
ria, for example, deleted informal essays, impressions, conference proceedings and
news reports that came to light during the search. Alexander (2020) defines it as
grey literature, which refers to any non-traditional research documents discovered
outside of traditional commercial, organisational or academic publishing venues,
16 C. M. Schultz
most notably prestigious journals. As a result, the researcher identified potentially

relevant articles, which were pre-screened using a title/keyword and summary
check. The journal articles that were reviewed may not be all-inclusive, but repre-
sented a spectrum of strategic human resource management, and cover a wide range
of topics that were covered in the literature review.
Windle (2010) points out that secondary analysis of qualitative data can benefit
the researcher intending to answer exploratory questions. Qualitative secondary
research, therefore, can generally broaden and deepen knowledge by stimulating a
comprehensive understanding of the nature of an issue, especially when such an
issue is examined by the authors of pre-existing data (Sherif, 2018). Another advan-
tage is that the re-analysis of already collected data saves time and money. In addi-
tion to this economic advantage, the qualitative secondary analysis does not intrude
into vulnerable populations and can also provide insights into sensitive issues (Rew
et al., 2000). One of the major limitations is that data reflect insights collected for
purposes different than those in the secondary research and may not adequately
fulfil the research objectives of a new investigation (Rew et al., 2000). I overcame
this disadvantage by exploring new research questions derived directly from the
data so they would match the aims of my study as proposed by Heaton (2004). More
limitations of qualitative secondary data analysis are the completeness of pre-
existing data (Hinds et al., 1997) and the fact that archived data are bound by time.
I have tried to overcome these two challenges by setting clear inclusion criteria as
stated above but I am aware of the fact that other suitable sources could have been
missed. Still, although the secondary analysis of data is not without challenges,
there are indeed fewer risks with the archiving and re-use of one’s own data (Heaton,
2004) (Table 2.1).
Data Analysis
The researcher analysed the secondary data by using Tesch’s (1990) method of
qualitative thematic data. This was done by identifying themes also referred to as
thematic analysis (Blanche et al., 2009). The data were transferred into Microsoft
Excel spreadsheets to be able to search for phrases and words related to SHRM in
the new normal. Simple colour coding, as employed by Skjott et al. (2019) was
utilised to categorise the themes. Thematic analysis, also utilised by Bengtsson
(2016) and Neuendorf (2019), assisted the researcher in interpreting the findings.
Suitable labels, themes, codes and categories needed to be identified to address the
research objectives (Bazeley, 2013).
Following the methodology of Graebner et al. (2012), a blended approach (a
mixture of deductive and inductive coding), as well as hand-coding was used. The
researcher used an inductive approach, as successfully applied by Skjott et al.
(2019), to identify new codes as well as deductive coding to identify codes from
existing literature.
Table 2.1 Bibliographic information of the articles included in this study

Impact Index
Author name Article title Year Journal factor Affiliation location
Agarwal, P Shattered but 2021 International 6.701 United ISI, Scopus
smiling: Human Journal of Kingdom (Science
resource Hospitality Direct)
management and Management
the wellbeing of
hotel employees
during COVID-19
Aurelia, S. & Global 2020 Materials 1.24 Netherlands Scopus
Momin, M.M. reverberation and Today (Science
prediction for HRM Direct)
amid and after
COVID-19: A
technological
viewpoint
Azizi, M.R., Innovative human 2021 Heliyon 2.85 Netherlands Scopus,
Atlasi, R., resource Web of
Ziapour, R., management Science
Abbas, J. & strategies during (Science
Naemi, R. the COVID-19 Direct)
pandemic: A
systematic narrative
review approach
Harney, B. & Navigating the 2021 Human 4.922 United Scopus
Collings, D.G. shifting landscapes Resource Kingdom (Science
of HRM Management Direct)
Review
Oehlhorn, C.E., Human resource 2020 Journal of 3486 Netherlands Scopus
Maier, M., management and its Strategic (Science
Laumer, S. & impact on strategic Information Direct)
Weitzel, T. business-IT Systems
alignment: A
literature review
and avenues for
future research
Pina e Cunha, Strategic agility 2020 Human 4.922 United Scopus
M., Gomes, E., through Resource Kingdom (Science
Mellahi, K., improvisational Management Direct)
Miner, A.S. & capabilities: Review
Rego, A. Implications for a
paradox-sensitive
HRM
Wach, B.A., United we stand: 2021 European 5.075, United Scopus
Wehner, M.C., HR and line Management Kingdom (Science
Weißenberger, managers’ shared Journal Direct)
B.E. & views on HR
Kabst, R. strategic integration
(continued)
18 C. M. Schultz
Table 2.1 (continued)
Impact Index
Author name Article title Year Journal factor Affiliation location
Alfawaire, F. & The effect of 2021 Sustainability 3.251 Switzerland Scopus,
Atan, T strategic human Web of
resource and Science
knowledge (Pro Quest)
management on
sustainable
competitive
advantages at
Jordanian
universities: The
mediating role of
organizational
innovation
Sepahvand, R. & Strategic human 2021 Iranian – Iran ISI, Scopus
Khodashahri, B. resource Journal of (ProQuest)
management Management
practices and Studies
employee retention:
A study of the
moderating role of
job engagement
Butterick, M. & HRM and the 2021 Human 5.078 USA ISI, Scopus
Charlwood, A. COVID-19 Resource (Wiley
pandemic: How can Management Online
we stop making a Journal Library)
bad situation
worse?
Collings, D. G., Leading through 2021 Human 5.078 USA ISI, Scopus
McMackin, J., paradox in a Resource (Wiley
Nyberg, A. J., COVID-19 world: Management Online
& Wright, P. M. Human resources Journal Library)
comes of age
Stuart, COVID-19 and the 2021 Human 5.078 USA ISI, Scopus
M. Spencer, uncertain future of Resource (Wiley
D.A., HRM: Furlough, Management Online
McLachlan, C.J. job retention and Journal Library)
& Forde, C. reform
Trustworthiness
Given that qualitative researchers do not use established validity and reliability met-
rics, it is necessary to discuss how qualitative researchers ensure that their research
findings are credible, transferable, confirmable and dependable (Bengston, 2016).
According to Bengston (2016), Cooper and Schindler (2011), Tahedoost (2016)
and Quinlan, Babin, Carr, Griffin and Zikmund (2015), the following dimensions of
trustworthiness must be ensured:
• Credibility refers to the degree to which the qualitative researcher believes the
research findings are correct. To obtain a comprehensive picture, the data were
viewed from various perspectives and viewpoints of SHRM in the new normal.
• The process by which a qualitative researcher establishes that the research find-
ings apply to other contexts is referred to as transferability. In this context, ‘other
contexts’ can refer to similar situations, populations and phenomena. Qualitative
researchers can use extensive descriptions to show that the research findings
apply to a wide range of other contexts, circumstances and situations.
• Confirmability refers to the degree to which the findings of a research study are
neutral. They draw their conclusions from participant responses rather than the
researcher’s potential biases or personal motivations. This includes ensuring that
researcher bias is not used to interpret what research participants say in order to
fit a particular narrative. Qualitative researchers can show their confirmability by
providing an audit trail detailing each step of data analysis used to justify their
conclusions. This helps establish that the research study’s findings accurately
reflect participant responses.
• Finally, dependability refers to the ease with which other researchers can repli-
cate and obtain consistent results from a study, therefore, should others be able
to replicate a study based on the information contained in a research report. By
thoroughly interpreting the research methodology steps, dependability was
attained. A qualitative researcher can establish dependability by having an inde-
pendent party review and examine the research process and data analysis in order
to ensure that the findings are repeatable as well as consistent.
Results
The findings of the study concerning the reinventing of SHRM in the new normal
are summarised in Tables 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4.
From Table 2.2, it is clear that the identified SHRM challenges in the new normal
were remote working, strategic misalignment, digital transformation, adoption of
AI and technology in general, employee well-being, a lack of IT support and others
such as job security, inequality and ethical behaviour.
From Table 2.3, specific SHRM policies, procedures, practices and strategies in
the new normal were identified.
From Table 2.4, cognitive SHRM competencies, SHRM values, SHRM behav-
ioural competencies and SHRM interpersonal competencies in the new normal were
identified.
20 C. M. Schultz
Table 2.2 SHRM challenges in the new normal

SHRM challenge Description of the challenge
Remote working The return to the workplace may create anxiety for employees and
will require careful management (Collings et al., 2021a)
Household work overload (Agarwal, 2021)
Poor housing conditions, living alone (Agarwal, 2021)
Monitoring remote working behaviour (Butterick & Charlwood,
2021)
Strategic misalignment Misfit between the HR manager and the line manager and is
connected with a lower HRM value (Wach et al., 2021)
Managers not committed to strategic alignment (Azizi et al., 2021)
HRM practices not aligned with the organisation’s future direction
(Sepahvand & Khodashahri, 2021)
Digital transformation, Substantive digital transformation as organisations redesigned
adoption of AI and technology and work processes to perform tasks virtually, often
technology in general for the first time, in addition to reskilling and upskilling employees
(Collings et al., 2021a)
Adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) and technology in general
(Aurelia & Momin, 2021: in press)
Employee well-being Employee well-being has been particularly impacted by the
pandemic (Collings et al., 2021a; Agarwal, 2021)
Lack of innovative ways to improve health and welfare (Azizi
et al., 2021)
Lack of IT support Lack of IT logistical support and IT infrastructure organisational
support (Agarwal, 2021)
Other Job security, good work and voice at work (Stuart et al., 2021)
Inequality (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021)
Ethical behaviour (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021)
Discussion
This study aimed to address three objectives that focused on the investigation of (1)
SHRM challenges in the new normal, (2) policies, procedures, practices and strate-
gies of SHRM in the new normal and (3) the SHRM competencies needed in the
new normal.
In order to reinvent SHRM in the new normal, it is important to first identify
what the SHRM challenges in the new normal are. Future-oriented policies, strate-
gies, practices and procedures are crucial to address organisational problems and
contribute to achieving the strategic objectives of an organisation. It is important to
ensure that strategic HR managers and practitioners possess the necessary SHRM
competencies for the successful development and implementation of such policies,
procedures, practices and strategies. Remote working needs to be carefully man-
aged due to the anxiety of returning to work it may cause (Collings et al., 2021a).
Employees may experience household overload or poor housing conditions to work
from (Agarwal, 2021). The monitoring of remote working behaviour also seems to
be a challenging task (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021). Strategic misalignment is a
challenge due to the misfit between the HR manager and the line manager (Wach
Table 2.3 SHRM policies, procedures, practices and strategies in the new normal
SHRM
policies,
procedures,
practices and
strategies Description of the policies, procedures, practices and strategies
Policies Selection and participation of employees in decision-making regarding policies
(Azizi et al., 2021)
Develop a policy on remote working and the use of digital tools for monitoring
worker behaviour (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021)
Enable peripheral vision and focal vision in development of policies
(Ambituuni et al., 2021)
Making changes in policies based on organisation assessment and data (Azizi
et al., 2021)
Develop a policy to enhance ethical behaviour (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021)
Procedures Measurable impact in all SHRM procedures (Collings et al., 2021a)
Flexibility during employees’ virtual life cycle: Floating hours and flexibility,
instance working and working from home, virtual work cycle of employees
from arrival to departure and conducting virtual interviews, define a regular
procedure for separation and determine a boundary between office and home
(Azizi et al., 2021)
Flexible SHRM procedures (Agarwal, 2021; Aurelia & Momin, 2021: in press)
Adopt SHRM systems and knowledge management in an innovative way
(Alfawaire & Atan, 2021)
Nurturing interactive and solitary working (Ambituuni et al., 2021)
Use of innovative methods to support employees and maintain their health and
welfare (Azizi et al., 2021)
The line manager and the HR manager should jointly define expectations and
job scopes (Wach et al., 2021)
Practices SHRM practices are aligned with the organisational intention about its future
direction (Sepahvand & Khodashahri, 2021)
Digital tools for recruitment (people analytics, Videos, Facebook, LinkedIn,
Twitter Forbes Insight, Data Mining), digital tools for training and
development (Internet of Things, Webinars, Podcasts, Mobile learning, Wikis,
Skype, MS Teams), digital tools for compensation: MSS (Manager self-
service) and digital tools for performance appraisal (Skyrocket Globoforce,
internal social platforms, crowdsourced recognition data) (Sengupta et al.,
2020)
The line manager and the HR manager should jointly define expectations and
job scopes (Wach et al., 2021)
Comprehensive and macro view (pursuing global optimisation through the
vertical and horizontal integration of HRM practices (Alfawaire & Atan, 2021)
(continued)
22 C. M. Schultz
SHRM
policies,
procedures,
practices and
strategies Description of the policies, procedures, practices and strategies
Strategies HRM can be active in building two-way communication, as its impact on
strategy formulation, strategic planning and objective setting will be recognised
because every task that ends in an organisation requires some type of asset (e.g.
employees (human resources) and money) (Alfawaire & Atan, 2021
Develop a proper workforce strategy (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021)
HRM can be active in building two-way communication, as its impact on
strategy formulation, strategic planning and objective setting will be recognised
because every task that ends in an organisation requires some type of asset (e.g.
employees (human resources) and money) (Alfawaire & Atan, 2021
Strategy to foster a positive work environment (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Ensuring the availability of adequate resources for employees’ home office:
Provide sufficient resources such as IT assets to meet the needs of employees
to help them work efficiently, Provide full logistical support for the
transportation of IT infrastructure to new applicants or employees, Create a
virtual processing program for communication, Connect the customer network
to the organisation network in the employees’ home during the current crisis in
order to continue operating the business (Azizi et al., 2021)
Develop an engagement strategy (Harney & Collings, 2021)
Retaining strategies (Sepahvand & Khodashahri, 2021)
Develop a strategy on the adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) and
technology in general (Aurelia & Momin, 2021: in press)
Prioritisation of continuous learning and upskilling (Aurelia & Momin, in
press; (Azizi et al., 2021)
et al., 2021), managers who are not committed to strategic alignment (Azizi et al.,
2021), and HRM practices that are not aligned with the organisation’s future direc-
tion (Sepahvand & Khodashahri, 2021). Digital transformation and adoption of AI
and technology, in general, are also seen as SHRM challenges (Collings et al.,
2021a; Aurelia & Momin, 2021: in press). A lack of IT support and IT infrastructure
organisational support (Agarwal, 2021) could perhaps worsen the digital transfor-
mation. Employee well-being (Collings et al., 2021a; Agarwal, 2021) and the lack
of innovative ways to improve health and welfare (Azizi et al., 2021) are SHRM
challenges. Job security, good work and having a voice at work (Stuart et al., 2021),
inequality (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021) and ethical behaviour (Butterick &
Charlwood, 2021) are also seen as SHRM challenges. Kokt (2020) mention specific
challenges (Industry 4.0 and career management, leadership in the new world of
work, HRIS, HR metrics, HR service delivery and innovation as well as HR risk
management) that HR professionals need to.
Employees should be participating in policy decision-making (Azizi et al., 2021),
which concurs with Turner’s (2020) findings of SHRM as engagement-driven to
align people, policies and practices with organisational goals. Peripheral vision and
focal vision are necessary for the development of policies (Ambituuni et al., 2021)
which need to be based on organisation assessment and data (Azizi et al., 2021).
Table 2.4 SHRM competencies needed in the new normal (to be placed here)
SHRM
competencies Description of the competencies
Cognitive Market intelligence (Pina e Cunha et al., 2020)
Develop both focal and peripheral vision (Pina e Cunha et al., 2020)
Business knowledge, understanding and skills (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Customer understanding (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Values Realistic awareness (self-confidence and humility) (Pina e Cunha et al., 2020)
Strategic agility (Aurelia & Momin, 2020; Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Trust (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Respect (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Confidence (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Commitment (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Behavioural Strategic HR managers work proactively (Alfawaire & Atan, 2021)
Disaster management (Pina e Cunha et al., 2020)
Ability to manage though ambiguity and disruption (Collings et al., 2021a)
HR analytics (Collings et al., 2021a)
Ability to use statistical software (Sengupta et al., 2020)
Ability to use predictive analytics, modelling techniques, etc., to gauge
employee performance, ascertain the distribution of income among employees
and statistical software is increasingly employed for this purpose (Sengupta
et al., 2020)
Ability to use of recruitment software which uses algorithms to calculate how
far a candidate can succeed in the role he/she has applied for (Sengupta et al.,
2020)
Problem-solving skills (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Hybrid skills (combination of technical and non-technical skills) (Oehlhorn
et al., 2020)
Interpersonal Interpersonal skills (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Ability to collaborate (Alfawaire & Atan, 2021; Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Ability to work with line management (Wach et al., 2021)
Communication skills (Aurelia & Momin, in press; Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Negotiation skills (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Sharing knowledge to foster mutual trust and respect (Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Leadership that is open and wants to learn and improve (Ambituuni et al.,
2021)
Authentic leadership (Agarwal, 2021)
Transformational change leadership (Sepahvand & Khodashahri, 2021)
Alignment behaviour (Build partnerships, communicate, share understanding
Oehlhorn et al., 2020)
Policies on remote working and the use of digital tools for monitoring worker
behaviour (Butterick & Charlwood, 2021), as well as on ethical behaviour (Butterick
& Charlwood, 2021) should be developed. The measurable impact in all SHRM
procedures (Collings et al., 2021a) and flexibility (Agarwal, 2021; Aurelia &
Momin, 2021: in press) of such procedures are important. This concurs with Boon
et al. (2019) who found that SHRM practices must be flexible. Van Zyl et al. (2017)
agree with Sepahvand and Khodashahri (2021) about the importance of retaining
strategies. To ensure alignment, Armstong and Taylor (2020) found that employee
engagement, talent management and learning and development, evidence-based
24 C. M. Schultz
strategic HRM, employee well-being strategies and HR analytics should be part of

the HR strategy. HR strategies, furthermore, evolve around the intentions and plans
to improve organisational competitiveness, resourcing, motivating, valuating, learn-
ing and development as well as reward and employee relations (Das Gupta, 2020).
Procedures, practices and strategies need to be developed and implemented to
address the SHRM challenges.
SHRM competencies are needed in the new normal. It is reasoned that SHRM
professionals should ensure that they have market intelligence (Pina e Cunha et al.,
2020), focal and peripheral vision (Pina e Cunha et al., 2020), business knowledge,
understanding and skills (Oehlhorn et al., 2020), as well as customer understanding
(Oehlhorn et al., 2020). This concurs with the findings of Dash (2020) in the sense
that behavioural economics could be a new driver of SHRM. Values such as self-
confidence and humility (Pina e Cunha et al., 2020), strategic agility (Aurelia &
Momin, 2020; Oehlhorn et al., 2020) and respect (Oehlhorn et al., 2020) are also
crucial to be able to reinvent SHRM. This concurs with Saha (2021) who found that
SHRM competencies include flexibility, agility and cognitive abilities (Saha, 2021).
Gill et al. (2018) agree with Agarwal (2021) on the fact that authentic leadership is
an important competency. The findings of the current study agree with Ulrich et al.
(2021) in the sense that the ability to collaborate is important. This also links with
the findings of Hewett and Shantz (2021) in the sense that HR professionals should
be able to co-create to create value and solve problems through collaborative efforts.
In this current study, Oehlhorn et al. (2020) also found problem-solving skills as an
essential SHRM competency. Behavioural competencies will ensure that the execu-
tion of the reinventing of SHRM will be effective, and the interpersonal competen-
cies will secure the necessary communication, collaboration, and engagement with
others to ensure strategic alignment. The behaviour and intent of HR practitioners’
strategic competencies are important and should therefore be assessed by the HR
practitioners themselves as well as relevant others (Storey et al., 2019). Lastly, the
nine competencies (strategic positioner, credible activist, paradox navigator, culture
and change champion, human capital curator, total rewards steward, technology and
media integrator, analytics designer and interpreter as well as compliance manager)
of Ulrich et al. (2017) are relevant within the field of SHRM.
Implications for Theory and Practice
On a theoretical level, the implications of this study elude to the fact that SHRM
scholars need to first identify the SHRM challenges in the new normal, and then
further investigate how to address these challenges, as well as which SHRM com-
petencies are needed to successfully execute policies, procedures, practices and
strategies. A theoretical framework to reinvent SHRM is much needed to properly
address the SHRM challenges in the new normal.
On a practical level, SHMR professionals need to be aware of which challenges
they are facing in the new normal. These professionals also need to take cognisance
of policies, procedures, practices and strategies that will reinvent SHRM in the new
normal. SHRM professionals, therefore, need to obtain certain competencies to suc-
cessfully operate in the new normal.
Limitations and Recommendations
A small number of studies on SHRM in the new normal were used. Another limita-
tion is that only articles presented in English and were published on certain selected
databases were used. Sources from other platforms were, therefore, not taken into
consideration.
It is recommended that SHRM professionals should know the challenges they
are facing in the new normal. They should then develop, amend or improve policies
to address these challenges. Thereafter, specific procedures, practices and strategies
should be planned and implemented to successfully reinvent SHRM. Strategic
alignment is of utmost importance and SHRM professionals should, therefore, fre-
quently engage and collaborate with line managers and top managers. Certain
SHRM competencies are, therefore, needed to appropriately reinvent SHRM in the
new normal.
Suggestions for Future Research
For future research, it is suggested that a similar study be conducted in other coun-
tries, be they developed or still developing countries. The findings can then be com-
pared. A questionnaire based on the findings of this study can be generated to
measure SHRM in the new normal by conducting a quantitative study. The researcher
also agrees with Collings et al. (2021a) who further state that the influence of SHRM
on different employee groups regarding their work context needs to be investigated.
Another research idea is to obtain the perceptions of HRM practitioners about rein-
venting SHRM by conducting a qualitative research study.
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic, the IR4 and other future challenges highlight a need for
SHRM to be reinvented. SHRM professionals should possess certain cognitive,
behavioural and interpersonal competencies as well as certain values in order to be
able to develop, amend, improve, and implement policies, procedures, practices and
strategies to reinvent SHRM in the new normal. The new normal is perhaps here to
stay. SHRM professionals, therefore, need to rise to this new challenge lest there be
constant misalignment and a lack of adding value to the organisation.
26 C. M. Schultz
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the research niche area of ‘The future of work
and the alleviation of unemployment and poverty’ within the Faculty Management Sciences of the
Tshwane University of Technology in South Africa.
Mr. Willie Botha for conducting the language editing.
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Cecile Schultz was born in Potchefstroom in the North West province in South Africa. She
obtained the following degrees: BCom (Industrial Psychology), BCom Hons (Human Resource
Management), MCom (Industrial Psychology) and a PhD in Human Resource Management.
Cecile has been employed at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) since 1994 and is cur-
rently working in the Department People Management and Development. She specialises in the
future of human resource management, strategic human resource management and future work.
She obtained funding from the National Research Foundation to conduct research about the future
of human resource management during 2016–2018. She has currently initiated a niche research
area about the future of work and the alleviation of poverty within the Faculty of Management
Sciences at TUT. Her passion for community development is illustrated in her involvement in the
work readiness training sessions at the People Upliftment Programme (POPUP) since 2006.
Chapter 3
The COVID-19 Pandemic: Managing
Unplanned Change as the New Normal
in the Workplace
Chantal Olckers and Eileen Koekemoer
Introduction
Change is inevitable and the only constant variable in the world of work (Self &
Schraeder, 2009). Moreover, the world is challenged by globalisation, technological
innovations, competitive pressure and a shifting workforce, to name but a few (Jones
et al., 2019; Lanvin et al., 2020). As a result, change has become the norm. To
ensure their viability and to remain successful, relevant and profitable, organisations
have to keep pace with these rapid changes and manage change effectively
(Al-Haddad & Kotnour, 2015). Change management is defined as a process that
continually renews an organisation’s structure, direction and capabilities to meet the
changing demands of both external and internal customers (By, 2005). However, in
a world of continuous change, many organisations have realised that hierarchical
structures and lengthy decision-making processes can prevent them from achieving
the full benefits of change (Franklin, 2021)
According to Lozano & Barreiri-Gen (2021), organisations that proactively
enforce change will adapt to market changes and maintain their competitive advan-
tage. Organisational growth will be evident if the change is successfully managed as
part of the operational process, and employees' trust, motivation and engagement
will improve (Aravopoulou, 2016). To remain dynamic in the market, change man-
agement should form part of an organisation's fundamental strategies. In this sense,
the external environment and the internal dynamics of organisations co-determine
the meaning of managerial practices and change (Jacobs et al., 2013).
Although organisations can plan, prepare for and predict specific changes, some
change is unplanned, unexpected and emergent (Griffin et al., 2016). Planned
C. Olckers (*) · E. Koekemoer

Department of Human Resource Management, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
e-mail: Chantal.olckers@up.ac.za; Eileen.koekemoer@up.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_3
32 C. Olckers and E. Koekemoer
change allows organisations the opportunity to plan for their desired future by tak-
ing intentional action steps (Stouten et al., 2018). In contrast, unplanned change is
often imposed by rapid and unexpected incidents or situations that could have
unpredictable and catastrophic consequences for organisations (Jalagat, 2016).
Moreover, given the abrupt nature of unplanned change, organisations are often
caught off guard and unequipped to deal with it immediately.
An example of such an unplanned, rapid change was the outbreak of the corona-
virus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the globe at
large and had a significant, unprecedented effect on society and the business envi-
ronment (Gautam & Sharma, 2020). In addition, the economic downturn as a result
of the pandemic caused severe financial, human and technological disruption. For
example, governmental regulations stipulated that a minimum number of employ-
ees are allowed on the premises, forcing several employees to work from home.
Others have to be assigned to work in the office based on rostered schedules. The
unplanned changes to address the effects of the pandemic caused uncertainty and
urgency, which increased people's anxiety levels (Li et al., 2021). The pandemic
altered how people live and work and forced organisations to undergo immense
transformation to survive and maintain their competitive advantage (Donthu &
Gustafsson, 2020). As a result, organisations started questioning their labour poli-
cies, human resource practices and operations (Schwartz et al., 2020). The global
crisis forced management to adopt changes to limit the detrimental impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic.
When considering the change management literature, various models are avail-
able to guide organisations and practitioners on how to facilitate organisational
change (Stouten et al., 2018), for example, Lewin's process model, Hiatt's ADKAR
model (Hiatt, 2006) and Kotter's eight-step model (Appelbaum et al., 2012).
However, the majority of these models focus on planned organisational change and
do not necessarily make provision for rapid, unexpected changes in the external
environment or within businesses. There is thus a lack of research and models
informing organisations on how to deal with such unplanned changes. Nevertheless,
although change can be unplanned and unpredictable, some organisations find ways
to adapt to the new conditions and operate competitively during such trying times.
Literature Review
This section addresses the various driving forces of change as discussed in the lit-
erature and then theories of planned change.
3 The COVID-19 Pandemic: Managing Unplanned Change as the New Normal… 33
Forces Driving Change
According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), forces that has been
called ‘megatrends’ such as globalisation, technology, demography and climate
change all drive change in organisations (International Labour Orga, 2020). Several
internal and external forces could necessitate changes in an organisation. External
forces could include economic, technological, legal and political factors, and
changes in labour markets (Predişcan & Roiban, 2014). However, these external
changes are out of the control of organisations, and organisations will need to adjust
to these changes forced upon them to survive. Internal forces that could serve as
drivers of change are mainly administrative processes (such as organisational struc-
ture and culture, leadership, communication and decision-making) and problems
associated with employees working within the organisation (Lozano, 2018). The
external and internal forces are briefly discussed below.
External Forces Driving Change
Economic Forces
The accelerating pace of changes in the social, political and economic environments
drives change within organisations (Sorensen et al., 2021). In addition, increased
competition from competitors due to globalisation and increased technology forces
organisations to change their strategies to keep abreast of their competitors (Jones
et al., 2019). Downturns in the local economy can influence the performance and
turnover of an organisation and impact the morale and attitudes of employees
(Predişcan & Roiban, 2014).
Labour Market Forces
Fluctuations in labour markets could force organisations to change and adapt their
strategies as well as the developing and different expectations of the workforce and
shifting demographics (Jones et al., 2019). For example, the required skill sets of
employees might change due to an influx or shortage of particular skill sets.
However, this will force organisations to either upskill their employees or recruit
employees with the necessary skills (Jones et al., 2019).
Legal and Political Forces
Laws and regulations developed by a government often compel organisations to

change (Lunenburg, 2010). Several South African acts regulate and guide organisa-
tions regarding employee selection and retrenchment processes, to name but a few.
Some of these acts include, but are not limited to, the Labour Relations Act 66 of
1995, Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997, Occupational Health and
Safety Act 85 of 1993 and Employment Equity Act 47 of 2013.
Technological Forces
Technology changes at a rapid speed almost in every field; new devices and tools are
available daily. Technology has changed how individuals communicate, make pay-
ments and conduct general business actions (D’ortenzio, 2012). Thus, technological
development is required if an organisation would like to stay ahead of its competi-
tors and adapt to the environment. To do so, organisations must update their soft-
ware and equipment and keep up with this technological revolution (Predişcan &
Roiban, 2014).
Internal Forces Driving Change
Administrative Processes
According to Aravopoulou (2016), administrative processes encapsulate communi-

cation, decision-making and strategic processes. Problems or any breakdowns in
these processes can put pressure on an organisation to change. Examples of such
problems or breakdowns are poor decisions, inadequate communications or lack of
staff motivation, to name a few (D’ortenzio, 2012). Thus, how leaders manage the
change process and communicate the change down the chain of command is vital.
Some employees might show resistance to the change, while others embrace change
and are actively involved in the change process. Once the decision has been made to
implement a change process, employees should be informed of how it could affect
them (Predişcan & Roiban, 2014).
People Influences
Poor employee performance, high levels of absenteeism, low employee motiva-

tional levels and high turnover within an organisation could be indicators for change.
Strikes, employee or customer complaints, and the filing of grievances are signs of
problems and signal a necessity for change. Organisational changes occur due to
pressures for change exerted by the external environment and are thus responsible
for internal pressures to change (Jacobs et al., 2013).
Planned Change Theories
Although several forces could impose change on organisations, organisations can

also anticipate it, and plan accordingly to incorporate change in their organisational
strategy. Three of the process models for planned organisational change are set
out below.
Lewin's Three-Phase Process Model
Kurt Lewin suggested that planned organisational change should follow a multi-
phase process. His planned change model comprises three steps – unfreezing,
change and refreezing (Cummings & Worley, 2015). According to this model,
change is seen as a systematic process of transition from an old condition to a new
condition. During the unfreezing phase, employees should be made aware of the
need for change. Members of an organisation should understand the reasons for and
importance of the change and how they will be affected. Creating employee aware-
ness remains the responsibility of management, and its communication must be
clear to ensure buy-in from all employees. The change phase requires finding new
ways of doing things and moving from an old state to a new state. The change actu-
ally occurs during this phase. The change might include, for example, restructuring
the organisation or installing new technology. During the refreezing phase, new
behaviours should be made permanent, and the change should be reinforced (Shaw,
2017). For example, newly learned skills should be applied within the workplace
(Hussain et al., 2018).
Hiatt's ADKAR Model
The ADKAR model developed by Hiatt (2006) focuses on change within people.
The acronym ADKAR stands for Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability and
Reinforcement. To achieve the desired change and for the change process to be suc-
cessful, all five steps should be completed. During the awareness step, employees
need to be informed about the required change and the reasons for the change. In
addition, employees should be made aware of the benefit of the change, what they
gain from the change, and the risks involved if they do not change. Awareness of the
need for change might not be enough; a desire for change needs to be created to
support the change. This step requires the use of several tactics to create a desire.
These tactics could include showing the benefits of the change, drawing on past suc-
cess with similar changes, and using intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. The knowl-
edge step includes providing information about the new systems or programs that
need to be implemented or the behaviours that need to be changed. Employees
should be informed about 'how to do' the new things. Knowledge needs to turn into
action or should become a reality in the ability step. Providing the necessary support
and help to employees is of vital importance during this step. Finally, the new
behaviour should be reinforced (Hiatt, 2006). Reinforcement could be done through
feedback and providing organisational rewards.
Kotter's Leading Organisation Change Model
John Kotter's change model focused on the leading of change rather than the manag-
ing of change. His model comprises eight steps for ensuring the transformation of
an organisation. These steps are briefly discussed below (Burnes & Bargal, 2017):
Step 1: Establish a sense of urgency about the need to achieve change. Employees
need to be informed about why the change is needed so as to get their buy-in.
Step 2: Create a guiding coalition. A team with the necessary power, energy and
influence should be assembled to lead the change. The team members should be
representatives from various departments and levels in the organisation and
should have the required skills, know-how and authority to drive the change
process.
Step 3: Develop a vision and strategy. Employees need to clearly understand what
the change is about and its value. It is also essential to communicate the expected
outcome of the change.
Step 4: Communicate the change vision. The new vision and strategy need to be
communicated regularly and at every opportunity to ensure that employees have
a clear understanding of the why, what and how of the change process.
Step 5: Empower broad-based action. Employees should be encouraged to focus on
the positives of the change and how to achieve it rather than to focus on the nega-
tives (e.g. why they do not like the change).
Step 6: Generate short-term wins. Give recognition to those employees who help to
make the change happen so that they are encouraged while doing so.
Step 7: Consolidate gains and produce more change. It is essential to build on the
achieved successes of the change to keep the change momentum going.
Employees should also be invigorated through the change process and become
change agents.
Step 8: Anchor new approaches in the corporate culture. For a change to be institu-
tionalised and entrenched in the organisation's culture, it needs to be reinforced
continuously to ensure that employees do not revert to their comfortable and old
way of doing things.
Evidence-Based Case Study
This section offers an evidence-based case study to illustrate the impact of the
unplanned COVID-19-induced changes on organisations. The overall purpose of
the case study was to answer the following questions related to the unplanned
changes:
• What were the typical unplanned changes that transpired in the organisations
(cases) because of the pandemic?
• How did the organisations react or respond to these changes?
• How did they overall experience the changes that transpired and the implementa-
tion of measures to address the changes?
• What did the organisations learn from the pandemic concerning the management
of unplanned changes?
• What are the implications for HR when it comes to managing the pandemic and
unplanned change?
escription of the Evidence-Based Case Study on Unplanned

D
Change During COVID-19
The cases described involved six South African organisations from different indus-
tries, where data were obtained from employees representing the respective organ-
isations (see Table 3.1).
At the outset, the participants (employees answering on behalf of their organisa-
tions) were informed of the purpose of the study and ensured of confidentiality and
Table 3.1 Information on the six cases (participating organisations and participants)
Size of the
Employee of the organisation organisation (number
Case Organisation/industry who was interviewed of employees)
Case 1 Organisation within the Talent manager 450
healthcare industry (providing
essential services)
Case 2 Labour relations organisation Operations manager 46
Case 3 Competition commissioner Chief human capital officer 250
organisation
Case 4 Organisation in the transport Person responsible for business Unknown
industry (providing essential improvement and
services) transformation projects
Case 5 Sport franchise Marketing and media manager Unknown
Case 6 Organisation in the property Business partner? 130
management industry
Source: Author’s own word
anonymity in order to obtain their informed consent to participate. The participants

were informed that the study aimed to gain more insight into how organisations
reacted and responded to the forced changes as a result of COVID-19. Information
was obtained through semi-structured interviews with questions regarding their
experiences of these changes. Typically, the following questions were asked: (1)
How has the pandemic affected the way your organisation operates? (2) Can you
elaborate on any changes you implemented as a result of COVID-19? (3) What do
you think was the biggest change experienced by the organisation? (4) What chal-
lenges did you face during the period of implementing all these changes? (5) What
would you say were the lessons that you learned during this whole experience? The
interview transcriptions were analysed using thematic analyses, as various themes
were extracted.
The findings presented hereafter stem from the transcription data of the six
organisations (i.e. cases).
Findings From the Case Studies
Changes That Transpired
Based on the case studies, it became clear that various changes were implemented
because of COVID-19 restrictions and regulations. These changes were not neces-
sarily planned but were forced upon the organisations due to the pandemic. Table 3.2
summarises the typical changes that transpired in the various organisations/cases.
In the context of these changes, we scrutinised and analysed the transcriptions
(case study data) further and extracted three overall themes: the participants’ experi-
ences during the unplanned changes, the organisations’ reactions to these changes
and the lessons learned during the implementation of the forced changes.
heme 1: Participants’ Experiences During

T
the Unplanned Changes
At the outset, the experiences related to the unplanned changes were labelled under
challenges and benefits. In terms of implementing the forced unplanned changes,
the organisations experienced various challenges, which are summarised in
Table 3.3.
Overall, our findings indicate that, due to the pandemic, the organisations expe-
rienced various challenges; some of these were general while others were specifi-
cally related to the implementation of the various changes. On an organisational
level, the organisations struggled to ensure the overall well-being of their employ-
ees during the pandemic. Keeping employees engaged and involved during a time
Table 3.2 Changes the organisations implemented during COVID-19

Changes Descriptions Cases
Policy changes – new policy Re-alignment of policies to the new operating 1,2,3,4,6
implementation models, processes and health regulations; developing
and implementing new HR policies, e.g. work-from-
home policy, remuneration policy, employment
contracts; change in work schedules; introducing
rotational work
Operational changes in Employees working outside normal working hours; 1,2,3,4,5,6
working hours, business more flexible working hours; changes in their
hours (flexible work working hours; division in workforce – fewer
arrangements) and workforce employees working per shift
divisions
Technological changes – Employees equipped with necessary skills and 1,2,3,4,6
changes in infrastructure and equipment; building renovations to adhere to
physical support COVID-19 regulations; IT resources and equipment
provided to employees to work from home; building
tenancy cancelled; PPE (personal protective
equipment) provided to employees
Change in business Change in technological systems; system upgrades; 1,2,5,6
strategy – move to a digital switching to automated systems; operating virtually;
environment moving to a digital environment; installing new
switchboards; increased use of marketing department
for survival
Structural changes – changes Development of new IT departments; change in job 1,2,3
in the organisational roles, redeployment of staff, creating new tasks for
structure and allocation of employees; change in business models and processes
new job roles
Psychological changes and Rethinking the definition of the workplace and 1,2,3
the implication for the approaches to work-life balance; re-designing/
workplace and HR systems rethinking performance management systems to
measure outputs, changes in how to measure outputs
and productivity; finding new ways to assist clients
Financial or cost-implicated Employees not allowed to work overtime as a means 4,5,6,
changes to save costs; cutting salaries of management for
survival; retraction of annual increases
of remote working was a significant issue, as employees felt isolated and unin-
formed at times and tended to work longer hours due to accessibility. Overall, main-
taining a good work and personal life balance was a major challenge for employees,
and the organisations needed to find ways to address this. The organisations strug-
gled with the balance between sustaining productivity and ensuring the well-being
of the employees. They also found it challenging to ensure business continuity. In
some instances, some business operations were suspended (e.g. no training).
Providing employees with the necessary infrastructure and technology was vital to
ensure the organisations' business continuity; however, such changes brought about
additional financial implications and burdens.
Table 3.3 Challenges organisations experienced

Challenges related
to: Explanation
Remote working Employees experienced higher work expectations and workload as a result
of being always accessible when working remotely; employees struggled to
work from home due to physical constraints (workspace, internet stability,
IT infrastructure); some employees felt isolated due to remote working;
challenges related to virtual meetings; no clear measurement for working
from home; personal challenges and distractions in personal life when
working at home (children, household responsibilities)
Engagement with Struggling to find ways to engage with employees; difficulty in maintaining
employees a good culture of meetings and engagement with clients; a new culture of
engaging and connecting with people was required; employees perceived
less/no face-to-face engagement as less support from management
Resources, Access to internet and infrastructure for employees working from home;
infrastructure and internet connectivity remained problematic even if employees had the
technology resources
Well-being of Difficult to assess the mental impact of the changes on employees;
employees perceived less social engagement and support among employees; increased
anxiety among employees; employees struggling to maintain a balance
between work and personal life
Ensuring business Some business operations were stopped or limited (e.g. traveling, training);
continuity and financial losses imposed on budget; increased additional costs due to IT
financial infrastructure and internet requirements; leave accumulation
implications
Resistance to Clients resisted the changes and new way of working
change
Benefits Associated With the Changes
Although the organisations found the unplanned changes challenging, they did indi-
cate some positive outcomes associated with the changes they made. Based on the
data, we extracted benefits for both the organisations and the individuals in respect
of the implemented changes. These benefits are reflected in Table 3.4.
Although all the organisations agreed that they were operating in trying times
and found it very challenging to ensure business continuity while ensuring the well-
being of their employees, they did admit some positive outcomes. From a business
perspective, the forced changes contributed to the organisations' overall productiv-
ity and efficiency. In addition, various new opportunities arose from these changes
and resulted in new and innovative ways of working. The employees themselves
mentioned benefits such as increased productivity, increased resilience and time
management skills.
Table 3.4 Benefits of changes for the organisations and the individuals
Benefits for the
Benefits for the organisations individuals
New skills of employees added value (e.g. development of a new IT Increased availability of
department) employees to schedule
meetings
Increased flexibility
Opportunities provided for new approaches and innovation Managed work-life
balance/integration better
Increased effectiveness and efficiency in processes Increased resilience
Improved performance (e.g. turnaround time on client queries) Fostered innovation and
creativity
Unplanned change provided the opportunity to implement much Increased productivity
needed changes (e.g. work-from-home policy), accelerated the
technology strategy and provided opportunities to implement smart
ways of working
Digitalisation strategy increased the scope for organisations Improved time
management skills
Better work-life integration of employees led to increased Increased access to
productivity organisation’s online
systems
With electronic platforms, organisations could ensure business Upskilled employees
continuity (e.g. continue communication with clients)
Fig. 3.1 Response to

unplanned changes and Responding swiftly
crises. (Source: Author’s
own work)
Focusing on business continuity
Communicating continuously
Showing decisive leadership
Setting up task teams
Addressing concerns, fears, insecurity

Theme 2: Organisations’ Response to the Unplanned Changes
Overall, this theme arose from the following question: How did organisations react/
respond to the unplanned changes?
From the case studies, we extracted information on how the organisations
responded during this time. When the organisations were confronted with the crises
of the pandemic and forced to make unplanned changes, they all seemed to concen-
trate on specific crucial aspects. These aspects are reflected in Fig. 3.1.
Focusing on Business Continuity
At the forefront of responding to the pandemic was a focus on how to sustain busi-
ness continuity. All the organisations focused on how they could keep their clients
satisfied and still engage with them in order to keep their business running. This also
entailed re-strategising on what they wanted to achieve concerning their business
operations. Some organisations decided that they would do whatever changes were
necessary to ensure that no employees would lose their jobs; this resulted in salary
cuts, abandonment of overtime or leave implications.
Responding Swiftly and Creating a Sense of Urgency
The organisations emphasised that a sense of urgency was needed in the event of
unplanned changes or crises, and that action should be taken swiftly when respond-
ing. The organisations were required to react fast and make quick decisions in order
to survive. They needed to adapt rapidly to the changes required and be flexible in
their new plans and strategies as the changes evolved. Thus, one of the most critical
aspects that the organisations mentioned in this regard was their ability to respond,
react and take control.
Communicating Continuously
Another central aspect evident from the data is how all the organisations focused on
communication during this time of crises. Management were in continuous contact
with their employees, and communication between the two parties was aligned.
Communication strategies would include the leadership’s weekly check-ins on or
regular meetings with employees. Keeping employees informed of the process and
changes was considered paramount for the well-being of employees. Therefore,
management took on a very determined approach to communication.
Showing Decisive Leadership
The role of leadership was critical during the pandemic. In this regard, the leaders
identified at the outset what they wanted to retain during this time (e.g. ensure busi-
ness continuity, ensure no job losses and determine salary implications). Furthermore,
the leaders were required to make decisions that were not planned and executed
proactively. The organisations engaged in initiatives to coach and guide their leaders
and managers on how to manage their dispersed workforce. The organisations indi-
cated how the leadership that was exhibited included consulting with the employees
and making decisions in the best interest of both the organisation and its employees.
Setting Up Task Teams and Focusing on Resources
In many of the cases, the organisations reacted to the pandemic by setting up task
teams to investigate and drive the necessary changes in the organisations. This
included COVID task teams to ensure structures are in place to comply with health
and safety requirements. Health and safety forums were also held with the employ-
ees to update them on health matters and new regulations. Setting up a task team
that focuses on the nature of the crises and their implications was crucial. In addi-
tion, focusing on resources and ensuring that all the employees have the necessary
resources to do their work was essential.
Addressing Concerns, Insecurities and Fear
The pandemic was characterised by increased feelings of fear, concerns and insecu-
rities among the workforce. The organisations indicated that these uncertainties had
to be addressed, and they attended to these by informing and consulting with their
employees throughout. Looking after the emotional well-being of the workforce
was considered a key priority, and in many of the organisations, the employees were
encouraged to make use of counselling services in this regard. The organisations
also tried to show their re-commitment to the physical and mental well-being of
their employees.
Fig. 3.2 Lessons learned during the pandemic. (Source: Author’s own work)
heme 3: Lessons Learned From the Pandemic (and

T
the Unplanned Changes)
During these trying times, all the organisations indicated that being exposed to cri-
ses or unplanned changes provided valuable lessons for the future. Five overall les-
sons were extracted from the data (illustrated in Fig. 3.2).
Identify, Understand and Embrace the Changes
The participants consistently indicated that in order to survive, their organisations

had to embrace and understand the changes. This entailed understanding and iden-
tifying the need for new ways of conducting business, and acknowledging that pre-
vious ways of working are not necessarily relevant or applicable anymore. The
organisations indicated that this required their employees to learn, relearn and
unlearn certain ways of working or thinking. For many, the pandemic confirmed
that working in the 4IR is a reality and that embracing technology is no longer an
option but an absolute necessity.
Stay Flexible in Your Response Plan
Irrespective of the nature of change (being planned or unplanned), the organisations

learned that because the external environment is so fluid and unpredictable, flexibil-
ity during such times is paramount for success. For many of the organisations, this
meant reflecting and doing introspection on their operations on a daily basis. The
employees and organisations experienced the shortcomings of traditional organisa-

tional structures and needed to adapt to the demands of the new situation and to
introduce new organisational structures. The organisations agreed that although
planned change models are still relevant, adaptability and flexibility in the approach
to crises or forced changes will make the difference.
Nurture a Supportive Culture
As mentioned earlier, many employees from the participating organisations indi-

cated they experienced increased fear, uncertainty or loneliness as a result of their
changed circumstances, which amplified the need for a supportive culture. During
times of crisis or uncertainty, employees need to still feel they belong and are sup-
ported by their organisation and management. The participants indicated that main-
taining the culture and traditions of their organisations was crucial as a way to
support employees. Providing employees support by any means possible (instru-
mental, emotional or physical) was key to nurturing a supportive organisational
culture during times of uncertainty and change.
Focus on the People
One of the most significant lessons learned by all the organisations is that their
employees are their largest asset and the most valuable resource they have at their
disposal. The organisations learned that people are resilient and adaptable when
situations demand it and one should not underestimate the skills of one’s workforce.
Therefore, assisting and focusing on your employees and their well-being are vital.
Organisations need to focus on their people and try to reduce their resistance
to change.
Maintain Consultation and Engagement
The organisations learned that empathetic leadership and clear and frequent com-
munication are crucial for showing leadership during this time. The employees val-
ued communication. During a crisis, there is a need for transformational leadership
and not only transactional leadership. This also emphasises the need for constant
and continuous consultation and engagement with staff as a way to reduce resis-
tance. The employees experienced their adherence to social distance policies as
detrimental, as they were unable to connect with people. In this regard, the organisa-
tions learned that their employees valued social interaction greatly. Keeping
employees engaged and providing them with opportunities for social interaction are
crucial for their emotional well-being.
Discussion
During 2020, the pandemic reaffirmed the notion that change is inevitable, as sev-
eral internal and external forces influenced the business continuity of all organisa-
tions (Lee, 2021). In this regard, various models and the literature focus on how to
manage planned change (Appelbaum et al., 2012; Cummings & Worley, 2015;
Hiatt, 2006). The models can be used to plan for a desired future and give some
degree of control over the outcome of planned changes that organisations wish to
implement. However, within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, organisations
were confronted with situations that led to immense unplanned changes in their
business. These changes ranged from policy, operational and technological changes,
to business strategy changes. Although such changes are not new to organisations,
implementing them in a short period of time under immense pressure for survival is
challenging (Lee, 2021). Many of our case study organisations had to implement
several changes simultaneously in order to ensure business continuity. Management
was confronted with various implementation challenges relating to remote working,
how to engage with a dispersed workforce, and ensuring the well-being of their
employees. Managing organisations during these uncertain times of unplanned
change required new skills, new ways of thinking, and a new way of management.
Overall, the findings of our case studies accentuate the role of human resource man-
agement during unplanned change. Based on the lessons learned and the way in
which the organisations responded to the pandemic, several implications for HR
were evident which are expounded on below.
ow to Deal with Unplanned Change and the New Normal:

H
HR Implications
Take Charge Through Leadership and Adapt Business Strategy
Decisive and supportive leadership is crucial during unplanned change. Therefore,

leaders should be empowered to display transformational leadership during a time
of uncertainty. This emphasises the importance of leadership development in organ-
isations. Day and Dragoni (2015) suggest that crisis management knowledge and
skills be built into future leadership programmes. Such development should be a
continuous process and focus in organisations to ensure that managers and leaders
are empowered to manage employees during unplanned changes. It is thus impor-
tant to ensure that leaders possess the necessary know-how, skills and personal
characteristics to enable them to recognise and deal with threats facing their organ-
isation and its employees, such as the pandemic (Wooten & James, 2008). Focusing
on leadership and establishing strong leadership in organisations can be considered
a planned action to ensure that a business is ready when faced with crises or
unplanned changes.
Overlapping with the focus on leadership is the ability of leaders to identify and
be able to adapt their business strategy. In this regard, in order to navigate uncertain
times, leaders need to exhibit exceptional problem-solving skills and analytical
thinking in the face of uncertain situations or scenarios. This is underscored by Bill
Gates, the founder of Microsoft, who states the following: ‘In any crisis, leaders
have two equally important responsibilities: solve the immediate problem and keep
it from happening again’ (Gates, 2020, p. 1677). Consequently, any change in busi-
ness strategy has various implications for human resources management. This was
also evident from the case studies, which reflected various specific changes that
were HR related, for example, HR policy changes.
Implementation of New HR Policies and Systems
As changes are implemented and employees are finding new ways of working, new
policies are required and need to be implemented very swiftly. Adalja et al. (2020)
have confirmed the large-scale implementation of new remote labour policies. Some
examples of new HR policies that have become very relevant during the time of the
pandemic are work-from-home policies, flexi time policies, new travel policies and
working hours in contracts have been revisited. The implementation of policies,
practices and procedures to effectively manage and support a work-from-home
model was echoed by a study conducted by Du Plessis and Thomas (2021) among
industrial psychologists. Working remotely or partially remotely could perhaps ben-
efit both the employer and employee according to De Lucas Ancillo et al. (2021).
Employees will benefit from saving on time and travel costs and a workplace that
allow greater flexibility might offer more motivated and productive employees and
the opportunity to access talent without geographical boundaries. HR units also
need to re-develop and re-design performance management systems, as employees
are now working from home. According to De Lucas Ancillo et al. (2021), organisa-
tions need to rethink how to measure performance. Instead of measuring employ-
ee’s actual performance, employee’s ability to overcome uncertainties, how they are
able to adapt to everchanging business scenarios and the leadership qualities they
demonstrate should be measured. Determining or managing the performance of a
dispersed workforce is new territory for HR and requires thorough re-thinking.
Re-Design of Organisational Structures or Jobs
In a time when technology is increasingly omnipresent in organisations and results

in various new ways of working, the re-design of organisational structures or jobs is
of the essence. This was confirmed by a study (Du Plessis & Thomas, 2021) con-
ducted among industrial psychologists, which found that the pandemic has com-
pelled them to re-evaluate their roles and that a workforce should have the necessary
skills and personality to be able to work in a virtual environment. During the pan-
demic, the participating organisations experienced the shortcomings of traditional
organisational structures, which indicated a need for new types of structures. In
order to manage unplanned changes, organisations need organisational structures
that are more flexible and allow for swift response and implementation. This is, for
example, echoed by De Lucas Ancillo et al. (2021) who suggested that future work-
places have to become more digital, less hierarchical and more flexible.
The Value of Increased Well-Being Interventions
According to Van Bavel et al. (2020), the COVID-19 pandemic has imposed numer-
ous psychological stressors upon individuals, emphasising the need for COVID-19
workplace interventions that address the psychological needs of employees.
Employees faced increased work and family demands and had to strike a balance
between their work-related roles and their personal lives. It is thus important that
organisations assist employees to establish and maintain a successful work-life bal-
ance. Tan et al. (2020) emphasise the need for early interventions to prevent the
establishment of maladaptive cognitive or behavioural patterns among employees.
Employers should thus build on the job-demands-resources model developed by
Bakker et al. (2014) and address the resources that might assist employees in allevi-
ating the negative effects of a high-stress situation. These resources might include
the development of a safety climate, good communication and coping strategies,
and adequate training. In addition, to ensure the well-being of their employees,
organisations need to be pro-active in putting psychological trauma management
programmes and interventions in place (Jonker et al., 2020).
When comparing the notions of planned change theories with how our participat-
ing organisations responded to the unplanned changes during the pandemic, the
overall focus seems to differ. One of the main premises of planned change theories
is the ability to prepare employees for successful change and the linear nature of
such a process. This usually entails very specific aspects or a sequential order. For
example, with planned change, the focus is on ensuring that employees are aware of
what is coming (awareness in the ADKAR model), ensuring the need for the change
(desire in the ADKAR model, unfreezing in Lewin’s model), as well as increasing
their ability and knowledge (knowledge in the ADKAR model, freezing in Lewin’s
model) for the change. In this regard, preparing for the success of the change is a
large component of managing the change and such preparation can become a very
lengthy process in the overall change initiative. In this sense, planned change efforts
are sometimes implemented ‘in addition to’ what is already going on in organisa-
tions, as a way of business development or organisational development. However,
our findings revealed that in the case of unplanned change, the focus immediately
falls on the ability to respond swiftly and to ensure business continuity. Instead of
focusing on preparing for the success of the change, the focus is on immediate
response and implementation of change efforts and initiatives. In contrast to planned
change efforts, unplanned change efforts are done ‘instead of’ what is currently
going on, which means it might entail replacing the current ways of working. The
focus is on implementing immediate changes with the goal to ensure business con-
tinuity. However, although the focus has shifted, certain aspects of planned change
are still relevant and important when managing unplanned change, such as focusing
on people, the role of communication and the development of strategy and vision,
and forming coalitions (e.g. setting up task teams). Being able to do such things
quickly and in a timely manner while being flexible in one’s approach will allow for
successful implementation. Taken together, during unplanned change, organisations
(and by implication leadership and management) should focus much more on swift
implementation while still being adaptable and flexible in the face of continuous
changes.
Upon integrating our findings with the change theory literature, three guiding
principles can be considered crucial going forward when dealing with unplanned
change: Inform and enable your workforce, have decisive communication and lead-
ership, and focus on the well-being of your people.
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Chantal Olckers is employed at the University of Pretoria as an Associate Professor in the

Department of Human Resource Management. She is a registered psychologist (Category:
Industrial) with the Health Professions Council of South Africa. Chantal is a respected researcher
and published author of various scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters in interna-
tional peer-reviewed books and editor of two specialist books on psychological ownership and grit.
She has obtained a C2 rating from the National Research Foundation (NRF). She has presented
several research papers at both national and international conferences. Chantal is a section editor
of the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology and an associate editor of Frontiers in
Organisational Psychology. She has extensive experience within the tertiary educational environ-
ment (as a lecturer and researcher), as well as within the private sector (as a consultant). Chantal
has a passion for positive organisational behaviour and her research focuses on psychological
ownership, work engagement and psychological well-being.
Eileen Koekemoer is an associate Professor in the Human Resource Management Department

from the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences at the University of Pretoria in South
Africa. She is a registered industrial psychologist with the Health Profession Council of South
Africa (HPCSA). She has obtained a C2 rating from the National Research Foundation (NRF).
Prof Koekemoer lectures organisational development (on honours level) and change dynamics (on
masters level) within the department of Human Resource Management. Furthermore, her research
areas include work-life interaction, career success and the well-being of employees. She is involved
in various research projects that investigate the interaction between employees’ work and family
life and how it influences their career success and/or well-being.
Chapter 4
Designing for Humans: A Revised
Consumer Experience-Based Approach
Towards People Management Practices
Dieter Veldsman and Marna van der Merwe
Introduction
The world of work has changed significantly over the past decade. The fourth indus-
trial revolution has impacted organisations across all sectors and industries on a
global scale. Sustainability concerns and ecological issues such as climate change
are more urgent for organisations to address than ever before while global economic
power shifts, demographical changes and the COVID-19 pandemic has further
impacted on organisations’ ability to remain competitive and, in some cases, sur-
vive. These changes have forever changed how, why, where and for who we work.
This means, when it comes to their workforce, organisations have had to deal with
a changing psychological contract where employees expect more from employers in
a world rife with instability, growing privacy concerns, and a rising gig-remote
workforce. Amidst all this noise, HR functions have had to evolve to deal with the
new war for talent, where the rules seemingly have changed overnight, the playing
field has become digital and the competition global.
This chapter explores the emergence of the experience-lead design movement in
HR practices in response to the changing world of work. This chapter provides a
critical overview of current workplace practices, their relevance in a changing world
of work, and the influence on HR functions into the future. As we are entering a new
era of human experiences where employees should be viewed as consumers of peo-
ple practices, organisations have to gain the ability to deliver on employee expecta-
tions. This has significant implications for how people management practices are
D. Veldsman (*)
University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg South Africa The Academy to Innovate HR,
Rotterdam, Netherlands
M. van der Merwe
SHL, Somerset West, South Africa

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_4
54 D. Veldsman and M. van der Merwe
designed. At the end of this chapter, a case study highlights how a revised approach
can lead to value for organisations into the future.
Context to the Changing World of Work
The world of work has seen significant changes since the start of the first industrial
revolution (Philbeck & Davis, 2018). The 1780s saw the rise of steam engines and
railroads, which forever changed how we transported, built and consumed goods
and services. Workplaces such as factories were established and lead to the urban-
isation of cities and towns built as a result of available work and the opportunity to
earn a living. The second industrial revolution, derived from the ability to mass
produce electrical power and the advent of the assembly line, leads towards a robust
manufacturing sector and the rise of automated assembly lines as a place of work
(Zhang & Yang, 2020). Given the nature of work, the first and second industrial
revolution also gave rise to the concept of an 8-to-5 workday, with work being struc-
tured by organisations into a routine and repetitive cycle (Kocak et al., 2018).
Administrative tasks were largely done in a manual way and required employees to
be co-located in one space to work. The office as we know it today was a by-product
of the need for people to be present within one location simultaneously for work to
take place. The development of computers started to change that in the 1950s; how-
ever, it was only with the advent of the internet in the 1990s that saw a significant
change in how knowledge work was conducted (Wood et al., 2018). This movement
suddenly implied that work could be done from various locations, asynchronously
over time without the need for physical presence. As technology improved, more
organisations started experimenting with remote or flexible work as a concept; yet
this was largely provided as a benefit to knowledge workers or professional services
industries. Fears such as the Y2K bug negatively impacted this progress and rising
trends of cyber security threats, loss of productivity and an inability of traditional
management models to accommodate flexibility has resulted in a rather slow devel-
opment of this phenomenon. The fourth industrial revolution gave rise to the need
to better understand how we as human beings engage with work, and how technol-
ogy will change how, where and when work takes place (Xu et al., 2018). The fourth
industrial revolution is much less about technology and more about how humans
and technology augmentation will define the future definition of work. This fourth
industrial revolution will also bring humanity to a crossroad, with the one path lead-
ing to the opportunity to utilise the changes to eradicate macro and social inequality
while the other leads to a new dark age of rising unemployment, an increase between
the haves and the have-nots and an existential crisis of what it means to be human
(Petrillo et al., 2018).
In December 2019, we saw the first reports of an outbreak of the COVID-19
virus in China (WHO, 2020). Over the coming months, the virus spread globally
and – given the high likelihood of transmission through physical contact – most
countries implemented lockdowns to stop the spread of the virus and to alleviate the
4 Designing for Humans: A Revised Consumer Experience-Based Approach… 55
strain on their healthcare systems. Organisation were forced to move most of their
operations remote overnight, with an unprecedented move of traditional location-
bound work such as call centres, administrative support, and processing centres
being decentralised to operate across multiple contexts. Organisations started to
experiment with new ways of work which included the use of collaboration tools
and platforms making anywhere and anytime work a reality (Alatovic et al., 2020).
Even though the world is still dealing with the aftermath of the COVID-19 pan-
demic as global vaccination programmes gain speed, it is already evident that the
way we work has forever changed. Even though some organisations will return to
traditional office-based approaches, many organisations have seen the benefits of
remote work and are exploring ways to capitalise on this after the pandemic. The
global talent market has also proven that expectations from employees have shifted.
Trust between employers and employees will become the new currency, as a chang-
ing psychological contract determines the parameters for employer/employee rela-
tions. Table 4.1 provides a view of how work will change, and organisations need to
adapt to remain relevant and sustainable into this new environment:
A major contributing factor towards the future workplace will be the organisa-
tional perspective with regard to anywhere/anytime and specific place/specific time
requirements. This continuum dictates that a number of factors will influence how
organisations choose to work, with a variety of workplace strategies coming to the
fore. Figure 4.1 provides a brief overview of how time and place considerations
influence how organisations are able to organise and structure work; however, this
Table 4.1 The changing dynamic of work and how work will take place (Veldsman, 2021)
Past world Current world Future world
Who will do Permanent Hybrid workforce of Crowd and open-source
the work? employees and permanent, gig, and contract workforces with varying
service workers with automation of employment conditions and
providers process and in-sourcing of relationships augmented by
services where required technology and artificial
intelligence
Where will On-site Multiple sites owned or Offices, home, 3rd spaces (e.g.
they do the leased by the organisation, shared workspace, coffee
work? and location-bound remote shop) and virtual workspaces
workplaces
When will they Work hours Flexible hours Anytime, anywhere
do the work?
How will work Physical Physical and digital Digital, physical and virtual
be delivered?
How is work Activity to Vocation to engage and Pursuit of meaning and
positioned survive or deliver value purpose
(why)? progress
What is the Effort and Knowledge and experience Expertise and skills
human hands
contribution?
Source: Authors’ own compilation
Fig. 4.1 The changing workplace continuum of place and time. (Source: Authors’ own
compilation)
will be highly dependent on the nature of the work, the context of the organisation
and the willingness of organisations to adapt their approach.
These trends will fundamentally change how, where and when human-beings
interact with work, the perspective towards work and how work fits into a broader
understanding of how we organise our lives. The decisions that organisations make
will also have a significant impact on the expectations that they can deliver on when
engaging talent. This, in turn, means that organisations that fail to adapt their
approaches or fail to create clarity on what talent can expect from the employment
as well as the psychological contract will be left behind.
he Redefinition of the Employee as a Consumer:

T
The Employee Value Proposition, Employee Experience
and Psychological Contract Intersect
The changing world of work has significantly impacted the psychological contract
(Veldsman & van Aarde, 2021), which reflects the explicit and unspoken expecta-
tions that exists between employee and employer. Traditionally, the psychological
contract has often been based on a largely transactional relationship, with employ-
ers making decisions on behalf of employees in terms of the amount of flexibility,
benefits and advantages employees would enjoy. This was often articulated through
the employee value proposition that highlights the benefits that employees are enti-
tled to as a result of their employment arrangement. Employee value propositions
has since evolved, with the biggest changes pertaining to (1) the value and role of
employee benefits, (2) the focus on well-being, (3) the importance of choice and (4)
the overarching and enduring employee experience as a key differentiator. The past
10 years has seen a significant shift to factors such as challenging and meaningful
work, societal contribution/impact and organisational culture in addition to the
traditional value proposition which is transactional in nature. Employee benefits has

shifted towards the world of hygiene considerations and is no longer considered as
differentiating factors that set organisations apart in a highly competitive talent mar-
ket. The impact of COVID-19 has also amplified the importance of holistic human
well-being beyond traditional employee assistance programmes and consulting
firms have already predicated a mass resignation movement as talent shifts towards
the post-pandemic workplace (Gaviola, 2021).
Another shift in the employee value proposition practice has been the introduc-
tion of choice. The choice-based approach towards employee value propositions has
gained popularity in an attempt to cater for an increasingly complex workforce con-
sisting of different needs, desires, generations, and life circumstances (Ronda et al.,
2018). This also places the human experience at the heart of the value proposition,
to allow individuals options and choice. The ability to choose and tailor employee
value propositions through personalisation has put traditional employee value prop-
ositions under pressure, with large organisations battling to introduce flexibility
amidst a legacy of systems, processes and practices that are struggling to adapt.
Choice has started to redefine the psychological contract and have shifted the previ-
ously held paternalistic relationship between employer and employee, towards
something more balanced and equal. This does not imply unlimited choice, but
rather that employees will have freedom to choose from available options provided
by the employer and personalise their own value proposition to suit their life needs
and stage (Mascarenhas, 2019). This has resulted in a different approach towards
designing employee value propositions and most organisations have adopted more
of a persona-based approach towards designing their employee value proposition,
which is focused on shared needs and experiences. This is in contrast to previously
held beliefs that hierarchy, levels in the organisation and management responsibility
should dictate the benefits and advantages that employees have access to. To suc-
cessfully shift towards this approach, employers had to utilise techniques previously
reserved for customer value propositions when thinking about their employees. This
approach entails that employees should be seen as consumers with varying wants,
needs and desires. Consumer audiences can be segmented through shared character-
istics which would influence the relevance of the proposition offered. Table 4.2
showcases how even though similarities exist between the approaches, there is
nuance in the underpinning belief and desired outcomes.
The consumerist approach fundamentally changes the way that employees are
defined and understood. As such, it does not only have an impact on the employee
value proposition and the explicit expectations of the psychological contract, but it
plays a significant role in how HR functions contributes to the overall employee
experience and how value-add is articulated. To better understand this dynamic, the
following section will provide a brief overview of how HR functions have evolved
in alignment with the changing world of work.
Table 4.2 Differences and similarities between traditional EVP design and the consumerist approach
Consumerist
Traditional EVP approach Difference/similarity
Perspective Employee is seen as Employee is seen The consumerist approach starts with
on a receiver of as a consumer of the consumer as opposed to traditional
employee organisational products and EV that starts with the proposition
services dictated by services offered by offered to employees
the employer the organisation
Phases in 1. Gathering 1. External trend Similar starting point in terms of
defining the insights and data analysis focused understanding, with the consumerist
employee analysis focused on on consumer approach focused on people
value offerings needs management trends and shifting needs,
proposition as opposed to packaged offerings
2. Competitor 2. Definition of Traditional EVP sees other competitors
benchmarking internal consumer as the benchmark for what their value
personas proposition needs to take into
consideration to be differentiated.
Consumerist approaches segments the
workforce into personas based upon
demographic and ethnographic data
points that goes beyond ‘life at work’
3. EVP articulation 3. Data gathering Traditional approaches define the value
and sense-checking with regard to proposition in the form of a promise
wants, needs and and test the relevance of this with
desires employees. Consumerist approaches
engage with the different personas to
better understand the ‘moments that
matter’ as part of the employer–
employee relationship
4. Design of Consumerist approaches first define a
framework and framework of what could be offered to
options available different consumer personas and then
introduces choice to balance
personalisation with standardisation
4. Implementation 5. Implementation Both approaches utilises
communication and experience-based
approaches to implement
5. Monitoring and 6. Consumer Traditional EVP will monitor factors
feedback feedback such as utilisation, differentiation of
offering and employee satisfaction.
Consumerist approaches will monitor
experience with the goal to understand
what employees feel, think and
experience at each touch point
7. Iterative design Consumerist approaches are always
evolving based upon continuous
engagement with the consumer and
changes in the contextual landscape
The Impact on the HR Function Positioning in Organisations
The role and value-add of HR functions have been well researched and documented
(Yeung & Berman, 1997; Karman, 2020). As the world of work has changed, so has
the role and positioning of the HR function. Figure 4.2 provides a summarised view
of the evolution of HR functions within the context of the changing world of work
as discussed earlier in this chapter.
The evolution of HR can be divided into three distinct eras. The first era during
the 1890s to after the World Wars in the late 1940s can be described as the policy
era, with HR being focused on managing compliance and legal risks related to their
personnel. During this era, the role of HR was primarily that of a welfare officer,
with a distinct focus on defining and managing the structures required for organisa-
tions to be effective amidst difficult and ever-increasing complex workplaces
(Ogilvie & Stork, 2003). As workforces grew larger and with the rise of factories
and assembly lines, the employer–employee relationship had to be managed at
scale, and with the rise of more and more legislation with regard to people practices,
HR took on the role of labour manager (O’Donnell et al., 2019). The policy era
contribution can be described as the effective and efficient management of people
risks in an attempt to avoid legal disruption. Operational functions such as payroll
also became more complex as factories and workplaces started to formalise and HR
was a critical contributor towards ensuring compliance with law and legislation
(Arfyanti, 2021).
The post-war period gave rise to the practice and process era. In this era, the role
of HR was largely associated with traditional personnel management, with the
establishment of operational practices associated with the management of the work-
force (Doaei & Najminia, 2012; Storey, 1996). Hiring practices, psychometric
Fig. 4.2 The evolution of the HR role and its contribution to the workplace. (Source: Adapted
from Vosburgh (2007) and Ramlall (2009))
assessments, employee assistance programmes and labour relations are all practices
that find their roots in this era, as the workplace required HR functions to move
beyond the traditional policy domain. Policy remained important and this era also
introduced a more focused approach with regard to process and the efficient execu-
tion of personnel matters. HR was largely measured in terms of risk mitigation,
efficiency in practices and the ability to support the business in a cost-effective man-
ner (Meijerink et al., 2013; Maatman & Meijerink, 2017). As the talent market
started to evolve, the practice era started to also focus more on talent management,
the development of skills and the management of performance (Sparrow, 2019;
Cappelli & Keller, 2017). As these practices started to mature, the role of HR shifted
towards more holistic HR management, which viewed the role of HR from an
organisational perspective aimed at achieving a designated organisational objective.
Employees were largely viewed as components of a larger system and standardisa-
tion, consistency and efficiency regarding practices would lead to better outcomes.
The world of work during this era largely promoted the idea of life-long employ-
ment, and the post-war depression created a generation focused on stability and
predictability. During this time, once someone had secured employment, they were
committed for life, with most employees receiving the metaphorical golden watch
at the end of their career of service with just one or two employers.
The work by David Ulrich in the early 2000s proposed a revised positioning of
the HR function (Becker et al., 2001; Brockbank & Ulrich, 2009; Ulrich et al.,
2008). The role of strategic partner was introduced with an instrumental focus on
the business impact of the HR function and the ability to translate business ambi-
tions into HR solutions and value-add (Saleh et al., 2015). Herein, HR is described
in four designated roles of equal importance that HR professionals need to play at
different times (Ulrich & Beatty, 2001):
• Strategic partner: Ensure the success of the business by aligning HR strategy
with business priorities
• Change agent: Manage transformation and change and ensure the capacity for
change to occur exists
• Administrative expert: Build the efficient infrastructure required to implement
people processes and manage risk
• Employee champion: Listening to the employees and increase engagement
At an organisational level, this model remains popular in most medium to large
organisations and explicitly focused on three functional domains of expertise as
shown in Fig. 4.3 (adapted from Ingham, 2019; Boatman, n.d.; CIPD, 2015).
Centres of excellence focus on specialist functions and are intended to provide
domain expertise across the organisation. Administrative services focus on efficient
service delivery and process optimisation, while the business partnering component
acts in a generalist capacity in the business. The three components are integrated
strategically and aligned in terms of an overarching people strategy. The model has
been adopted with varying measures of success. Critics of the model mention that
the model increases bureaucracy, that business partners are often overwhelmed in
terms of priorities, and that the model has a high dependency on technology and
Fig. 4.3 Example of an HR operating model based upon the Ulrich model. (Source: Adapted from
Ingham (2019), Boatman (n.d) and CIPD (2015))
requires high levels of standardisation to be effective (Saleh et al., 2015). On the

other end of the spectrum, organisations that have been willing to embark on a jour-
ney of HR transformation have seen a significant shift in maturity of their people
practices (Weiss, 2016).
The past few years have seen a shift with the rise of employee experience and
engagement practices as core to the HR responsibility (Plaskoff, 2017; Morgan,
2017). The employee experience era has the potential to usher in a new type of HR
organisation that views the employee from a consumerist perspective (Itam &
Ghosh, 2020). The role of digital as not only a means of effectiveness but rather as
a platform to create engaging employee experiences have resulted in a fundamental
shifting approach of HR practices (Shenoy & Uchil, 2018). In this new approach,
HR is seen as the architects and custodians of internal employee experience propo-
sitions while continuing to balance the traditional roles of administrative expert and
people risk advisor. This role does not imply a movement away from business part-
nering, but rather contributing towards the partnering relationship from a different
perspective. Strategically, HR has had to make various changes in the contextual
role that it plays within the organisation and how the chosen delivery model needs
to align with the organisational context. Figure 4.4 shows an example of strategic
decisions that HR needs to make in its role within the organisation and how its con-
tribution will be articulated in the employee experience era. The red marks indicate
the impact of choices made and how this influences the positioning of each function
within the organisation:
In this example, the HR organisation will enable a highly decentralised business
with a majority of employees being office-bound. This implies an on-site presence
for HR while also bringing in different business unit context to the function. In this
Fig. 4.4 Strategic choices that influence the HR delivery model and contribution. (Source:
Authors’ own compilation)
model, the HR business partner role will reside within the business and operate as
part of a business unit while also belonging to an HR discipline. Technology will be
utilised to drive a strong self-service environment with the human interaction
focused on specialist moments that matter or as an advisory role to employees as
well as leaders. The focus will shift towards viewing the consumer of HR solutions
as employees and not only focusing on leaders and managers. Technology will be
balanced between in-house solutions and leading providers with service delivery
balancing standardisation for scale, while also aiming to personalise individual
employee experience as part of the employee journey. The HR function will have a
strong balance between generalist skills and specialised capabilities and as such will
have a strong focus on some of the more transformational HR practices usually
associated with the organisational development domain.
These choices will all influence how HR operates, what the expectation from the
function should be and how its contribution will be measured. There is no right or
wrong answer to these choices, but HR should aim to answer these within the con-
text of their business, its maturity and need from a people function and the available
resources to execute on the chosen model. Regardless of the choices made, tradi-
tional practices are still relevant, yet the focus should shift towards balancing
employee needs with organisational outcomes. HR has traditionally been seen either
as employee advocate, manager advisor or organisational protector; yet the new
world of work will require something entirely different. In the new employee experi-
ence era, the role of digital business advisor and employee well-being advocate will
become more important as new delivery models emerge (Carnevale & Hatak, 2020).
HR has to acquire a more employee-centric approach in a time when traditional
functional lines have become blurred. Today, HR aims to focus on end-to-end solu-
tions that go beyond functional expertise (Ramchandani & Singh, 2020; Kalla,
2020; Mahadevan & Schmitz, 2020). As discussed earlier, employees have become
consumers of services, and it is the role of HR to design workplace practices that
engage the employee as a consumer and meet their expectations in the modern
workplace. This will require significant shifts as indicated in Fig. 4.5.
The focus of this approach implies that the contribution of HR moves from
achieving efficiency and effectiveness of processes, to rather creating engagement
and experiences for employees. The utilisation of technology shifts to enabling
memorable moments through integrated technology platforms that is the product
and not just the mechanism of delivery, while seeing employees not just as recipi-
ents of services but rather as consumers of a product.
If these principles are adopted, it will usher in a new era for HR focused on the
human experience and provide immense opportunities to radically alter the contri-
bution of the field to the future world of work.
dopting an Employee Experience Design Approach Towards

A
People Practices That Views the Employee as a Consumer
As positioned earlier, the experience-based approach will require HR to re-evaluate

how traditional practices are designed and operationalised. The previous HR era
was largely based on a process-oriented design methodology (Shafagatova & Van
Looy, 2021) that aimed to answer the following questions:
• What do we need to deliver?
• What are the steps involved?
• How do we do this efficiently?
• Where does this need to take place?
Fig. 4.5 Shifts required in applying employee-centric practice. (Source: Authors’ own

compilation)
• When does it need to happen?

• How can technology be used to drive efficiency and scale?
These questions are still important, but the consumerist approach demands a dif-
ferent starting point, placing the employee experience at the core of the design pro-
cess. The consumerist approach seeks answers to the following questions:
• Why is this experience important?
• Who is the consumer of this experience?
• What do they want to achieve from this experience?
• How do we deliver this experience?
• What should we improve based on their feedback?
By evaluating these questions as part of the design process, a new employee
experience methodology emerges that is based on a deeper level of understanding
the needs, wants and desires of the employee as consumer. While focused on the
employee, this approach also effectively delivers the organisational outcomes asso-
ciated with positive employee experiences, which allows organisations to adapt sus-
tainably and remain competitive in attracting, engaging and retaining talent.
Techniques borrowed from design-thinking and consumer psychology become
important perspectives in applying this type of approach, as the focus is no longer
only on the process and the ‘what’; but rather to also consider the ‘why’ and the
‘who’ (Pande & Bharathi, 2020; Buchanan, 2004). This requires an outside-in
design approach that starts with the consumer. Applying this methodology to HR
leads to a significant shift in how the employee lifecycle is designed and how HR
solutions need to be delivered at every step. The stages of the lifecycle no longer
focus on traditional HR processes in a linear sequence, but rather describe the
intended employee outcome which comprises multiple interactions and touchpoints,
with HR as one of the key players to shape the experience. Figure 4.6 provides an
overview of how the employee lifecycle will be articulated differently based on this
approach adapted from Graham and Isaac (2002), Zhang and Chang (2020) as well
as Cattermole (2019):
Fig. 4.6 The consumerist employee experience design approach towards the employee lifecycle.
(Source: Authors’ own compilation)
While the traditional employee lifecycle will start with the attraction and recruit-
ment of talent, the consumerist experience approach starts with the awareness of
prospective talent within the external marketplace. This implies a more significant
focus on aspects such as the employer brand, talent segmentation and the engage-
ment of talent through various physical and digital platforms. The starting point for
effective awareness is knowing who the consumer audience is, what matters to them
and what their preferred interaction channels are. In this approach, narrative and
perception is important and interactions with the employer brand is carefully crafted,
measured and adapted over time through a variety of channels tailored to the audi-
ence. This approach positions talent into consumer segments which share similar
needs and characteristics as opposed to only viewing talent as potential skills. There
are multiple decision-points that lead talent to the ‘buying decision’, and authentic
employer brand visibility plays a critical role in influencing a prospective employee
to make the decision to join the organisation.
After the decision to join an organisation, the traditional lifecycle would shift
towards on-boarding, engagement, development, performance, rewards, retention,
growth and exit as employees move through the usual lifecycle phases within the
constraints of the organisational context. Instead, the consumerist approach focuses
on building consumer/employee loyalty by providing experiences that consumers
want to engage in from an employee perspective – whether this be careers, rewards,
or growth, within the context of the holistic human being (outside of the organisa-
tional constraints). The consumerist approach tries to build loyalty to avoid ‘losing’
talent, and as such continuously engages with the consumer and aims to provide a
voice for consumers to engage with the employer. This is done through various
means but ultimately leads to an iterative approach of optimising and designing new
experiences, based on a first-hand understanding of the consumer. This consumerist

approach aims to make employees ambassadors for their brand and highlights lived
experiences or testimonials of what it is like to work for the organisation as an
authentic representation of its employee (i.e. consumer) value proposition. When
employees exit the organisation, the consumerist approach aims to establish and
nurture a lasting connection over time, through initiatives such as alumni communi-
ties, thereby acknowledging the influence of brand ambassadors along with the
option that exiting employees may return to the organisation as employees or clients
in the future.
To demonstrate this approach practically, the next section will utilise a consum-
erist experience methodology to redesign a traditional talent acquisition process and
highlight the differences in perspective. The organisation that forms the setting for
this case study is a multi-national insurance organisation with operations across
Africa, the United Kingdom and India. As part of a revised people strategy, the
organisation adopted a consumerist experience approach towards people practices,
which was referred to as the #thinkhumanfirst journey.
ase Study: Rethinking the Talent Acquisition Approach

C
From a Consumerist Perspective
The following model shown in Fig. 4.7 was created to practically define the con-
sumer experience as it relates to the people practices within the organisation.
Fig. 4.7 The consumerist design process. (Source: Authors’ own compilation)
Defining the ‘Why’ for the Consumer and the Organisation
This process started with the definition of the ‘why’ to gain better insights into why
the talent attraction experience matters to both the organisation and the potential
consumer. The organisation realised that the current perception of its employer
brand in the consumer market was not favourable, with the brand being largely
unidentifiable and not differentiated from other employer brands. The lack of visi-
bility impacted the ability of the organisation to attract potential consumers and low
engagement on external talent platforms resulted in limited traction for recruitment
efforts. Internal data further highlighted a fragmented and labour-intensive experi-
ence once consumers engaged with the organisation, resulting in often disgruntled
experiences and a noticeable loss of trust between consumers and the organisation.
Moreover, the inability to provide real-time feedback and act quickly resulted in a
less than optimal experience that influenced the decision of whether consumers
wanted to engage with the organisation going forward. Based on these insights, the
organisation determined the following:
• Talent acquisition plays a critical role in creating a positive and engaging con-
sumer experience, as this influences the buying decision of potential consumers.
• There are multiple, emotive touchpoints that impact and shape the consumer
experience as well as the psychological contract and expectations that should be
considered.
• Disjointed processes and technology results in less than desirable consumer
experiences, which either leads to consumers opting out or to the organisation
losing access to critical and scarce talent pools.
In summary, the definition of the ‘why’ for both the consumer and the organisa-
tion can be defined as follows:
• For potential consumers: Consumers want to engage with a prospective employer
that engages with them as human beings in a positive, professional, and always-
on experience that will influence their desire to make the ‘buying’ decision
to join;
• For the organisation: Organisations need to reposition their employer brand to
target-specific consumer segments to become an attractive and appealing choice
among a multitude of options, thus enabling and improving their access to criti-
cal talent pools.
Understanding Who We Need to Design for
Once the ‘why’ has been understood, the organisation created personas that influ-
enced the design. Personas can be based on a variety of criteria depending on the
context of the organisation, e.g. demographical information, location or life stage.
For this organisation, the agreed-upon persona criteria were based on the following:
• Importance and scarcity of skills aligned to business strategy: This led to the
definition of two distinct talent segments to target;
• Consumer need and requirements: This led to the creation of persona profiles
that fall within this particular segment as a focus point.
The organisation utilised both quantitative and qualitative data to build these
personas and to better understand how they interacted with organisations, what they
wanted from work and how employers played into that expectation. Information
was also gathered from within the organisation of similar profiles to better under-
stand what attracted them to the organisation and what makes them stay; or in the
consumerist sense, what makes them loyal to the brand and the experience. Various
data sources were utilised to build and validate these profiles to ensure that no bias
or assumptions were made in the definition of these profiles’ wants, needs and
desires.
In summary, the ‘who’ was defined as follows:
• Two designated consumer segments with a particular skill crucial to business
success;
• Persona profiles were created that described the consumer within these segments
and the best means to engage and interact through channels that are suited to this
type of consumer, as well as the messaging that aligns to what matters most
to them.
Designing the ‘What’: Defining the Touchpoints of Engagement
The next step was to define the various interaction points with the consumer along
the talent acquisition process. The organisation utilised data and focus groups to
define moments that mattered based on ‘what we want consumers to think, feel, and
do’ during every step of the process, describing the desired experiences of each step.
These touchpoints were articulated in an experience map that was utilised to con-
sciously design the experiences for the consumer and what the desired experience
outcomes were for every interaction. For the talent acquisition practice, the desig-
nated touch points were defined as: (1) brand awareness; (2) interaction; (3) career
decision and (4) connection, engagement and empowerment.
Designing the ‘How’: Interactions and Points of Engagement
The ‘how’ entailed the design of process, systems and human interactions for each
touchpoint aligned to the desired consumer experience, to understand how the
desired experiences are shaped. This also included an evaluation of the physical vs.
digital engagement channels to be utilised, aligned to the preferences of the
designated consumer persona as well as the biggest impact on the desired experi-
ence. This step enabled an understanding of the practical implications for processes
and systems that would require certain decisions and prioritisation in bringing the
experiences to life. Digital channels were complemented with human interactions
focused to optimise the experience of the consumer at designated decision points.
Language played a critical role to articulate the experience and bring the desired
memorable moments to life.
This fourth step also included the design of consumer voice measures at each
interaction point to better understand the consumer experience. These insights were
utilised as part of the review, revise and realign process of continuous design that
informed the persona experiences.
Table 4.3 highlights how this approach resulted in a significant shift in how the
organisation approached the talent acquisition process. Even though the practice
phases remained the same when compared to the traditional process, the consumer-
ist approach resulted in a revised approach towards implementation:
This revised approach has already resulted in a more favourable consumer expe-
rience evidenced through the following:
• Greater brand awareness through feedback from consumers and social media
followers
• Significantly higher engagement on social media by these particular talent
segments
• Consideration of our organisation as a potential future employer, through the
number of job views, application rates as well as views of lived experiences thor-
ough social media feeds and designated social media pages
• Increased access to targeted talent pools, with increased quality and quantity of
applications and the positioning of the organisation as an employer of choice
within the external market
Implications for the Future of Work
The fourth industrial revolution and a post-pandemic world will fundamentally

change how, where and when people work. Organisations need to remain competi-
tive in a changing talent market where the psychological contract has fundamentally
shifted and employees expect more from employers than ever before; a fully revised
approach towards people practices is required. As our world of work evolves, the
role and contribution of HR has to evolve along with it. The on-demand consumer-
driven world sets the tone and the expectations for how employees want to engage
with their employer. This also provides an immense opportunity for HR leaders and
organisations courageous enough to take the next bold step to incorporate consumer-
focused and design thinking approaches into their employee experiences.
Table 4.3 Shifts in traditional stages of attraction and recruitment
70
Practice phase Shift from traditional… …to Consumerist approaches that…

Brand Reactive sourcing Proactive sourcing through multiple channels Investment in social media strategies to promote an
awareness through career portals Employer branding strategy employer brand
Internal marketplace to tap into internal skills Building of an internal talent portal to improve the
visibility of internal opportunities
Interaction Generic job adverts and Personalised and realistic job previews Enablement of triggers on our core ERP system to
inconsistent candidate Clear visibility of lived experiences communicate with candidates during every step of the
feedback Technology enablement candidate communication process
that ensures transparency and efficiency in the process Capturing employee stories to demonstrate our EVP
Selection Face-to-face interviews Virtual and AI-powered interviews Implement asynchronous interview methods and use of
and step-by-step Multiple hurdles upfront to slim down the funnel video-technologies
progression Meaningful feedback Digitisation of the psychometric assessment process to
create efficiencies and deploy assessments at various
stages of selection
Career decision Offer letter and Career offer and EVP consideration Broader EVP attraction and visibility
transactional process Mutual ‘opting in’ Digital candidate portal to facilitate the offer process
Digital process electronically
Connection Traditional induction Connection with the team, line manager, and Clearly articulating the role of line managers in the
process focused on organisation through multiple engagements, all onboarding process and creating visibility through a
inducting the employee facilitated through a digital platform line manager dashboard
to the organisation Experience measure to enable agile responses to Voice of the employee pulses to measure the
challenges onboarding experience
Engagement & Onboarding process Digitally facilitated process to enable organisational Development of an on-boarding portal as a central hub
empowerment focused on transactional learning, empower line managers and provide a for all new employees to manage their onboarding
elements, such as goal real-time overview of individual progress and journey – ranging from digital form completion and
setting, measurement challenges access to important information, to compulsory
and time-to-productivity Focus on engaging the employee through channels trainings and team interactions
that they use and prefer to empower them with easily Voice of the employee pulses to measure the
accessible and relevant on-demand information onboarding experience
Experience measures along the journey to enable
D. Veldsman and M. van der Merwe
agile responses to challenges

Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter was to propose a shift in paradigm when applying
employee-centric principles to designing HR practices. This chapter positioned a
shift in approach for HR practitioners as human experience architects and proposed
a new design approach for HR practice. This chapter also applied this approach to
the talent acquisition practice, yet further work is required to apply this method
across the HR value chain with regard to practices such as reward, performance and
development.
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Dieter Veldsman is an organisational psychologist with a passion for HR. He has

over 13+ years of experience across the HR value chain and lifecycle, having
worked for and consulted with various multi-national corporations in Europe, Asia
and Africa. He has held the positions of CHRO, Organisational Effectiveness
Executive and Organisational Design and Development Principal. He is a regular
speaker at international conferences and industry panels on HR, Future of Work and
Organisational Development. To date, he has participated in more than 50+ of these
events. He is passionate about the development of the profession and guest lectures
at various institutions while also holding the position of Senior Research Associate
at the University of Johannesburg. He has contributed to 25+ peer-reviewed articles
and book chapters. He was awarded the CHRO of the year title by the CHRO Society
of South Africa for 2021 and has also won HR Strategy and Leadership, HR
Technology and HR Innovation awards from various institutions. He was also rec-
ognised as the Practitioner of the Year by the Society of Industrial and Organisational
Psychology of South Africa in 2018.
Marna van der Merwe is an Organisational Psychologist and Senior Professional

Services Consultant at SHL. She has extensive experience in Human Resources,
Organisational Effectiveness and Strategic Talent Management. Her research areas
of interest are in the talent management domain, specifically the evolution of talent
management in the 4IR, experience design as well as the changing nature of careers
within this context. Marna holds a Master’s degree in Organisational Psychology.
Chapter 5
Novel Tools as New Challenges to HRM
Communicational Practices
(and the Increasingly Important Social
Role of the Manager)
Marta Szeluga-Romanska and Anna Modzelewska
Introduction
At the time of the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, multiple governments were

forced to introduce activities to prevent the spreading of the coronavirus, through
social and economic restrictions (Kraus et al., 2020; Skuza et al., 2021). This influ-
enced the life of the citizens as well as impacted the economy (Baker et al., 2020).
The Eurostat (2020) report proves no aspect of economic or social life is immune to
the pandemic-induced crisis. Every human being reacts to the isolation and threat-
specific situations in a different way, which should be taken into account in human
resource management (HRM) processes. All this is definitely linked to the individ-
ual intellectual predispositions, character traits, age, education, life expectations
and experience (Griffin, 2003). The pandemic is accompanied by fear for oneself
and the closest people, as well as uncertainty as to the future. There has also been a
rise in fake news count, both on the national and international level, leading to the
emergence of the notion of ‘infodemics’ (Popiołek et al., 2021; Du Vall & Majorek,
2020), understood as enormous abundance of information flow, where it becomes
very difficult (sometimes impossible) to select confirmed information from misin-
formation, or disinformation. The situation translated directly to the raised level of
stress of employees from across the industry branches (Zhang et al., 2020; Scott
et al., 2020), the emergence of fears, insomnia and symptoms of depression (Torales
et al., 2020), as well as susceptibility of abuse of stimulants and increased patho-
logical behaviours (Continetti, 2020).
M. Szeluga-Romanska (*)
Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
e-mail: msr@zie.pg.gda.pl
A. Modzelewska
Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
e-mail: anna.modzelewska@uj.edu.pl

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_5
76 M. Szeluga-Romanska and A. Modzelewska
Organisation managers needed to take responsibility through decisions related to

HRM and work organising taking into account the sanitary restrictions and creating
a safe workspace, most usually selecting one of the following three strategies
(Tagliaro & Migliore, 2021):
1 . Work from the office all the time – traditional way of working;
2. Work-from-home all the time – teleworking;
3. Multi-location work across time and space.
Even though before the pandemic a number of HRM processes applied modern
technologies, such as social media to boost various HRM functions, including
recruitment, onboarding, training and development (Kluemper et al., 2016), the
pandemic introduced the need to boost the use of new technologies and communica-
tion platforms, thus limiting personal and direct interpersonal relations.
Problem Statement and Objectives of This Chapter
The aim of this chapter is to follow the changes and challenges that the pandemic
situation brought to the organisational communication. The question which was
formulated for this study was: what changes in organisational communication were
brought by the pandemic?
The specific questions were: how did the transition of the majority of areas of
social and professional life (including HRM) into the online realm influenced
organisations? How did communication processes within organisational cultures
alter under the influence of the omnipresent intense use of remote tools? What new
challenges were set before the managers?
The answers to the research questions come from qualitative studies of 2012–2020
on the influence of communication on the practices of management and HRM pro-
cess changes.
Background
The process of communication is, for all humans, quite a similar activity to breath-
ing – everyone is engaged in it with not much reflection and not much preparation
or training. Its quality can be obviously different, as well as the results, when one is
more aware of its rules and general meaning. Novinger (2001, p. 4) claims ‘We can-
not not communicate’. We ought to realise that communication is built not just by
words we say but constitutes a whole complex system of behaviours (see, e.g.
Watzlawick & Beavin, 1967). It is also worth emphasising that communication is
always rooted deeply ‘in the matrix of culture’ (Novinger, 2001, p. 3) which is – as
also Mary Jo Hatch (2002) claims – dynamic.
5 Novel Tools as New Challenges to HRM Communicational Practices… 77
Managerial roles usually require permanent and much more intensive communi-
cational activity, both in symbolic and strictly practical meaning, than any other role
in an organisation (Barnard, 1997). Due to the multiple tasks to fulfil, the managers
appear to be at the intersection of several internal (among the employees) and exter-
nal (among the employees and the external environment) communicational flows.
All the managerial roles are deeply emerged within the mutual influence of sur-
rounding demands and elaborate organisational communication, both strongly set-
tled within the cultural context in all kinds of organisations.
None of the human resources management practices, seen as, e.g. motivating,
assessment, development, work organisation, strengthening the organisational cul-
ture and building relations between staff and the managers (Konstanty &
Modzelewska, 2014) would be possible without communication. It always forms
the first step before any other action, especially one demanding cooperation.
Communication within an organisation is often seen as a key HRM process (García-
Carbonell et al., 2018). Aligning HRM and communication is a key to achieving
true involvement and an improvement in the finances, or employee motivation of an
organisation (Bayerlein & Gailey, 2005).
Managers need to become the best communicators and provide reliable informa-
tion on the organisation’s goals, policies, systems and practices, based on the six
rules from Bayerlein and Gailey (2005, p.33):
• ‘Build communication as an integrated system connected to the business strategy.
• Provide clarity, information and inspiration to connect heads, hands, hearts
and minds.
• Use communication as a leadership alignment tool.
• Establish strategic communication competencies for leaders, managers and
supervisors.
• Analyze information flow to provide neutral, objective perspectives on criti-
cal issues.
• Move faster than the speed of change’.
Communication in HRM processes is of high importance for the support of
organisational strategy, strengthening of the organisational culture, building involve-
ment and supporting interpersonal relations among staff and staff involvement in
the HRM processes (Griffin, 2003). Communication processes are also vital for the
HRM processes during the pandemic. On the one hand, they are usually the first
step towards realisation of any HRM practices like motivation, evaluation and
onboarding, supporting the management decisions and actions. But on the other
hand, they gained even more importance as the pandemic generated new problems
(e.g. psychological, but also organisational) and communication had to be fluently
adjusted to new demands so as to support usual managerial decisions and actions to
make the organisation operate as ‘normally’ as possible.
Organisation, Its Culture and Communication
Mary Jo Hatch (2002) claims that modern organisations can be introduced as inter-
imposing spheres of culture (a unique mixture of participants’ norms, values, expec-
tations, willingness to work, health, dedication, etc.), physical structures (the
organisational core divisions of the material places for work), technology (all the
tools that need to be used to make the organisation operate), and social structures
(the organisational core divisions of the roles and duties) that exist in a very specific
background, also creating it at the same time. All those four elements have common
spheres. It means that they are inter-connected but, looking at it from a wider per-
spective, that no of the issues, ideas, theories come from the intellectual vacuum and
have no connection to some previously known and shared issues, ideas or theories.
Such a perspective allows to understand multidimensional world of organisations.
In recent years, the increasing number of areas of our lives are becoming more
and more organised – starting with work and ending with leisure time, e.g. holidays
(see: Kostera, 2003; Rizter, 2003). When we are born, we immediately become
members of several organisations at once, playing there later very different and
sometimes excluding roles (e.g. the role of a dedicated employee and an engaged
parent – staying overtime can be even impossible in that situation). The American
sociologist Amitai Etzioni (1964) thinks that we leave a great part of our life in
organisations (not just those connected to our jobs). Other sociologists (e.g. Smith
& Preston, 1977) think that people cooperate in groups to achieve goals – financial
profits and non-financial, like environment protection. What differentiates the
organisations is not just their aim, but also the size or ownership (Kostera, 2003).
That means we can split the organisations into obligation-driven and voluntary
ones, and the latter can then be divided into formal (which are based on norms and
regulations; the relations that appear within them are rather official, instrumental
and formal); and informal organisations, based on social relations and emotions,
where the structure has less meaning but the information spreads within informal
relations of liking and disliking. In each type of organisation, we can identify sev-
eral forms of communication (e.g. verbal and non-verbal, horizontal and vertical,
oral and written), although the dominant character of the organisation imposes the
dominant communicational practices.
Organisational Culture
As Monika Kostera (2003) writes, culture enables communicational processes

because it is based on the symbols. Moreover, culture seems to be a kind of a
medium that assists people in understanding the world. There have been deep
changes appearing in perception of culture over the years. According to Susan
Wright (1994), the modern perspective perceives culture as an active process of
sensemaking (Krzyworzeka, 2008, p.185), which is hegemonic, the places are not
frozen; the people use their several relations on different levels with different groups.
If we agree with Smircich (1983), we would treat each organisation as a distinct

culture which is usually non-monolithic and ambiguous, and possesses its specific
features that make it different from others – they are visible artefacts (Jo Hatch,
2002), like the patterns of communication, assumptions, values, symbols, rituals,
tales or taboos. And the people always build their own groups (and their cultures)
through symbols. They can move, and change places within, and also emphasising
its unique character (cf. Czarniawska-Joerges, 1992; Geertz, 2005).
Communication
Several social concepts can be perceived either statically or dynamically. Karl

Weick (1979) claims that ‘the image of organizations that we prefer is one which
argues that organizations keep falling apart and that they require chronic rebuilding.
Processes continually need to be reaccomplished. Consistent with the process
image, organizing can be thought of as a set of recipes for connecting episodes of
social interaction in an orderly manner. These episodes, later to be called inter-
locked cycles, constitute the ingredients that are made orderly by organizing reci-
pes’ (Ibidem, pp. 44–45). Such perspective is based on the three examples of those
recipes: enactment, selection and retention. Enactment means separating a part of
organisational experiences for the future, the selection level implies a defined range
of interpretations into the bracketed material, and retention establishes the inter-
preted parts for further usage.
This processual perspective is widely exploited in this chapter and refers to most
of the appearing social phenomena. It includes also organisational communication.
From Latin, the word ‘communication’ meant literally ‘participation’, ‘creating
a community’ (Novinger, 2001). Some of the later definitions emphasised its rather
utilitarian character and summarised it as the transmission of information from the
sender to the receiver (Griffin, 2003). Bruno Ollivier (2010) perceives and explains
communication as the co-existence of three interrelated facets:
• Technical (meaning the form of the communication, how we communicate)
• Linguistic (the content, what we communicate)
• Social (basically, social relations among the people who communicate)
Organisations and Communication
Joann Keyton (2005) wrote that an organisation emerges within and in favour of
communicational processes that permanently happen there. She defines the organ-
isation as a ‘dynamic system of organizational members, influenced by external
stakeholders, who communicate within and across organizational structures in a
purposeful and ordered way to achieve a superordinate goal’ (Keyton, 2005,
pp. 10–11). The researcher does not define the organisation by its size, aim or struc-
tures but by its linguistic properties that reside in its internal and external communi-
cation interdependencies (Ibidem p. 10).
She wrote that an organisation is a dynamic, flexible and interactional system
created by its participants. Also, the external world influences the organisation and
the organisation’s members communicate within its structures in an ordered and
purposeful way to achieve the common goal. Keyton claims that even if the organ-
isation changes its place of residence or replaces the old participants by new ones –
it will not disappear or become destroyed, because an organisation is ‘essentially a
patterned set of discourses that at some point in time were created by the members
and codified into norms and practices that are later inherited, accepted, and adapted
to by newcomers’ (Keyton, 2005). An organisation’s participants also change it on
daily basis with their own specific ways of communication – verbal and non-verbal,
electronic, written, communicating both with internal and external stakeholders.
And each communicational flow can have real consequences, no matter if it is inten-
tional or spontaneous (Keyton, 2005). Her concept echoes the one described by Karl
Weick (above). It also found its confirmation in recent pandemic. The old commu-
nicational system, tools or solutions became outdated in a short period of time. They
were efficient before, but the sudden situation demanded rapid changes to make to
communication well-working again. It means that immediately the forms of com-
munication (just as Ollivier, 2010, perceived them – described above) had to be
adjusted to the new work reality with its all consequences. Changed technical aspect
led to share the linguistic aspect, but the question arose – how it influenced the
social relations? We would like to propose some suggestions further.
Managerial Roles
Each manager, irrespective of their place in the organisational structure, daily rou-
tines, self-perception or being perceived by co-workers, must communicate both
with internal organisational stakeholders and with the external world. On the one
hand, it is obvious – all people communicate permanently (although the results can
be different), on the other hand, it is well recognised that to communicate efficiently
there are some prerequisite skills and/or abilities. Thus, communication becomes an
obstacle to playing organisational managerial roles and presents a challenge. Some
initial observations and conclusions related to efficiency in communication appeared
already in classical management sources (see: Barnard, 1997). Practitioners as well
as academics were aware that in the communicational processes of an organisation,
the manager plays the most responsible functions in each dimension of their social
role (Szeluga-Romańska, 2014). The manager, obviously, as well as the other inter-
nal stakeholders of the organisation, is settled strongly in its culture and reacts to
changes within it. That means permanent reproduction of the same processes with
addition of inevitable changes which are sometimes stronger, sometimes less visi-
ble. But in contrast to the other organisation members, the manager has symbolic
power and if they also have awareness of the organisation and know how to put this
awareness into practice, they are more efficient than the managers without such
qualities (Jo Hatch, 2002). The manager undergoes the same, permanent processes
as the culture they are a part of. In a sense, they are the reproducers of the processes.
Mats Alvesson (2002) observed that the managers are better understood in organisa-
tions when they are transmitters of the culture (and not those who make changes in
it). But as communication is obviously a solid part of the culture, also in this sphere
the manager becomes the most influential person in an organisation. Using the
informative function of all communicational tools, they have to introduce and
implement established strategy, organisational politics or HRM practices, present
the established norms and rules. They also have to inform the subordinates about the
most important aims to follow and the means of strategy delivery. In those situa-
tions, excellent communicational skills are desirable, like fluency in interpreting
and explaining difficult information clearly and directly. Bruno Ollivier (2010) calls
them technical skills and such a vision of dominant communication usage – instru-
mental (Ollivier, 2010, p. 345). Those technical communicational skills play an
important explanatory role. The more fluent the manager is in them, the better and
faster to organisation absorbs the new information, e.g. in such dynamic times as we
have in pandemic.
On the other hand, the manager is also a creator of organisational culture ele-
ments and some communicational patterns as well. Together with the patterns of
communication, they also perform the patterns of behaviour – e.g. they set the bor-
der between formal and informal spheres in organisational culture, to limited degree
they dictate their ways of building relationships and create different kinds of rela-
tionships (Fig. 5.1). Managerial role as a creator is mostly to overcome the crises
and also to enable the updating the enterprise activity regularly (Ollivier, 2010),
which appeared extremely important in pandemic times.
Key managerial functions are invariable since Henry Fayol’s times – this means
planning, organising, controlling, coordinating and ordering (Fayol, 1916;
Mintzberg, 2009).
But, as Monika Kostera (2008) proposes, management should be perceived
holistically – as a mixture of both technical and social aspects, moreover, as a social
practice that appeared in specified social and cultural conditions. Similarly, to
management (understood as a socio-cultural practice), the communicational pro-
cesses cannot be perceived differently than in the context of organisational culture:
MANAGER
REPRODUCER CREATOR
Source: Szeluga-Romańska, 2014, p. 211.
Fig. 5.1 The role of a manager in organisations. (Source: Szeluga-Romańska, 2014, p. 211)
as social, linguistic and technical integrity (Ollivier, 2010). In such a perspective, it

becomes possible to understand both phenomena in their multidimensional
characters.
Our post-modern reality is filled with different organisations and thus manage-
ment is becoming an everyday necessity for an increasing number of people who
function in absolutely different work environments and have miscellaneous duties
(Mintzberg, 2009; Kostera, 2010). Even if a job position is called similarly in differ-
ent organisations, the duties can have nothing in common. “The greatest difficulty
of our times is not finding out what managers do, interpreting it is” (Mintzberg,
2009, p.1). That means that the ways we use the means and tools to deliver known
aims can be different and demand having wide, deep experience in functioning in
particular organisations. That is the reason why many practitioners and also aca-
demics claim that it is impossible to learn how to be a manager theoretically, using
standard procedures, schematic algorithms, or any other ‘perfect tools’. There are
no always-and-ever-working recipes for management. In other words – there is no
one and only way of behaving, problem-solving, cooperating with other people – as
Frederick Taylor saw it at the beginning of the twentieth century. Modern defini-
tions of managerial roles in organisations can be called processual (as Karl Weick
claims), that try to follow permanent changes in surrounding environment, or even
to predict or overtake them (see: Kostera, 2008; Mintzberg, 2009) – if possible.
Also in the other spheres of social life where people play several roles, these are
mostly played simultaneously (e.g. public, professional as well as private roles).
They are deeply rooted in cultural context which is read and understood by the actor
and by the audience (Kostera, 2003). Each role entails different expectations. As
Erving Goffman (1959) claims, the information how to define the situation, what is
expected by particular audience is gathered by the actor before the role is played. It
is also crucial to know how to behave to provoke the desired reaction.
When one decides to start playing a particular role, they also agree to undertake
several duties, tasks, patterns of behaviour, and acknowledge the whole motiva-
tional system of rewards and punishments that is attached to the role (Kostera,
1996). Playing the role is not just subjective but also has an intersubjective character
(Czarniawska-Joerges, 1992), which means that even if one takes up an already
shaped role, they can change/improve/develop it because social roles are ‘a part of
sense-making process and social culture process’ (Kostera, 1996, p. 126).1
According to Monika Kostera (1996), a manager fluctuates among three dimen-
sions of their social managerial role: societal, professional and organisational.
Societal dimension means dominant scripts of the role, professional dimension is
building the role by the managers and organisational dimension are the places for
role playing – theatres-organisations (Kostera, 1996).
This concept clearly shows that each managerial role is inevitably connected to
all the other organisational roles, played by other co-participants. There must be
followers to give sense to the leadership (as Mintzberg – 2009 - claims). In HRM
See also: Berger and Luckman (1966/1983).

1
practices the mutual influence is observable at each and every level – starting with
the organisational strategy preparation, its implementation and updating; within on-
boarding processes when both sides’ aims have been agreed upon, etc. Just to men-
tion again, communication in HRM practices is an important first step towards
connecting several, sometimes mutually excluding expectations to make the
employees go together towards the same organisational aim(s).
Research Design
The research was a qualitative one, multileveled, inspired to great extent by organ-
isational ethnography. We used several research methods: in-depth, anthropological
interviews, non-participant and participant observations, focus group meetings.
According to the rules of conducting interesting but still proper qualitative research,
we have been exploring the themes openly, attempting to follow the emerging plots
and different perspectives (Ochinowski & Szeluga-Romańska, 2020; Kostera,
2010). We had no hypotheses adopted, so as not to be influenced by any expected
result, trying to remain on the research grounds as long as possible and absorb its
specificity with all our senses. In ethnographic studies, an interview is one of the
key tools for collecting empirical material (Kostera & Modzelewska, 2021). An
interview is a driven conversation, where both sides acknowledge and accept its
form (Czarniawska, 2002). In our study, we have used varied interview types – in-
depth (open, unstructured, non-standardised), structured (following a 10-question
cafeteria) and focused (with focus groups) interviews. According to the rules of
qualitative research, the material was anonymised.
So far, we have been investigating the links between organisational processes of
communication and the managerial activities permanently since 2012 in several
research contexts. However, the research steps we chose for the purpose of this
chapter are as follows:
Step 1 – We made 15 in-depth face-to-face interviews with managers from business,
public, and non-governmental organisations between 2012 and 2013. They were
supplemented by organisational observations.2 That step led to the understanding
of the depth of influence of the managerial roles on communication in organisa-
tions. It also enabled the construction of a universal model of said managerial
influence.
Step 2 – In-depth interviews and a structured interview (10-question questionnaire)
conducted in 2012–2021 on a total of 110 management students from two Polish
universities (cf. Szeluga-Romańska & Modzelewska, 2020). The study was
related to the perception of a managerial role, changes to the management pro-
cesses and the respondents’ own experience in managerial roles. The study
That research was partly used for the Ph.D., thesis of one of the authors.
2
c onducted in 2020–2021 was also related to the influence of the COVID-19 pan-
demic on the change to the HRM processes in organisations.
Step 3 – Between 2020 and 2021, we conducted 10 in-depth, individual interviews
with managers (during in-person and online meetings) working for a variety of
institutions, including public administration and private corporations. The sec-
ond step helped in understanding how the pandemic influenced and changed the
communicational processes within organisations. It also pointed at the new tools
that became widely used, e.g. for recruitment, selection and adaptation processes.
Step 4 – We interviewed four focus groups consisting of business students in 2021.
All together there were about 25 participants in the online meetings from bach-
elor’s and master’s study programmes. Some of the participants had been work-
ing in several kinds of organisations, sometimes being also the managers
themselves. We asked all the focus groups to discuss the pandemic times and it
referred mainly to the advantages and disadvantages of remaining in a domi-
nantly online reality. The third step was an initial, pilot part of a wider research,3
conducted to diagnose and explore some new areas/issues that appeared within
the context of the pandemic. It shed new light on the social context of
organisations.
All the interviews and focus group meetings were recorded and transcribed.
Also, all the observations had a written form. The survey results enabled the cre-
ation and description of the multidimensional managerial role as the reaction to
several sets of internal and external expectations. The empirical material was coded,
and organised according to categories. The coding was performed in a traditional
way, i.e. through dividing the material, analysing it, comparing, conceptualising and
categorising (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 61). Afterwards, it was analysed and
divided into three main findings for the purpose of this chapter.
Results/Findings
Managerial Role’s Influence on Communication
The analysis of the data from the interviews with managers revealed that a manager
can intentionally and unintentionally build several social relations in the managed
organisation. It seems that the relations influence the quality of organisational com-
munication (Fig. 5.2). Positive social relations influence the communication posi-
tively, improving its efficiency. Efficient communication reinforces building good
relations. It is the process of mutual influence that changes within time. If the social
relations in the organisation are not positive, supportive, then the communication
works inefficiently.
The working team is Marta Szeluga-Romanska, Ph.D., Anna Modzelewska, Ph.D., Paweł
3
Ziemianski, Ph.D., Professor Krzysztof Leja, Professor Jan Kreft and Professor Paweł Horodecki.
MANAGER
COMMUNICATION
SOCIAL RELATIONS
(THE FORM AND
CONTENT)
Source: Szeluga-Romańska, 2014, p. 210.
Fig. 5.2 The manager and the communication process. (Source: Szeluga-Romańska, 2014, p. 210)
The manager is committed to care about both: the quality of internal and external
relations, and of the communication quality, because both processes are strictly con-
nected and influence each other.
First, the manager chooses the content and the form of communication adequate
to both the interlocutor and the communicational context. This way, they build some
social relations. They can be more superficial, limited to professional contacts, but
also can be deeper and more stable. As mentioned before, communication means
mostly human behaviours. This indicates that the manager builds social relations on
the basis of several organisational activities, like common celebrations of some
important dates (birthdays, Christmas, etc.), during trainings or integration, and
even in the midst of conflicts. But building social relations is a very delicate issue.
Many of them appear spontaneously, accidentally.
Secondly, the manager who is just starting to work for an organisation also enters
the whole rich organisational culture – all the relations, emotions, problems that
already exist there. Their communicational means (the form and the content adjusted
to the context) can do both – either support positive behaviours or strengthen nega-
tive relations, either build or destroy the existing social order.
The relations in organisations are not constructed according to any rigid schemes
and appear naturally following most of the social events. Their quality and strength
depend on all of the participants/people/employees, not just the manager, but the
role of the manager seems to be particularly important and influential. In the context
of organisational communication, managerial role seems to be so much complicated
because it is not just the role that is multidimensional but also because the process
of communication happens at a few levels simultaneously. Similarly, to any other
organisation participant, the manager also communicates with the others at the level
of meaning (semantic aspect), at the level of social relations (social aspect), using a
set of available technical tools (technical aspect). In other words, each dimension of
managerial social role is followed by somewhat different social relations - simply
because they communicate with different people, and the content because in each
role’s dimension while communicating with different people, the speaker would
obviously consider several different problems and matters. Each communicational
situation requires choosing its form (usually linked to the social relations between
the sender and the receiver) and also inscribed content. But the communicational
form seems to be just a means or a tool in reaching the aim which can be efficient
company functioning, possessing new clients, good reputation, efficient adaptation
or recruitment.
Formal and informal communication are the most crucial in understanding com-
municational processes, in which the manager participates in several dimensions of
their social role. In each dimension, they appear with different density. Formal com-
munication is thus mostly visible in the professional dimension in occupational
contacts that sometimes lead to deeper relations. Informal communication is con-
nected with all the non-professional issues (such as personal matters). It is omni-
present, which means that it appears not only in non-professional situations (like
chats during lunch breaks) but it is also visible in situations that seem to be strictly
formal. That is the informal communication that enables to build long-term rela-
tions among the participants of internal and external organisational life. One of the
interviewees was very disappointed with the fast pace the world works on which –
in his eyes – leads to lack of human contacts or relations:
That is the sickness of the whole world. Everyone is on a hurry. That is a curse.
Unfortunately. The human cannot be always on the run. Should have time to sit and
talk normally. It can be chit-chatting about the weather. Drinking tea together with
the others. Why to run so fast? What for? Sit and talk and listen to the other human
[Priest Manager].
hat Happened to the Organisations at the Time

W
of the Pandemic?
As the pandemic clearly showed, the management of organisations is burdened with

the duty of implementing the safety and organisational policies at the time of the
pandemic, based on government guidelines and the specific needs of the subject
organisation. Transmitting the information on the risk and threat to the members of
the society ought to convey the nature of the risk and preventive actions (Basolo
et al., 2009). At the time of the pandemic, organisations are faced with serious finan-
cial losses, the need to lay off personnel and interruptions that need to be communi-
cated to the interested stakeholders (Ibidem). Sudden situations pose new, difficult
challenges to managers. In order to protect the health of staff, some direct contact
with organisation members need to be limited and sometimes closed off totally. The
interviewees in focus groups said often the pandemic deeply changed the mode of
contact both between staff and the stakeholders of the organisation, causing larger
social distance as well as an excess of forms of meeting – so-called ‘Zoom fatigue’.
In company offices, distance between people is visible: people avoid direct contact,
and meeting someone to talk in a hall takes a shorter form, also obeying sani-
tary norms.
Before the pandemic, relations were mostly built through personal meetings. At
our company, there was this tradition of frequent working group meetings, with
discussions that lasted for hours. The building was full of life. You could always
happen upon someone you knew in the hall, at the mess. […] Personal meetings and
conversations constructed relations in a group, as well as relations with partners.
[...]. Now, when people walk by in the hall, they treat one another as a potential
source of infection. Meeting time is set to minimum. Instead of going to see some-
one in the office for clarification, people prefer to send an email. [interviewee 1].
HRM processes are largely remote. The interviewees stated that at their compa-
nies, most recruitment and training activities is of remote character. They indicated
the possibility of setting up more meetings as an advantage of the remote model, as
well as better flexibility in selecting time and place for a conversation. There was
also a definite disadvantage of not being able to check how a staff member reacts in
direct relations.
For over a year now, all recruitment interviews at our company are remote. We
publish a job posting online, on a special website, we accept email submissions, and
later set up video interviews with the selected candidates through one of the online
platforms. […] A remote job interview has its pros and cons. It may be organised
from any place, we can set up multiple interviews one after another without the
candidates knowing about this. We are not able, however, to see how a person will
react in direct contacts. […]. It happens that we see the staff member for the very
first time only when we sign a job contract. [Interviewee 2].
Research participants also talked about trainings and specialist courses. They
indicated that during the pandemic, these were also done mostly online. This often
allowed to invite experts from other locations in the country, or even from abroad,
who provided real-time instruction. However, they said the disadvantage of such
trainings is lack of integration, which was often the case with real-life trainings.
At our company, there is a special programme for the development of managers’
competences, for people who manage individual departments. Soft HR develop-
ment is especially important for us; we care about the development of staff and the
improvement of their work quality. […]. There is also a dedicated programme for
staff, they can choose from a list of courses or suggest their own. […] In the time of
the pandemic, there was an increase in demand for efficient communication courses
as well as language means to construct communication. [Interviewee 3].
I am especially pleased that we managed to organise a training in the operation
of social media with a well-known expert who, because of numerous duties and the
fact he lives in another location, would not be able to meet us personally. […] The
course plan was changed, some workshops that would be hard to organise remotely
were omitted. [Interviewee 4].
The interviewees often voiced the motive of the dominance of one-way com-
munication and the fact that trainings turned into lectures or videoconferencing
monologues. Study participants said that many people take a passive part in
meetings, without their cameras or microphones switched on. During the focus
interview, participants also shared their experience from returning to regular work
from the remote model, after the sanitary situation in Poland improved temporar-
ily. They observed that group relations changed and people who were apt at coor-
dinating their remote work were not so apt to manage a team within a company
building.
We had a manager who was excellent at coordinating an HRM project remotely.
He split tasks between online groups, he was in constant touch with his group via a
messenger app. […] When we returned to the office, it turned out that live relations
looked totally different, that you need to talk with people live, interact with a group.
Sending an email and a task through a messenger app are not sufficient. […].
The study participants also pointed to the difficulties in onboarding processes,
which were largely disbanded during the pandemic. New staff were slow to accul-
turate and learn the organisational culture without physical contact.
The pandemic proved remote work is possible. It showed us that digitisation is
possible. I have a feeling that it pushed relations to the background. […] People had
these relations at their disposal before COVID and they worked with them most of
the time. The issue appears with new staff. […] New people do not even know who
is who within the organisation, they do not know one another. It is more difficult to
manage such a team. [Interviewee 10].
A new staff member is instructed on-site, they have their job description. When
working remotely, it is difficult for them to get to know the organisation, the rules,
and their peers. They receive tasks they perform on their own. [Interviewee 9].
It was interesting to see interviewee 10 to remark that at the time of the pandemic
and remote work, organisations utilised the already established networks of rela-
tions, which was valuable organisational capital. Yet another issue the interviewees
raised was efficiency of remote work.
In remote work, it is important to precisely define tasks and the trust of a manger
towards their people doing what they are supposed to do. [Interviewee 8].
During the University Areopagus debate, Wojciech Czakon (2022) mentioned
work efficiency at the time of the pandemic in the strategic dimension. He said that
in 2020, i.e. in a short-horizon time, efficiency increased. However, there is an
observable issue of dropping efficiency and quality of work in a long-term view.
We need to also mention, however, that focus group participants also remarked
on some positive characteristics of reality: more freedom in choosing place and
methods of work, required trust of the employer towards their staff, possibility, and
sometimes need to combine professional and private life. One of the summarised
discussions of the focus group claimed:
We think that there is less chaos and also our time organisation is different. We
can see that the teachers are better prepared, they know more tools. But at the begin-
ning, they did not know what to do. […] On the other hand, it was problematic to
speak to the camera and some of us still do not feel comfortable speaking to the
camera, especially when the others have it off [Focus group 2].
Managing at the Times of a Crisis
Interviewees who worked a managerial position pointed to the responsibility on

their shoulders, for organising the work at the time of the pandemic, especially
when needing to decide on the model of work and introducing rules of safety. They
also stressed that in their organisations, an HR manager was also the leader of a task
force that defined guidelines for remote work at the time of the pandemic, or the
establishing of a vaccination point at their companies.
There were visible fear and uncertainty of staff from the very beginning of the
pandemic. I feel the responsibility for the life and health of my staff. Staff health
and comfort are important, we try to adjust the form of work to their individual
preference. […] During the pandemic, there was definitely an increase in individual
approach to tasks, it is difficult to deliver group projects remotely. [Interviewee 7].
Some study participants also pointed to the emergence of informational chaos,
e.g. rapidly changing safety rules when staff was not informed quickly enough.
Also, not all information was, in their opinion, clear and comprehensible. Some
organisations launched special tabs on their websites, where they published
COVID-19-related guidelines and rules. There were also HR staff members dele-
gated to provide information about the company activity during the pandemic.
Participants repeated that there was an expectation in their organisations for the
managers to introduce the rules for safety and model of work.
Everyone looked to their boss and waited for them to take the decision for every-
body, to define the work model. Many were disappointed that the boss delegated
these responsibilities to line managers. The idea behind this was that each line was
different, so the work model needed to be adjusted to the line’s specifics.
[Interviewee 6].
At the times of the crisis, people who gain importance are leaders, charismatic
people who are expected to show the way out of the crisis (Boin et al., 2017). In the
interviews and the questionnaire study, it is evident that a manager is perceived as
the person to point the way forward. Management students often saw a manager
metaphorically as a captain of a ship or a captain of a team who will lead the team
towards its goal (cf. Szeluga-Romańska & Modzelewska, 2020). In their perception,
a manager ought to have the traits of a magician whose illusions will build the con-
viction in a team that of a better course of events in the future (Ibidem).
Discussion – Implications for Theory and Practice
The conclusions from our study and practical implication thereof are related to two
areas: changes of ways of communication and the changing expectations and chal-
lenges towards managers’ activity. It is worth to mention that communication hap-
pens always in the three dimensions simultaneously: the technical, the language and
the social one. The changes that take place in one of them also entail changes in the
other dimensions. Managerial roles in organisations have particular influence on the

organisational culture and the social relations: they do not just share the ways of
working, or valid standards of communication, but also shape to great extend the
organisational social reality and the ways of understanding of actions.
We propose a set of recommendations for the managers considering both: the
quality of communication and the quality of social relations:
Social relations first – it means constant and absolute care for interpersonal rela-
tions – while also taking into account the safety rules. This can be achieved
through, e.g. celebration of common events (e.g. birthdays or namedays) that
were important before the pandemic and thus also always celebrated. These can
be organised in a virtual space if conditions do not allow for a live meeting, but
they should be maintained as before. The expected social distancing ought to
allow for social bonds so the researchers suggest the use of the term ‘physical
distancing’ instead (where we attempt to stay in safe physical distance but still
meet face-to-face) (Van Kerkhove, 2020). Dhawan (2021) proposes to ‘Value
Visibly’ which means being attentive, caring and respectful to other people by
our widely used digital body language.
Find time – finding time for individual contact with staff, especially when staff seek
such contact and voice the need for it. Regular meetings, even virtual, help cope
with uncertainty. As Kim and Kreps (2020) claim control the flow of information
to eliminate interruptions, and set up a direct communication channel to get to
know the requests, questions and feedback from staff and stakeholders.
Face-to-face contacts (ASAP) – making even the most automated processes within
the organisation, such as are algorithm driven, done with the use of electronic
tools and remote functionalities, require a person-to-person activity at some
time, even just to get to know one another, double-check traits and competences,
make some small talk online. The immense importance of such events for organ-
isations, and especially for interpersonal relations, is also voiced by Henry
Mintzberg (2022) at his blog post ‘Zooming Ahead’.
Trust and delegate – making the work mode more flexible, introducing modes that
will take into account the needs of those who try to combine private and profes-
sional life. This can be done by, e.g. increasing trust that employees work in
defined timespans and deliver the designated tasks/projects, instead of exerting
excess control and account for every minute spent online or offline. Develop
relations based on trust and cooperation, make information available to key
stakeholders (Kim & Krep, 2020).
Communicate honestly – Direct your activities in a way which meets the actual
needs and makes use of the most recent data related to the limitation of pandemic
spread. Convey information in a clear way (transparently) so as to lead to rational
and coordinated behaviour of the members of the organisation, which will help
limit confusion, fear and incomprehension at the time of the pandemic. Filter out
inaccurate and fake information provide the members of your organisation with
the best available academic information. Actively seek for information on the
approaching crises and react to these, so as to identify the threats and best
p ossible strategies to react in crisis situations (Kim & Krep, 2020). Transparency
of given information gains the trust which is undoubtedly strongly needed.
Limitations of Research Design/Theoretical Framework
The subjective character of each qualitative research makes it limited to a narrow

group of interviewees, providing deep knowledge and understanding of their speci-
ficity, but no wider generalisations of the conclusions. On the other hand, there are
no obstacles for the proposed models, based on qualitative research, not to be uni-
versally true.
Future research could focus on long-term consequences of the pandemic, its influ-
ence on organisations and models of communication in a longer perspective. It
seems important to study the influence of returning to on-site work on the shift in
relations within an organisation.
Conclusion
Researchers put a lot of emphasis on the issues related to crisis communication at

the time of the COVID-19 pandemic; however, this is on the level of governments
and public administration communicating with the citizens (Hyland-Wood et al.,
2021; Bucatariu, 2020; Johnston et al., 2020; Yudarwati et al., 2021, Sanders, 2020).
Regardless of the nature of the organisation and the level from which a message
originates, positive influence on the spread of the disease can be obtained from
information campaigns on the risk of infection (Bucatariu, 2020). Actors – govern-
ments, organisations, groups – use communication to reach their rhetoric goals and
bolster the feeling of being safe, e.g. by announcing their readiness to act in crisis
situations (Johnston et al., 2020). The HRM processes ought to be based on open
communication, which takes into account the needs of the members of the organisa-
tion and the conditions in which they function. The on-going pandemic caused an
omnipresent fear for the health and life of people around the world. One of the pos-
sibilities of countering tensions and stress in an organisation comes from a leader
based on a culture of compassion, which is of key importance in management at
uncertain times (Oruh et al., 2021). Compassion culture-based management is based
on involvement and supporting the staff, showing them understanding and empathy
(O’Dea & Flin, 2003). In this area, it is important to undertake activities leading to
the development of a new model of economy, one which is based on preventive
measures, underlining the protection of the staff members’ lives against the threats
of the COVID-19 virus, while assuring the organisation’s productivity (Tan et al.,
2020; Rozman & Tominc, 2021). It is essential that new frameworks for organisa-
tional policy are established, ones that are based on financial support, defining of
new sanitary conditions, development of new business models, introduction of new
digital investments and supporting education. Human solidarity is of vital impor-
tance in overcoming the existential threat posed by the pandemic (Maboloc, 2020).
Barbara Czarniawska (2009) quotes similar sentiments, following ideas and defini-
tions by Mary Parker Follett from the first half of the twentieth century, where the
role of a leader emerges depending on the situation at hand, so that the leader reacts
to the changes surrounding them, has the skill to notice new trends and phenomena.
Such a leader ought to combine the knowledge and experience of all staff so the
whole organisation can put it to good use in reaching common goals. In her 1991
article, Barbara Czarniawska (2010) remarked that specific times generate the need
for specific organisation leadership, as management is strongly shaped by all the
social, cultural, economic and political events of the surrounding world. The role of
a leader at the times of a crisis is to limit the effects of a crisis, limit the timespan of
chaos, helplessness and dissatisfaction of the organisation’s participants, as well as
awaken the mobilisation and efficiency in coping with the situation (Boin
et al., 2017).
We are still surrounded by the pandemic. It is worth reflecting upon what a man-
ager can do right now so that communication and HRM processes in an organisation
run smoothly, paying particular attention to the social relations that always are influ-
enced by communication.
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Chapter 6
The New Normal: Managing Virtual Work
From a Human Resources Perspective
Rudolf M. Oosthuizen
Introduction
The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic turned the organisational landscape on its
head. Organisations made changes, some very drastic, to sustain operations while
complying with government-mandated health and safety protocols (Karr et al.,
2020). In light of the relaxation of these rules in certain parts of the world, busi-
nesses are not as concerned if they are the only ones affected. The culture of organ-
isations is one aspect that is also extensively affected by the new normal.
Pre-pandemic organisational culture was made apparent in the ways employees
interact and collaborate, as well as how this was managed from a human resources
perspective (Rosario, 2020).
Rosario (2020) postulates that it is anticipated that this unspoken, yet strongly
felt aspect of the workplace, will transform. Before the COVID-19 crisis, one of the
most significant factors in building and imparting organisational culture was through
regular interpersonal interactions. From meetings in shared spaces to spur-of-the
moment collaborations and brainstorming sessions, these moments further fuel
positive social interactions and foster good working relationships (Atkins, 2020).
Unfortunately, the return to on-site operations is not without caveats. Far fewer
employees will be working in the office, with social distancing being part of the
reality. Open-plan offices, which were master-planned for spontaneous collabora-
tion, now pose risks of infection if left unaltered
Combined with the increased adoption of the virtual work model, these connec-
tions are likely to occur less often. This decline may affect the way new employees
absorb and feel the company culture and interrupt established routines and
R. M. Oosthuizen (*)
Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, University of South Africa,
e-mail: oosthrm@unisa.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_6
98 R. M. Oosthuizen
dynamics, which may leave more experienced employees lost or even less produc-
tive (Gandhi et al., 2021). With the mandated health regulations necessary for on-
site operations, organisations are considering virtual work models. For some
organisations, the new normal presents an opportunity to explore FlexiPlace, a
working setup that is a mix of on- and off-site hours. To support this shift, tools for
team communication and productivity become indispensable to the virtual work-
place. These digital tools enable employees to compensate for the gaps that arise
from a virtual work setup, such as the decrease in face-to-face interaction and col-
laboration opportunities, while ensuring that objectives are accomplished (Rosario,
2020). Furthermore, it can be leveraged to improve overall productivity.
Digital tools also play a vital role in transforming the way organisational culture
is sustained and imparted (Rosario, 2020). Video conferencing and virtual activities
can replace spontaneous interactions in order to cultivate better working and social
relationships. They can also be used to open up channels of communication, whether
for work or more social purposes (Klazema, 2020).
Problem Statement
Given the large amount of information on virtual working, human resources manag-
ers might assume that they already have sufficient scientific research evidence to
recognise the psychological challenges that virtual workers are facing during the
COVID-19 pandemic (Grant et al., 2013; Konradt et al., 2003). However, due to the
fact that almost none of the research was conducted at a time when virtual work was
practised at such an unprecedented scale as it has been during the COVID-19 pan-
demic, combined with unique demands at this time, some of the previously col-
lected knowledge on virtual working might lack contextual relevance in the current
COVID-19 crisis. It is prudent to investigate how this context has shaped the experi-
ence of working virtually (Wang et al., 2021).
It is therefore important to focus on the theoretical viewpoint of work design.
Work design refers to the content and organisation of work tasks, activities, relation-
ships and responsibilities (Parker, 2014). Employing the work design perspective on
the virtual work practice during the COVID-19 pandemic, Wang et al. (2021)
observed a powerful role of virtual work characteristics in shaping working experi-
ences. Work design is one of the most significant theoretical viewpoints in current
virtual working literature. Wang et al. (2021) identified three perspectives.
In the first perspective, virtual work is an independent variable that predicts vir-
tual worker outcomes, with perceived work characteristics as a moderator (Parker &
Grote, 2020).
A second perspective view work characteristics as mediating between virtual
work as the independent variable and employee outcomes as the dependent vari-
ables. This means considering how engaging in virtual work affects individuals
through shaping the perceived nature of their work. Both perspectives view
6 The New Normal: Managing Virtual Work From a Human Resources Perspective 99
employees work as a whole that encompasses both virtual and non-virtual compo-
nents, with the independent variable capturing the extent of each aspect (Wang
et al., 2021).
In contrast, in a third perspective, the focus is on the experience of virtual work
only. Researchers in this stream of literature are interested in how virtual work char-
acteristics shape work experiences within the context of virtual work. Receiving
social support during the period of working away from office, for example can help
virtual workers to overcome social isolation (Bentley et al., 2016).
A crucial implication is that human resources managers should provide a strat-
egy to appropriate people and appropriate jobs. However, virtual work was no lon-
ger optional during the COVID-19 pandemic; instead, the COVID-19 outbreak has
forced people to be working from home irrespective of their preferences, abilities
and the nature of their jobs. Thus, during the COVID-19 pandemic, virtual work has
become a ‘new normal’, rendering the third perspective to be of significant impor-
tance. The advantage of this third perspective is that it frames virtual work as a
context (Bailey & Kurland, 2002) and focuses on the relationship between virtual
work characteristics and working experiences. This approach has important theo-
retical and practical implications, and it is especially valuable for understanding
virtual work experiences in the COVID-19 context (Wang et al., 2021).
From the theoretical point of view, the effects of work characteristics vary with
contexts (Morganson, Major, Oborn, Verive, & Heelan, 2010). Similarly, the mean-
ing of some work characteristics may have been shaped by the unique COVID-19
pandemic context. For example, being socially connected with colleagues may have
different meanings during the COVID-19 lockdown, in which most social gather-
ings are not permissible, as opposed to being connected in the ‘normal’ workplace
(Wang et al., 2021). Potentially, even limited social support can have strong positive
spill-over effects when social resources people use are hard to obtain. Kawohl and
Nordt (2020) suggested that social support plays a crucial role in suicide prevention
during the COVID-19 outbreak.
Employees with higher autonomy might potentially be distracted by their family
issues and might be unable to concentrate on their work at home. Given the unique-
ness and novelty of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is prudent to explore and examine
the work design theory in the current extreme context, including which virtual work
characteristics really matter and how they matter. Perspectives 1 and 2 built on the
premise that virtual work is optional and aimed to identify which types of jobs and
employees are suitable for virtual work (Wang et al., 2021). However, people were
required to work from home due to the COVID-19 outbreak. Some researchers even
believe that the pandemic will make some jobs permanently virtual (Sytch & Greer,
2020). Thus, it is also practically important and necessary to explore how to get the
most out of virtual work. The third perspective, focusing on the role of virtual work
characteristics and its associated outcomes, can provide valuable evidence for
human resources managers to increase employees’ productivity and well-being via
re-designing virtual work appropriately.
100 R. M. Oosthuizen
Objective of This Chapter
The objective of this chapter is to conceptualise a new dimension of human

resources, where a change in strategy is required to manage virtual work in the ‘new
normal’.
Literature Review
Key Theoretical Concepts
Fourth Industrial Revolution
The future of work is a phrase that is often associated with rapid, disruptive change
in work itself, who performs the work, and where work is done (Schwartz et al.,
2019a, b). Multiple converging forces, including the increasing adoption of techno-
logical advances (e.g. automation, artificial intelligence (AI), robotics), shifts in
demographics; the broadening of the workforce to include a wider array of alterna-
tive work arrangements; connectivity; globalisation and empowered consumers will
have a profound impact on all industries (Schwartz et al., 2017; World Economic
Forum, 2020). COVID-19 has directly affected and accelerated many future work
trends (e.g. virtual work, expanding employers’ role as ‘a social safety net’)
(Industry Week, 2020) as employers navigate the return to work (Volini et al.,
2020a). Collectively, these trends raise important questions about optimal ways in
which jobs can be redesigned and how critical business operations will shift. Perhaps
more important, it also offers the potential to increase value and meaning for all
stakeholders by enabling the co-creation of a preferred future (Johnson, 2020).
Pre-COVID-19, critical shifts were well underway in what many termed as the
Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) (Marr, 2019). The ‘digitalization of everything’
(Hunt, 2020), such as AI, innovations in machine learning (Gratton, 2018) and
robotics (Jeftha, 2020), means that up to 32% of today’s jobs, including knowledge
tasks, may be automated. Other jobs may be augmented in forms of hybrid work
that involves intelligent machines collaborating with humans in a blended work-
force (Meister, 2020a). In fact, half of the workforce already uses some form of AI
(Meister, 2020b). Organisations are now leveraging a full range of traditional and
virtual work arrangements (Volini et al., 2020b). In the gig economy, positions are
more fluid and rely on more project-based teams, comprised of contractors and
freelancers. Before the COVID-19 crisis, about 35% of the workforce was supple-
mental, temporary and project-based, and freelancing is increasing more rapidly
than the overall workforce (8.1% as compared to 2.6% of all employees). Facilitated
in part by more widespread availability of digital workplace technology, virtual col-
laboration platforms and digital reality technologies, virtual work is also increasing,
creating increasingly decentralised workforces (Atkins, 2020; Johnson, 2020).
The New Normal
The current pandemic, COVID-19, has brought the whole life on earth to a halt.
Realising the urgency to change attitudes, people are still struggling to adapt to this
new normal. With all the economic activities coming to a partial or complete stop,
one concept which assists organisations to keep their work going was virtual work.
Life changed in a split second. The huge office buildings and expensive furniture
stood futile while the old wooden table and the plastic chair became the place where
people are spending the majority of their working day in this lockdown doing their
office work on their computer system (Gandhi et al., 2021).
Until vaccines become more readily available, and more people become vacci-
nated, the SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, will remain an elusive
threat to public safety. SARS-CoV-2 has a lengthy incubation period that can extend
up to 14 days, during which time infected individuals can spread the virus before
showing symptoms. Furthermore, more than 25% of all infected individuals may
never show external signs of infection (Rettner, 2020). As the virus is new, there is
no pre-existing immunity in the population; therefore, it can spread exponentially
without mitigating measures. It is thus very important that the majority of the popu-
lation must be vaccinated to develop a herd immunity.
The Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP) presents sev-
eral scenarios in which the first wave of COVID-19 in spring 2020 was followed by
subsequent waves of transmissions that vary only in intensity into 2021 (Moore
et al., 2020). Regardless of which path the pandemic ultimately follows, the world
appears to have entered a period many now refer to as the ‘new normal’ in which a
return to pre-pandemic social and economic conditions will be impossible for
upwards of 2–3 years (Karr et al., 2020).
Virtual Work
The media have focused their attention around virtual work during the COVID-19
lockdown (Hughes, 2020). The research to date on virtual work and COVID-19 is
divided between commentary-focused articles and empirical articles (Waizenegger
et al., 2020). The Journal of Human Relations curated a special issue on virtual
work, compiled of virtual work articles. However, the articles were previously pub-
lished in a pre-COVID-19 world providing guidance to navigate virtual work during
the pandemic (Unsworth, 2020).
Organisations have been caught off guard and were ill-prepared for the sudden
change, which has brought digital transformation into focus (Savić, 2020). The dis-
ruptive change has negative impacts and disproportionally affects lower-paid and
female employees, which must be taken into account when considering virtual
arrangements (Avdiu & Nayyar, 2020). Virtual work is not always easy as individu-
als from some groups who did not prefer to work virtually were now forced into new
arrangements (Kramer & Kramer, 2020). The empirical research to date has mainly
focused on COVID-19’s impact on economics (Gottlieb et al., 2020) and labour
markets (Coibion et al., 2020) with unemployment figures rising (Waizenegger
et al., 2020).
Henry et al. (2021) posit a selection of virtual work definitions as (1) ‘an all-
encompassing term representing work environments where employees are physi-
cally separated and/or temporally separated from their co-workers or their work
location some or all of the time, and perform interdependent work activities’
(Watson-Manheim & Belanger, 2002, p. 1), (2) ‘Working from home, satellite
offices or on the road […] or as ad hoc groups of professionals who team across the
internet around a common topic’ (Chudoba et al., 2005, p. 15) and (3) ‘A broader
term often used to describe individuals, groups of individuals, or organizations who
do not interact face-to-face because of geographic dispersion, yet who interact using
technology in some fashion’ (Allen et al., 2015, p. 43). The definitions postulated
propose that virtual work is more directly connected with the view of internet-based
communication among dispersed employees with the purpose of creating the sense
of real site-location. The term, however, explains this unsuccessfully as it is not the
work itself that is virtual, but rather the site-location of collaborating employees.
Terminologies like virtual team or virtual organisation are, in this sense, more
appropriate. It may be contended that virtual work pronounces forms of dissemi-
nated work which rely more profoundly on regular organisation and communication
among employees and therefore, virtual site-location. Although the work executed
is very real, the site-location of the employees is virtual.
Although not primarily focusing on COVID-19, some recent studies have dis-
cussed the potential impacts of their findings in the context of the COVID-19 pan-
demic. Two qualitative studies investigated virtual work during COVID-19
(Waizenegger et al., 2020). The first was a personal reflection on social isolation and
struggles of virtual work for single women living alone and how technology helped
them to connect with colleagues (Gao & Sai, 2020). The second study was a desktop
analysis of the websites of Australian universities and how they support academic
staff with caring responsibilities (Nash & Churchill, 2020).
The COVID-19 lockdown provides a unique context which is significantly dif-
ferent from the previous virtual work literature. The differences in the context of
COVID-19 are that virtual work is enforced, applied to all, introduces restricted
mobilities and does not allow for much planning. Therefore, virtual work triggers
challenges on task arrangements, communication, home space negotiations and
well-being. To maintain ‘business as usual’, employees need to adapt quickly to
nonconductive working spaces and unfamiliar digital platforms (Waizenegger
et al., 2020).
Virtual work research to date has taken technology for granted, and a unique
information systems approach is required to explore and theorise the technological
aspects of virtual work. As employees are forced to work virtually, their online
behaviour will inevitably change as they search for new ways to perform teamwork
tasks. As employees have little time to prepare, the sudden change means that new
ways of doing this must be rapidly discovered, with some trial and error, and within
various restrictions (Waizenegger et al., 2020).
Gandhi et al. (2021) divided the various factors affecting the success of virtual
work into two broad categories. First, internal factors, for example human psychol-
ogy, the level of technical know-how, mental health, time management, and so forth
and second, external factors, for example Information Technology infrastructure,
people’s access to various resources required, and the organisational environment of
the employer’s company.
The Benefits and Drawbacks of Virtual Work
Many organisations in the world today experience the substantial benefits by facili-
tating virtual work yet face a great deal of drawbacks in many ways. International
variation with the diverse cultural background is common in virtual work where
employees may believe that their personal life should be equally important to their
work, and they would prioritise their work when necessary (Kramer & Kramer,
2020). This means that when there is teamwork between different cultural back-
grounds, conflicts may happen, and sometimes a lack of trust between employees.
Therefore, solutions should be clear from the start, and the role of human resources
to harmonise the situation, is indispensable (Bui, 2020).
Communication plays a contributing role in the operation of virtual work.
Communication in the virtual environment occurs less frequently, yet employees
engage in more productive work with the convenience of new technology. The col-
laborative activities are likely to be the ‘secret sauce’ that inspires innovation
(Ferrazzi, 2012). While dealing with different cultural backgrounds in the virtual
team, communication between all employees is as crucial as a key is to unlocking a
door. With the convenience of e-services, communication has never been easier with
various choices of collaborative tools. It ranges from video conversations on MS
Teams, Zoom and audio to file sharing and cloud storage that was inconceivable in
the 90s. It was developed to serve virtual work. Despite the convenience of techno-
logical tools, the internet remains the major challenge (Bui, 2020).
According to James-Tanny et al. (2010), approximately 70% of the information
exchanged is non-verbal when face-to-face conversations are conducted. It reveals
the value of non-verbal language, which is almost lost when people communicate
through the internet. The body language or facial expressions, so-called visual cues,
play crucial roles in assisting employees to understand each other and more impor-
tantly, to establish trust. Regular face-to-face meetings and some collaborative
activities should be promoted to assist employees to connect with each other on a
personal level, despite the new normal of virtual work. At this stage, human
resources management skills play an important role. Another disadvantage of work-
ing virtually is the social isolation. Task-orientation is the message that is conveyed
through virtual communication (Bui, 2020). While virtual team players focus more
on achieving the digital tasks, they might forget the society around them, even the
mission to communicate with the real people, not just the computer with an internet
connection. This is a severe downside of communication for virtual work. It knits
employees together as well as creating organisational challenges, especially for

human resources management.
Bui (2020) posits that the organisation can observe different business angles in
the targeted market from the talents beyond their country’s borders. This interna-
tional recruitment may bring many local specialists to virtually work on a project.
Better innovation and outcomes are achieved as the organisation has a rich human
capital that is willing to share their expertise for the best business practices. On the
other hand, the virtual organisation may cope with some difficulties when dealing
with the cultural differences among virtual employees (Gottlieb et al., 2020). The
diversity of cultures brings knowledge, yet many conflicts and lack of collaboration
may occur. The role of human resources managers who take the responsibilities to
leverage the best virtual communication among employees and encourage the con-
tribution to the team is undeniable. Virtual work is fact paced and on demand and
the organisation responds quickly to the demands of clients, both globally and
locally, due to the collaboration of different employees in different time zones. The
overall virtual team can take advantage of time and work on the same project
24 hours, 7 days a week.
Virtual organisations fully enjoy the benefits of cost savings. Organisations do
not need to be concerned about budget spending on properties, office building, utili-
ties and many more. Many organisations also outsource their production to lower-
cost locations. By doing so, they can lower the income material cost, operational
cost, as well as a smaller budget on employees’ salaries in these areas. It contributes
to a significant decrease in the production cost (Bentley et al., 2016). Despite the
definite advantages of virtual work, there are some drawbacks, for example the cost
of technology. Technologies efficiently support the use of virtual employees, yet not
many tools provide complete support in function. Multiple collaborative technolo-
gies include messaging, video meetings and data storage. The cost of having the
full, unlimited function of those technology tools somehow remains high for start-
up organisations. In addition, maintenance and technological problems are unavoid-
able issues leading to the instability of usage while working on those sites. The
possibility of leaking organisational data exists in the virtual environment. Living in
the big data era, it is crucial for any organisation to collect data for market penetra-
tion. However, it is reported that the cyber-attacks have raised to be the most alarm-
ing issues for organisations working virtually, with around 43% of the data breach
targeted at small companies (Galov, 2019). It explains why organisations are trying
to leverage technological choices to secure company data, protect their employees
and their innovation.
Method
Study Design
The critical review of the research literature entailed a broad systematic review of
contemporary research on the themes of the human resources management in the
4IR. This approach made it possible for the author to evaluate documented research
on the new normal and managing virtual work from a human resources
perspective.
Study Eligibility Criteria
The boundary of the systematic review was defined to include only documented
contemporary research in the field of human resources and industrial and organisa-
tional psychology, published from 2017 to 2021. A search was conducted by means
of an online information technology service, including search engines such as
EBSCOhost/Academic Search Premier and Google Scholar academic databases.
The terms 4IR, new normal, virtual work and managing human resources were used
in the search. The full texts of publications were downloaded from databases to
ascertain which articles to include or exclude from the systematic review. The inclu-
sion criterion for articles reviewed for the purpose of this chapter was studies
exploring the new normal and managing virtual work from a human resources per-
spective. The research articles were treated as the sources of data.
Data Analysis
A qualitative approach was followed in exploring the new normal and managing
virtual work from a human resources perspective. In the first stage, the author read
the studies carefully to form an understanding of the new normal in the context of
the 4IR and managing virtual work from a human resources perspective. In the sec-
ond stage, the author formed an overall impression of the new normal and virtual
work to account for relations and linkages among its aspects. Stage 3 consisted of
theorising about how and why the new normal and virtual work relations appear as
they do. Stage 4 consisted of re-contextualising the new knowledge about the virtual
work phenomena and relations in the context of how other authors have articulated
the evolving knowledge. In a systematic search for relevant research published
between January 2017 and July 2021, 54 studies were identified in the following
electronic databases: EBSCOhost/Academic Search Premier and Google Scholar
Academic database. Publications were evaluated for quality and 18 studies were
identified as the primary sources for exploration.
Strategies Used to Ensure Data Quality
Systematic, rigorous and auditable analytical processes are among the most signifi-
cant factors distinguishing well done research from poor research. The researcher
therefore articulated the findings in such a manner that the logical processes by
which they were developed are accessible to a critical reader; the link between the
actual data and the conclusions about data is explicit; and the claims made about the
data set are rendered credible and valid. Potential publication bias (i.e. the assump-
tion that all research on the topic may not have been published), trustworthiness or
credibility, true value and quality, appropriateness, reflection on the research
endeavour in its entirety and best practices were also considered. Value and quality
were assured by reviewing each article in terms of scientific and methodological
rigour in exploring the new normal and managing virtual work from a human
resources perspective. All data were retained for possible future scrutiny.
Discussion and Practical Implications
Virtual Work at Various Levels of Organisation
Human Resources managing virtual work involves the degree to which work activi-
ties are interdependent, and the extent to which communication and coordination of
these activities are mediated by Information and Communication Technology
(Bartik et al., 2020). Human resources management of virtual work is posited on
three levels of the organisation: individual, team and organisational. Across all three
levels, virtual work describes the proportion of work-related communication and
coordination that occurs, using Information and Communication Technology to
overcome the inability to interact face-to-face (Cirio, 2021). Notably, virtual work
does not refer to either the temporary nature of a team or organisation, nor the pos-
sibility that a team or organisation may be constituted by employees that are concur-
rently employed elsewhere. Henry et al. (2021) argue that endeavouring to define
virtual work so broadly as to contain these properties, in addition to communication
and coordination patterns, would detract from the term’s usefulness and worth.
Human resources management of virtual work at each of the organisational lev-
els is important to delineate key factors which would impact the operational oppor-
tunities at the levels of individuals and teams. Henry et al. (2021) identified four
emerging factors:
(1) Interdependence between tasks in terms of the degree to which work func-
tions depend on involvement from or create involvement to functions implemented
by fellow employees. Greater interdependence infers a higher necessity for com-
munication and coordination. (2) The nature of work denotes the level to which the
type of work executed requires the employee or team to be site-located. For exam-
ple, a doctor’s site-location with both his patient and equipment is a requirement for
his or her skill to perform work functions (Mishra, 2021). (3) The high-tech location
designates the Information and Communication Technology substructure that is
accessible to support the communication and coordination of work between indi-
viduals and teams that are not site-located. Conclusively, (4) sequential distance
signifies the degree to which an individual’s or team’s coordination depends upon
synchronous communication and coordination (Gottlieb et al., 2020). For example,
it may not be practical for a virtual team that is dispersed across different time zones
to effectively perform work that requires synchronous communication.
anagement of the New Normal and the Potential Future

M
of Virtual Work
Human resources managers perform a vital role in deciding on the ‘new normal’
within organisations. Companies are working on developing return-to-work poli-
cies. While company owners, executives and managers perform significant roles in
these discussions, it is fundamental for human resources managers to have a seat at
the table. A return-to-work policy is a strategy for commanding the human resources
of an organisation back into the work environment (Cirio, 2021). Preparing for the
future of virtual work needs to incorporate human resources reflections, from what
employees need, to how to best keep them safe. Organisations are taking the on-
going threat of COVID-19 very seriously. Some of the most prominent organisa-
tions, such as Twitter, Facebook, Amazon, Google and Microsoft have announced
that they are scrutinising at expanding isolation work-from-home policies
(Klazema, 2020).
Twitter’s announcement came early, with the organisation notifying employees
in May 2021 that most of the team would be allowed to work from home forever.
Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg has said that half of the organisation could be
working virtually permanently by 2023 and noted that Facebook is ‘assertively
opening up virtual contracting’. Microsoft President Brad Smith said that a gradual
return to the office was not only the organisation’s strategy but a goal of public
accountability (Klazema, 2020).
These responses underscore that the future of work may be virtual. Working
virtually is not a new idea. A Gallup survey from 2016 observed that 43% of respon-
dents were able to work virtually ‘at least some of the time’. Conversely, many
organisations have had to function with virtual employees, due to stay-at-home
directives (Parfentiev, 2020). Global Workforce Analytics forecasts that managers
will not have the same concerns about virtual work post-pandemic, since managers
seen teams function in this virtual mode (Klazema, 2020).
Human Resources Management Strategy for Virtual Work
Until recently, human resources managed employees across geographies by way

office culture. However, this has changed with the global COVID-19 pandemic.
Many organisations with Information Technology capacity permitted employees to
work virtually (Gratton, 2018). The same applies to other sectors with employees
working from corporate or regional offices. The exception is employees working in
environments where they have to be physically present to report for duty. Due to this
recent trend, most employees prefer to relocate to their home towns, which not only
makes them feel safe but also helps them in taking care of their elderly parents,
escape from the hustle and bustle of city life, save on rent, and so forth. However,
employing staff across regions and geographies with limited or no control requires
a new way of managing employees. Human resources managers therefore need to
upgrade with the best technology which will assist in managing employees virtu-
ally, depending upon the organisation (Hembrom, 2020).
The major challenge for Human Resources management in virtual work is the
difficulties in managing the employees’ capabilities and job performance, which
can be easily managed by walking around in the conventional organisation. Virtual
human resources management also faces obstacles in controlling the situation out of
the office (Meister, 2020b). However, it can be regarded as more challenging, pro-
viding that taking the advantage of the virtual convenience, employees can illustrate
the outcome to be more productive than those operating in the conventional organ-
isation. The traditional working environment may have some distractive factors, as
among others, politics, travelling time, office distractions and gossiping, that inter-
fere with their work. Although there are negative issues to be resolved, all the ben-
efits of virtual work are being experienced by employees all over the world.
Nevertheless, disadvantages can be overcome by following a different Human
Resources managerial approach with efficient communication strategies (Bui, 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic-driven changes in the workplace need to be comple-
mented by a more robust, yet transformational style of Human Resources manage-
ment. Previously, assertiveness and goal-oriented management were the backbones
of excellent Human Resources management. Human Resources managers should
adopt a more vulnerable strategy to build improved virtual relationships with their
employees. Human Resources managers need to focus on a virtual environment that
emphasises resilience, rather than efficiency. By approaching the virtual work envi-
ronment with a compassionate mind set, Human Resources managers can ‘walk the
talk’ of their virtual company culture. This change will not only make employees
feel valued and cared for, but will also enable them to work optimally and flourish
within the virtual organisation (Rosario, 2020). Working from a virtual office could
poses a number of challenges, including workplace isolation, increased job stress,
decreased job satisfaction, and poor communication, to name a few (Mulki &
Jaramillo, 2011; Stich, 2020). Polson (2021) asserts that human resources managers
should understand the impact that a virtual office may have on employee men-
tal health.
Not every job can be performed on a work-from-home basis, and not every
organisation has had a 100% successful virtual transition. Global Workforce
Analytics has estimated that only 56% of American employees could work from
home permanently; the rest either have to go to work every day or at least work at
the office from time to time (Mishra, 2021). For organisations that are considering
a highly virtual future, human resources managers could play a significant role in
the development of human resources management strategy for virtual work. It will
be necessary to evaluate individual roles and departments in order to establish which
operations can be performed virtually and which require a hybrid employee force
(Klazema, 2020). According to a Gallup poll, 51% of American employees intend
to return to the office ultimately, some employees as soon as possible, and some
only after COVID-19 anxieties have completely diminished. Human resources
managers understanding where employees fall on this scale can guide organisa-
tions’ return-to-work policy and provide advice on how to implement the process
without alienating employees or jeopardising turnover.
Other factors include keeping employees safe when they do return to work and
implementing technologies to keep teams working from the office and virtual teams
connected (Klazema, 2020). Reconfiguring office designs and furniture to allow for
obstructions and social distancing has been a prevalent and comprehensively delib-
erated approach (Parfentiev, 2020). An intelligent move in the return-to-work
designing process is that many organisations have grasped new digital Information
and Communication Technology resources during lockdown, to enable organisa-
tions to continue influencing and enabling stronger work-from-home agreements in
the future. Klazema (2020) posits that human resources managers must appreciate
the appointment and induction consequences of COVID-19 and the subsequent
improvement in virtual work. One of the important components of an efficient
induction process is having well-established online applications. There are many
different groups of applications to consider: Workflow applications like Trello and
Asana; video, written and verbal communication applications such as MS Teams,
Gmail, Zoom and Skype; virtual workspace applications like Slack and File-sharing
applications such as Google Drive and Dropbox.
Furthermore, it is important to create guidelines and codes of conduct for online
processes and present it as formal documentation in an easy-to-find place for
employees who are being inducted (Rue, 2020). Video interviews might replace in-
person interview procedures to reduce contact probability. The employing method
may emphasise on locating individuals who have work-from-home experience or
have strategic virtual work soft skills (including strong communication, self-
motivation and talents with technology). Klazema (2020) postulates that human
resources managers should manage background checks, which remains a critical
due diligence step in this unusual time. While the pandemic initially caused inter-
ruptions to background checks, those interruptions are no longer vital concerns for
organisations. With virtual work-from-home agreements serving as a practical
option for new employments and face-to-face interviews hypothetically becoming a
thing of the past, the method by which employers get to know their applicants and
employees has been forced to change (Dubey & Tripathi, 2020). With less personal
contact between employers and potential new employees, a formal selection process
for applicants is even more crucial than it was before.
Virtual and temporary employees can still influence organisational culture, digi-
tal workplace safety and brand reputation (Bick et al., 2020). An intelligent back-
ground check strategy that encompasses a robust collection of searches, such as
criminal history, education and employment confirmations, reference checks and
more will assist human resources managers in managing this process to ensure
strong, well-qualified employments at a time when stability is something that every
employer need (Klazema, 2020).
Human resources managers should be prepared for the future world of work. If
these human resources managers are not technology-driven, data-driven, ethically
driven, change driven, business-driven, human–machine collaboration and resilient,
they may have difficulty to add value to the organisation in the 4IR (Schultz, 2021).
In order to fully embrace the 4IR, training human resources managers on the use of
modern equipment is essential. The need to develop comprehensive and robust
training and development programmes, especially technological knowledge could
enable human resources managers to handle high volumes of digital information
(Nhede, 2018). Mefi and Asoba (2021) postulates that human resources managers
should also be aware of increased cyber influences, digitalisation, remote human
resources management, human–machine interface skills, human-organisation stra-
tegic links as well as human–technology interface competencies. Human resources
managers should consider shifting to Human Resources 4.0 through the adoption of
4IR technologies, increased automation and digitalisation as well as strengthen vir-
tualisation systems.
Conclusion
This chapter focused on a new dimension of human resources, where a change in

strategy is required to manage virtual work in the ‘new normal’. The swift innova-
tion and application of Information and Communication Technology that support
communication and teamwork among employees that are not site-located imply that
virtual environments have become a conventional characteristic of modern organ-
isations. These advancements blur the boundaries between traditional work proce-
dures embodied by face-to-face communication among fellow employees, and
evolving forms of virtual work, characterised by very high levels of exhaustive
application of Information and Communication Technology.
Henry et al. (2021) propose that the COVID-19 pandemic will increase the blur-
ring of these boundaries even more as an escalating number of ‘traditional’ organ-
isations implement Human Resources policies that endorse virtual work systems.
Against this background, this chapter advocates a concise but nuanced group of
conceptualisations which construct important human resources philosophies of vir-
tual work which were ascertained through exploration of a large compendium of
published research.
It is envisaged that this chapter offers human resources managers a conceptual

underpinning when steering empirical research of work systems that entail a virtual
environment. Exclusively, the chapter reinforces narratives of explicit virtual work
settings by guiding human resources managers’ awareness to the dynamics that
characterise it. Although work may be pronounced as virtual, the chapter provides a
foundation for human resources mangers to formulate a strategy to manage virtual
work in the ‘new normal’. Human resources managers may find value in the chapter
as a point of departure for decision making about virtual work policies. While far
from complete, the factors serve to reinforce discussion by guiding human resources
managers’ attention to an initial range of reflections. This can enhance the effi-
ciency of policy formulation, as well as its communication to employees.
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Rudolf M. Oosthuizen received a BA degree (Cum Laude) from the University of

Pretoria in 1992 and obtained a BA (Honours) in Psychology at the same university
in 1993. In 1999, he received a MA degree in Industrial and Personnel Psychology
from the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education. The title of his
dissertation was: ‘Coping of firefighters attached to a local authority, a fortigenic
approach’. In 1999, he registered as an Industrial Psychologist with the Health
Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) and is also registered since 2014 as
a Master HR Professional with the South African Board for People Practices
(SABPP). In 2005, he completed a DLitt et Phil in Industrial and Organisational
Psychology at the University of South Africa (UNISA). The title of his thesis is:
‘Job and family stressors amongst firefighters’.
Currently, Rudolf is a Professor in the Department of Industrial and Organisational
Psychology at UNISA in South Africa and an Adjunct Professor in the School of
Psychology and Counselling at the University of Southern Queensland in Australia.
Rudolf is the Manager for the MCom Industrial and Organisational Psychology
Professional Degree and is responsible for the lecturing of Honours subjects and the
supervision of Master and Doctoral students. Rudolf has presented conference
papers at national and international conferences and published extensively in
accredited scientific journals and textbooks. Rudolf’s fields of interests are (1)
career psychology, career development and management from an individual, group
and organisational perspective in the twenty-first century world of work; (2) posi-
tive psychology, with the focus on salutogenesis and well-being, sense of coher-
ence, locus of control, self-efficacy, the hardy personality and learned resourcefulness;
(3) employment relations and the improvement of the quality of employment rela-
tions in organisations and in society in general; and (4) the 4th Industrial Revolution
(Smart Technology, Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Algorithms).
Chapter 7
Remuneration in the New Normal
Mark Bussin
Introduction
COVID-19 has had a global impact on employees and workplaces (Kniffin, 2020).
The marketplace has re-evaluated jobs, deeming previously significant jobs as insig-
nificant and placing significance on previously undervalued jobs. The changing
nature of the work world has provoked changes in work practices (such as the emer-
gence of the remote work and virtual teams), social-psychological occurrences
(such as feelings of loneliness and self-motivation) and in the economic realm (such
as the reformation of the remuneration structure). The new work world and its func-
tions thus induce a variety of implications for employees, teams and organisations
(Kniffin, 2020).
COVID-19 is not only a threat to the health of the global population (Kniffin, 2020),
but it has also impacted the way in which work has been conducted. Changes in the
workplace have implications for employees’ psychological health, motivation and
ability to work in a new environment, and by new means (Bussin & Swart-Opperman,
2021). Remuneration practices have evolved over the years to accommodate the
typical structure of the workplace and the slight shifts that occur. However, the
overnight shift in workplace practices insinuates that remuneration must implement
overnight changes to accommodate the new normal.
The psychological contract has also been adapted as the shift from a physical to
a virtual workplace means that leadership has been forced to place trust in
M. Bussin (*)
University of Pretoria, Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS), Pretoria, South Africa

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_7
116 M. Bussin
employees. Employees are now less likely to be micro-managed as they need to

prove their input in terms of the final product they produce. The final product thus
acts as proof of their work, rather than the time spent in the office. This has resulted
in performance-dependent remuneration.
As a result of the focus on outcome rather than input, combined with the increas-
ing number of retrenchments and salary cuts, it is no wonder that organisations are
beginning to shift towards using contractual workers who are paid per project or
outcome. The largest implication of COVID-19 is that it brought about a work from
anywhere mentality, highlighting that work is no longer a place. This has big impli-
cations for how Performance Management and Performance Related Remuneration
is conducted and the resultant knock on effect on total remuneration.
Problem Statement
Some employees are motivated by the work environment. Some studies such as
those conducted by Riyanto et al. (2017), Chandra and dan Priyono. (2016),
Lankeshwara (2016) and Mathews and dan Khann (2015) found a significant posi-
tive effect between the work environment and employees’ performance with the
implication that a more favourable work environment has a positive effect on
employees’ performance. This suggests that some employees may rely on their
work environment, their leadership and/or their colleagues to perform better. With
the impact of COVID-19 and the need for employees to work from home, organisa-
tions must now rely on other methods to motivate performance.
One way in which motivation may be influenced is via remuneration practices
(Permadi et al., 2019). However, little is known about remuneration in the new
world of work.
Chapter Objective
The objectives of this chapter are to propose a remuneration approach for the new
normal that will not only assist employees in working in the new normal, but will
motivate them to thrive.
Research Design
This chapter takes the form of a literature study and practical experiences in the
consulting and governance environment. Seeing as COVID-19 has a fluctuating
impact resulting in the limitation on organisations to use a textbook approach, this
article will review literature sources relating to agile remuneration so that past
7 Remuneration in the New Normal 117
practices can be motivated by new methodology in motivating employees in the

new normal.
Results and Discussion
The old way of remunerating individuals is no longer sufficient as work-related fac-

tors are changing. Changes in work place factors have impacted the employee
psyche, and thus, the functioning of the organisation. This section discusses the
factors contributing to the new way of work, and the implications, before discussing
a remuneration framework for the new normal.
rief Description of General Remuneration Practices Prior

B
to COVID
While every country and organisation had slight variations in remuneration

approach, there were some common truisms. For example, very tight job descrip-
tions which lead to very narrow grade structures and tight pay ranges. Performance
management systems generally measured KPAs (key performance areas) and KPIs
(key performance indicators) that were written in an extremely strict, focused and
measurable way. Some Performance management systems went as far as telling
employees how to do their job. This resulted in tall organisation structures, narrow
pay scales and rigid pay progression policies. Agile organisations require the exact
opposite and it is this agility that has caused changes in the remuneration systems.
The short-term incentive (STI) and long-term incentive (LTI) schemes have
always been output, outcomes and mostly financially based, so these have been
impacted to a lesser extent. However, the big shift in variable pay came in the form
of ESG (Environment, Social and Governance) metrics. Particularly Environmental,
which includes employees. It seeks a more humane way of measuring and treating
employees. A few big pillars of the Social construct are DEI (Diversity, Equity and
Inclusion) and this is weighted between 10% and 20% in an executive’s STI and LTI.
Arguably, prior to COVID and the new way of doing things, a strong driver and
meaning to strive for was – get more in to my job description so that my grade can
go up so that I can earn more money. The new normal has successfully introduced
the concept of purpose in to not only remuneration, but the purpose of the organisa-
tion. Why do we actually exist has been asked by most Boards now and the concept
of a purpose-driven organisation has evolved. The implication of this is that employ-
ees want to know why they are doing something. Not just what do you want me to do.
The need for agility, inclusion of ESG metrics and the purpose-driven organisa-
tion have called for changes in the remuneration systems, processes and perfor-
mance management.
118 M. Bussin
Changing Work Factors
1. The Introduction of Work from Home:

The physical workplace has changed with employees being required to work
from home. This means that their setup is dependent on their own factors and
ergonomics (Virtanen, 2020). Employees who may share a room with many
people are now required to work in there. This may affect their productivity and
their ability to produce quality work. Additionally, they may not have all the
necessary equipment needed to successfully fulfil their job roles. This may result
in employee’s anxiety (Shanafelt et al., 2020). The onus is on organisations to
effectively prepare and equip employees to work at home. The shift from the
workplace to working from home has also required employees to be adaptable
(Kniffin, 2020).
2. Virtual Teams:
Employees are now expected to navigate team efforts via online platforms
(Kniffin, 2020). Employees have also been required to become adaptable by
their mode of communication with other individuals.
3. Virtual Leadership:
Leadership has been faced with the difficult task of supervising subordinates
from a distance. Leadership must do this while tackling the challenges that
COVID-19 brings to organisations (Kniffin, 2020).
Implication of New Changes
1. Psychological Impact on Motivation:

The change the pandemic has forced upon organisations has significantly
impacted the psyche of employees. With facing a life-threatening pandemic,
overnight changes in the workplace and the way work is carried out, the motiva-
tion of employees may be on the decline. Despite the fact that remote work may
increase employee’s motivation (Virtanen, 2020), employees who are resistant to
change may experience decreased motivation.
2. Psychological Impact of Isolation:
The impact of social distancing and forcing people to work apart can negatively
affect employee’s mental health (Kniffin, 2020). For many, the workplace is a
place of human connection (Virtanen, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has
destroyed the human connection for many.
3. Psychological Impact of Layoffs:
With the economic impact of the pandemic, many organisations have been
forced to downsize. This has led to a significant number of layoffs and unem-
ployment. Individuals who have survived downsizing initiatives at their organ-
isation may feel survivor’s guilt, which affects their productivity. Additionally, it
may cause them increased stress for fear of losing their own jobs. This may
hamper their productivity and have other negative implications for their perfor-
mance (Kniffin, 2020). This was confirmed by a study that showed that employ-
ees who remained at the organisation after a crisis had lower job satisfaction and
motivation (Elshaer & Saad, 2016). Remaining at the organisation while experi-
encing lower motivation gives way to presenteeism (Kniffin, 2020). Presenteeism
refers to ‘coming to work’ but not effectively carrying out one’s work duties. The
pandemic has seen increasing presenteeism as employees undergo stress and
negative emotion but are still required to work (Probst et al., 2021). Additionally,
they may be sick but still work for fear of losing their jobs.
4. Impact of Perceived Inequality:
Economic inequality is expected to result from the shock of the COVID-19 pan-
demic. Perceptions of inequality are commonly associated with employee burn-
out, withdrawal and/or deviant behaviours (Kniffin, 2020).
5. Impact on Teams:
With the distance factor now affecting teams, some employees may find it more
difficult to create and maintain the rapport between team members. This could
result in feelings of resentment and misunderstandings, specifically when indi-
viduals do not have sufficient access to virtual platforms.
6. Impact on Productivity:
Some employees may be less productive in the new normal. This may be as a
result of feelings of lack of support or motivation from leadership, team mem-
bers or colleagues. The new environment in which they work may also impact
their productivity. For instance, individuals may have young families at home to
which they are now required to attend to during working hours. This is desirable
for employees’ work–life balance (Virtanen, 2020), but in some cases, could
affect employee productivity.
7. Stress:
The combination of factors leading to the great change in work factors may lead
to stress of employees (Bussin & Swart-Opperman, 2021). Furthermore, it is
increasingly difficult for organisations to recognise ill health in employees
from afar.
8. Addiction:
As per the negative consequences of the pandemic, it is increasingly likely for
employees to engage in substance misuse (Kniffin, 2020).
The Changing Value of Jobs
The value of jobs has changed significantly with an increase on value on jobs related
to survival such as food, healthcare and technology. The nature in which previous
services are provided has shifted to an online base.
1. Life-sustaining workers are more important (hospital or food-providers)
2. Technologically performed jobs are more important
3. Service jobs shift to online service
120 M. Bussin
The Changing Nature of Remuneration
Current COVID-Induced Remuneration Practices
Over and above the shift to a virtual workplace with more flexible work schedules,
the following trends have been visible. The dominant theme emerging here is that of
a more humane approach to remuneration and total reward practices. A much greater
lens has emerged which starts with the organisation moving from a shareholder
view to stakeholder view, which is far more inclusive; and from profit only to pur-
pose. This has undoubtedly filtered down to the individual employee. Employees
have had a few rough years starting not so long ago with GFC (Global Financial
Crisis), on to BLM (Black Lives Matter) and then COVID, so this more humane
approach is very welcome for the mental wellness of our employees.
1. For most organisations, the last few years were about staying in business, pre-
venting job losses, taking pay cuts and benchmarking with institutional inves-
tors as to their views on STI (short-term incentive) and LTI (long-term incentive)
targets. The general theme was ‘no in-flight changes’ to any variable pay
metrics.
2. The Pandemic has led to employee anxiety and the onus is on leadership to
show compassion. Retrenchments and job losses continue, pay cuts have
stopped, and the government has had a slight shift towards livelihoods on par
with lives (there was previously a very strong leaning towards lives ahead of
livelihoods). Work From Anywhere (WFA) policies and procedures are now in
place for most organisations and STI and LTI targets have been recalibrated for
the new normal.
3. The total remuneration philosophy has had many changes, especially in the
governance arena – calling for tighter governance over remuneration in organ-
isations. The most common updates required are mostly on the variable pay,
flatter structures, broader bands, wider pay scales and a revamp of performance
management. Performance management revamps include – nuking inputs and
activities and replacing them with outputs, outcomes and impact.
4. While base pay cuts happen in cases of alleviating retrenchment, a minority of
organisations are giving employees a once-off allowance to cover the additional
cost of using their own data when working from home.
5. Most organisations have revisited their STIs, metrics, quanta and scheme rules.
For example, organisations have the right to revisit targets if the assumptions
that were made during the scheme design differ by more than 20%.
6. Share incentives has been an area of overhaul, especially for shares that are
under water. Where organisations have had say 10 years of stellar results, and
now through no fault of their own the top executives are not in the money, reten-
tion arrangements are being made.
7. Other trends on variable pay relate to banking of STIs and LTIs or conversion
to share-based payments with longer vesting periods for past performance
before COVID-19; revision of target setting to adjust to new strategies during
COVID-19; increased usage of environment, social and governance (ESG) tar-

gets in light of a re-setting of business priorities; and a deliberate focus away
from shareholderism to stakeholderism.
8. In a recent Global Governance and Executive Compensation Group (GECN)
survey, the top 100 American companies surveyed had increased their Executive
median pay by 18%. This was way ahead of lower level worker increases, which
was more closely aligned with inflation at 4.2%. The wage gap, which we refer
to as the vertical pay gap, is increasing globally, with no sign of it being arrested.
Studies such as those conducted by Green and Zhou (2019) have found that pay
inequality is associated with decreased employee morale and productivity, and
ultimately, organisational performance. The concept of fairness determines
employees’ effort to assist organisations in reaching their goals. If remuneration
is not perceived as fair among employees, they are less likely to support or
remain at an organisation, and will direct their efforts towards assisting organ-
isational goal achievement at an organisation where they feel they are treated
fairly. For this reason, organisations have received increasing pressure to recon-
sider their remuneration policies. Focus has been placed on closing the wage
inequality gap, but with such a large gap, companies need to rethink their remu-
neration strategies on a large scale. Organisations are increasingly disclosing
their wage gap in their integrated reports, which demonstrates a commitment to
track it and try to close it. The horizontal pay gap – the pay gap between jobs on
the same level doing similar work, is of equal concern. That gap in South Africa
is around 15%, and only by constant transparency and reporting will we stand
a chance of closing it.
9. Remuneration committees are being compelled to address diversity and inclu-
sion – not only at executive level but also at management level. Companies are
routinely setting diversity targets and conducting gender/race pay equity audits.
They are also moving from meeting the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE)
listing requirement of diversity statistics at Board level to actively targeting
Board representation through inclusion. This speaks to the previous motivation
of organisations to accommodate their employees’ feelings of fair treatment.
The topic of diversity in the workforce is also applicable to generational diver-
sity, where different generations have different reward preferences. Generation
Z employees, who comprise about 36% of the workforce globally, have intro-
duced a requirement for individualised rewards, and expect to be rewarded
according to their preferences. This has caused organisations to rethink their
rewards strategies in the face of diversity challenges.
10. The inclusion of ESG measures in corporate scorecards, STIs and LTIs is a
growing trend that has been accelerated by the move to stakeholderism and the
effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.
11. In a recent worldwide study by GECN (2021) of ESG measures in incentives,
Social Metrics are the most common measure. Around 61% of the companies
surveyed were implementing Social Metrics, followed by Customer (37%),
Governance (32%), Environmental and Climate (25%) and Community (10%).
In the Social category, employee engagement, diversity, equity and inclusion
122 M. Bussin
(DEI), and health and safety are the most widely implemented. Within the cus-
tomer category, customer satisfaction is the most common.
12. The new way of working is an important trend that is causing a major change
among companies and their workforces. Many directors view virtual Board
meetings as just as effective as in-person meetings. The lack of non-verbal com-
munication is stated as the highest-ranked challenge of virtual meetings, but
even in this less optimal environment, most directors believe that they have
been able to perform their work effectively.
13. Virtual Board meetings are here to stay. Based on their experiences over the last
year, large majorities of directors expect to see virtual Board and committee
meetings in the future. They also view virtual Board engagement as a useful
tool to enhance Board effectiveness. Companies are allowing employees (who
can) to work remotely and are realising that the contingent workforce can be
replaced by virtual full-time equivalents who are more integrated and aligned to
the company culture and vision. This is having an interesting impact on salary
benchmarking globally. Multinationals are taking the cost of living and pur-
chasing power parity of various countries into account when setting global pay.
14. Performance management has to be adapted for remote working conditions and
is moving from inputs and outputs to outputs and outcomes. Employees are
being empowered to act as leaders and are given more autonomy and purpose.
The methods and speed of communication are being adapted for the virtual
environment.
15. Agile work teams are quickly established to capitalise on opportunities and then
disbanded just as quickly once the project is complete. New opportunities and
career paths need to be developed to adapt to the changing environment of
work, so re-training and re-skilling of employees has become part of the new
employee value proposition as companies transform into learning and develop-
ment centres. Organisations face challenges rewarding individuals without
causing internal conflict and feelings of unfairness as some are awarded more
than others. Agile team rewards bring about challenges such as these, and may
rather demotivate employees and negatively affect their performance. Thus,
agile team remuneration trends point to challenges in the reward system. We
have learnt that to overcome this, team rewards must be paid on top of fair base
pay. You can expect to see a growth of team-based pay.
16. Another major trend is employee wellness and engagement. Most organisations
are reviewing their employee value proposition – with a huge emphasis on
employee wellness – whether it is an outsourced tailor-made programme or an
in-house designed programme. Companies are including employee wellness
measures in their ESG implementations, prioritising employee engagement,
employee retention and employee health.
17. The new social contract and the business purpose of preserving human life and
livelihoods are significant challenges, but if executives step up by walking the
talk with employees and stakeholders, it will go a long way to addressing the
current social and environmental problems that arise during times of crisis. This
is being weaved in to the metrics of incentive scheme design.
18. With the workplace moving to a virtual space, organisations now have the
opportunity to access talent anywhere in the world, without imposing relocation
challenges on these individuals. This means that talent has the opportunity to
work in any country they wish, without needing to acquire a work visa, having
to undergo the experience of culture shock (feelings of disorientation that expa-
triates or foreigners undergo when having to live or work in another country
with an alien culture and way of living), or undergoing familial challenges aris-
ing from the need to work elsewhere. Yet with the elimination of the obstacles
that prevent talent from being able to work internationally, organisations now
not only have to compete nationally, but internationally, too. In this instance,
organisations are re-examining their remuneration practices to compete
internationally.
19. The World Economic Forum (2021) predicted that by 2030, over one billion
people would need to be reskilled to keep up with the demands of technological
advances. The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated this need insurmountably,
meaning that organisations have had to cultivate an agile workforce that is pre-
pared for this drastic change. This has resulted in the need for upskilling and
reskilling; however, these come with remuneration implications. Skill-based
pay systems will increase as organisations will hone in much more carefully on
what skills they are prepared to pay for.
Looking in to the future, Remuneration Governance will become more important.
This all starts with the Remuneration Sub-committee of the Board.
emuneration Committees, Governance

R
and Remunerating Executives
As the business world feels the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and takes steps
to adapt, remuneration committees are asking how they should approach their exec-
utives’ remuneration during the evolving landscape. Why is it so important for
Boards and remuneration committees to address this issue?
First, South Africa is one of the most unequal societies in the world, with the
world’s largest Gini co-efficient – a measure of inequality between the haves and
have-nots. Second, business purpose is moving quickly from making profits for
shareholders towards a new social contract – a commitment to collaboration that
addresses shared social and environmental problems. This involves the move from
‘shareholderism’ to ‘stakeholderism’, in other words, a move from capitalism
towards prioritising the protection and quality of life. Third, governance has been
catapulted into the limelight under the banner of ESG, with a fresh look at ESG
measures that address the ‘reset’ that society is demanding. These themes have
resulted in the following top seven remuneration committee and executive remu-
neration occurrences around the world, both in developed and developing economies:
124 M. Bussin
• Increasing mandates of remuneration committees.

• Reducing the wage gap or increasing the median pay of workers.
• Addressing gender/race/ethnicity diversity and inclusion.
• Inclusion of ESG measures in STIs and LTIs.
• Evolving performance management for a less contingent and greater virtual
workforce.
• Employee wellness and engagement.
• The design of new pay systems for new profile leaders.
Remuneration committees’ mandates have been challenged by the wider stake-
holder (e.g. institutional investors, regulators, shareholders), and internally, to
become more inclusive and farther reaching in their oversight. Remuneration com-
mittee charters are extending their original mandates from all aspects of executive
compensation, disclosure and shareholder engagement to include broad-based
human capital strategies; human capital management (e.g. retention, talent manage-
ment, diversity, pay equity, gender and ethnic gap, recruiting practices, performance
management, workforce management, employee engagement and employment
value proposition); talent management policies, programmes and processes, includ-
ing training and development, promotions, termination provisions, and others; suc-
cession planning; and internal disclosures.
The wage gap or pay ratio (measures of pay between the CEO or top earners and
the bottom earners or median of all employee salaries) has become a growing issue
worldwide. The alternative remedies that are being considered around the world
include some of the following: legislated compensation caps; governance struc-
tures; percentage of wage bill spent on executives; executive pay limits as a portion
of net income; 5-year moving average pay gap targets; executive pay freezes or
variable pay deferments (largely driven by COVID-19); and profit sharing across all
staff. Remuneration committees are responding to this by adopting strategies that
address the growing wage gap, not only to arrest it but also to try to reduce it
over time.
The inclusion of ESG measures (the shift to non-financial measures) in corporate
scorecards has become a growing trend that has been accelerated by the move to
stakeholderism and the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic (GECN, 2021). Typical
measures include the following:
• Social: fatalities, injuries, illnesses, exposure to harmful substances, workplace
policies, gender balance, diversity and inclusion, employee engagement,
employee voluntary turnover, training and development, behaviours, ethics, val-
ues and culture. This approach bodes much better for an employees’ well-being,
both physically and mentally. It has become a Board imperative and forms part
of corporate scorecards.
• Environment: greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (South Africa is the 14th largest
emitter in the world), non-renewable energy, renewable energy, environmental
incidents, air quality, land management, water and wastewater management,
waste and hazardous materials management and sustainability measures.
• Customer: customer satisfaction, customer net promoter score (CNPS), customer

complaints, customer resolutions, product quality and product safety.
• Community: community incidents, community complaints and community
investments.
• Governance: governance at the Board level, governance at the executive level,
risk management, compliance, behaviours, ethics, values and culture.
There is a worldwide move to increase the inclusion of intangible assets and non-
financial metrics in a company valuation that gives organisations a sense of higher
purpose. This purpose and significantly improved raison d’etre filter down to
employees. They can now see a vision that they can believe in. For this reason, ESG
measures are becoming a growing part of executive incentive key performance indi-
cators (KPIs). In South Africa, ESG measures make up between 10% and 30% of
short-term incentive measures and 10% to 20% of long-term incentive measures. If
ESG measures in incentives are warranted, then management and the compensation
committee will want to consider emerging best practices in design:
• Select one to three goals that are consistent with the company’s purpose, reflect
business priorities and culture, and resonate with plan participants; in other
words, do not overcomplicate or dilute the focus of the plan.
• Weight measures in a meaningful way (most companies currently weight such
measures at approximately 20%).
• Set clear goals for each measure.
• Determine whether to incorporate measures in short- and/or long-term incen-
tives, considering the time horizon of the journey as well as the challenge in
setting goals.
• Craft the narrative for communication materials to investors, employees and
other constituencies to test the consistency and credibility of the message before
decisions are made.
Leaders require new leadership profiles for the new way of work. These include
dealing with constant change and uncertainty; evaluating and taking prudent risks;
embracing a decentralised environment with remote working; creating a learning
and development environment (as opposed to traditional management); empower-
ing employees and creating a culture of trust; and embracing company purpose and
a vision of long-term value creation and sustainability.
The pay system needs to be customised so that it meets the needs of the changing
environment and executive profile. Crucial elements of the new pay system design
need to include an emphasis on the risk reward ratio (variable pay mix and pay/
performance link); finding the leading indicators in the business; a renewed focus
on recognition; increased use of team-based incentives; increased use of discretion
in incentives within governance guidelines; lengthening and increasing long-term
incentive components; and increasing employee choice of benefits and
customisation.
The importance of applying human-focused design principles to help align
remuneration practices with evolving organisational objectives cannot be
126 M. Bussin
underestimated. Starting with the job description, it needs to take the new blended
and hybrid approach in to account. We need to move to role descriptions, which is
actually more like how humans do their work. The job evaluation systems need to
be broader banded to accommodate the more humane way of working in teams. The
performance management system also needs to be redesigned to remove the inhu-
mane measurement of inane inputs to a more holistic approach of measuring out-
comes ad impact. For it is when one sees the impact of one’s work that one really
appreciates why one does what one does.
The collaboration between a new social contract and the business purpose of
preserving human life and livelihoods is a challenge. If executives step up to this
challenge by walking the talk with employees and stakeholders, it will go a long
way to addressing shared social and environmental problems that arise during times
of crisis.
Implications for Practice
The above-mentioned points allow for insight into to the world of remuneration
committees, executive committees and HR. Now it is important to consider the role
of HR in the new world of remuneration.
Build a performance-based reward model The benefit of linking remuneration to
performance outcomes is that to a certain extent it allows ambitious employees to be
the masters of their own financial destiny. Even those employees not driven by
money will recognise the importance of this differentiation. We have found that
when an organisation does not link pay with performance, the effect is an
organisation-wide decrease in performance levels and an increased risk of talent
looking elsewhere for opportunities.
Address fair pay for gig workers Gig workers are not covered by company benefits
such as medical aid or retirement plans. This means that their pay has to be fair in
order for them to live life on a par with their peers and afford them the financial
access to the health, safety, food needs and educational needs of their children so
they may be able to live a quality life. We should not forget that they are also respon-
sible for additional costs such as training. All gig workers should receive equal pay
for equal work, equivalent to the going market rate for that particular trade, but
should also be compensated according to the external factors that they do not receive
from full-time employment at an organisation. These individuals must be finan-
cially recognised for their risk taken and their outcomes produced, and should also
be respected as professionals.
Build trust among employees With the large-scale downsizing that came with
COVID-19, employees who have remained at the organisation may be left with trust
issues as they have seen what the organisation is capable of doing and feel that their
jobs are no longer secure. In such cases, it is important to be entirely transparent.

When employees are taken by surprise, the after-effects are amplified.
Communicating with facts is an effective way to help employees understand what is
going on and why. Allow them to air their questions and provide them with psycho-
logical support. This demonstrates that you are truly concerned about their welfare
and are committed to concretising the relationship.
From rigid to agile practice Move from job descriptions to role profiles, from tall
hierarchy to flatter structures and for narrow pay scales to broader bands. This not
only takes the reality of how we work in to account, it is more reflective of humane
HR and remuneration practices because it is less patronising.
Organisations may use the proposed remuneration approach to motivate their

employees in an unreliable and volatile context. Theoretically, this approach is
grounded in research and current practice. However, in a practical sense, organisa-
tions will have to take precaution in implementing measures as no one-size-fits-all
approach can be adopted. The approach is dependent on the organisation’s market
and organisational factors.
Limitations
Although this literature review has combined previous methods of remuneration

with novel methods of remuneration, little research has been conducted on the topic
of remuneration in the COVID-19 pandemic and thus, a quantitative approach can-
not be systematically created to inform remuneration practice implementation in the
context of the new normal. The reader must rely on past remuneration practices and
generalise them to the current context.
In light of the aforementioned limitations, it is suggested that academics perform

quantitative research in terms of best practice implementation in the context of the
COVID-19 pandemic.
128 M. Bussin
Conclusion
This chapter examined remuneration in the unreliable context of the COVID-19

pandemic. It assessed various literary sources and combined them to determine best
practice in generating desired employee performance while considering the impact
COVID-19 has on their psychological well-being and their ability to work under
new circumstances overnight. Thereafter, a remuneration approach was proposed
concerning agile remuneration, based on past practices in less extreme contexts in
attempt to apply them to the current extreme context, for which, research lacks.
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Mark Bussin consults widely in the area of Strategy, HR and Remuneration and
has worked in the C-suite of 4 Multinational companies. He is a visiting professor
at several universities and has published 15 books, 70 peer-reviewed journal articles
and successfully supervised 13 doctoral and 75 masters. Mark sits on several
Boards, Audit and Risk and HR/Remuneration Committees in both private sector
and public sector. He is a member of the King Committee.
Chapter 8
Remuneration Strategies in the New
Normal
Magda Bezuidenhout
Introduction
The effect of COVID-19 has caused, for example sizable debt levels, rising costs
and declining balance sheets within various businesses. This resulted in organisa-
tions being pressed to implement cost-cutting measures, such as suspending or
decreasing employee remuneration and benefits. Over and above affecting several
organisation’s short-term policies, the pandemic has also unlocked debate about
reviewing employee rewards and benefits in the long term (Am et al., 2020;
PriceWaterhouse Coopers, 2020). This fluctuating business setting, signified by
uncertainty, resulted in organisations being unable to cope with the new normal
whilst ensuring that their business processes are efficiently managed. In fact, over-
seeing human resources turn out to be even more taxing (Janatdari, 2020), with the
core HRM functions undergoing drastic change. This has resulted in remuneration
management taking centre stage (Adikaram et al., 2021).
To add to this, the resulting consequences of COVID-19 are challenging organ-
isations like never before. The gravity of its effect on business and commercial
activity is still growing. Organisations are therefore concentrating on new strategies
and priorities going forward (Ebrahimi, 2020). COVID-19 and 4IR have revolution-
ised the way organisations are thinking about working. It is, therefore, necessary for
organisations to ensure that their approach to reward is redefined in line with the
emerging new normal.
M. Bezuidenhout (*)
e-mail: bezuiml@unisa.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_8
132 M. Bezuidenhout
Problem Statement
The purpose of this chapter was to explore the effect of COVID-19 (and 4IR) on
remuneration practices/strategies within organisations. At this stage, it is unclear
whether the traditional approach to paying people is still feasible (Sammer, 2020).
Schultz (2019) postulates that as organisations move towards the future and adjust
to new environments, HR practitioners should remain well-informed of changes to
plan for the future world of work. One of the conundrums that HR practitioners will
have to deal with is the effect of COVID-19 on an organisation’s workforce (Bussin
& Swart-Opperman, 2021). However, studies focusing on the influence of this crisis
on HRM, especially in the field of remuneration are limited (Hamouche, 2020).
The objectives of this chapter first are to discuss workforce-related strategies that
organisations can use in the ‘recovery’ of the aftermath of COVID-19. Second, to
discuss the implications of 4IR on remuneration strategies within the remuneration
field. Finally, to propose workforce-related strategies that organisations can con-
sider for the new normal that will help organisations to motivate their employees in
the new normal, and to adjust their remuneration strategies.
Research Design
This chapter is presented in the form of a literature study, with consideration to

practices within the remuneration environment. Taking into consideration the
ambiguous effect that COVID-19 has had on organisations, using the normal aca-
demic methodology was not possible. This chapter, therefore, reviewed sources
relating to both scholarly peer-reviewed articles and agile remuneration articles
from a practical point of view to determine the way forward in terms of remunera-
tion strategies in the new normal.
COVID-19 has not only shifted the debate about the future work into the present, it
has also challenged organisation’s creativity and innovation, driving dialogs around
the future of work (Hite & McDonald, 2020). It has also emphasised the need for a
long-term stance that does not just rebuild from past models by developing strate-
gies that create strength for future crises (Hite & McDonald, 2020). It is therefore
8 Remuneration Strategies in the New Normal 133
necessary for organisations to move from traditional remuneration strategies (fixed,

variable, fill-time workers) to an ‘a la carte’ package. This could include for exam-
ple pay on-demand, project-based pay, fixed pay and more (Hamouche, 2020;
Starner, 2020). However, there are lower level positions where individuals are not
adequately paid and where money is critical to their survival. For this reason,
Piwowar-Suley (2020) postulates that conventional cash-based remuneration sys-
tems will nevertheless be in effect post-COVID-19. Establishing and applying the
most suitable remuneration strategy is therefore not a one-size-fits-all approach.
Organisations should award base salaries to employees’ skills. As those employ-
ees’ progress through various projects and teams, their skills will be critical to how
they contribute to the organisation. However, before an organisation can reward
employees according to their skills, a database, describing employees’ abilities and
the skills needed by the organisation, need to be developed. The pressure to change
throughout a pandemic or other turmoil can make such a database of existing com-
petencies increasingly important (Tytle, 2021). Employers who would like to
strengthen the organisation’s resilience and adaptability could propose implement-
ing skills-based pay (SBP). With SBP, employers could distinguish pay by means of
variable incentives that can be withdrawn without effort (Sammer, 2020). From this,
it is evident that there are changing preferences and an emerging new normal that
organisations will have to consider (KPMG, 2020).
Remuneration Strategies and Total Rewards
A remuneration strategy is a written statement that defines how the organisation

plans to remunerate its employees. Even though employers’ and employees’ moti-
vation in developing a remuneration strategy differ, what is important is that an
efficient remuneration strategy is designed to support the organisation in attaining
its strategic goals and objectives (Guidice, 2021). This strategy will focus on the
actions and practices the organisation can apply to make sure that the remuneration
goals and the organisation’s goals are aligned (Coetzee et al., 2020, p. 167). It is
therefore imperative to take the organisation’s strategic objectives into account
when developing its remuneration strategy (Guidice, 2021), especially with all the
changes that occurred because of COVID-19 and industry 4.0. An organisation’s
remuneration strategy therefore needs to be flexible enough so that the organisa-
tion’s talent and resources are secure, regardless of adversities caused by economic
outlook (or a crisis such as COVID-19) (Starner, 2020).
Remuneration strategies such as performance-based remuneration programmes
also need to be revisited. It will be required of future reward schemes to acknowl-
edge more collective successes as well as individual achievements (Wingrove,
2020). This compels organisations to redefine their reward strategies regarding base
pay and benefits, as well as performance related rewards (Wingrove, 2020). De-la-
Calle-Durán and Rodríguez-Sánchez (2021) postulate that it would be an oversight
to abolish individual or team performance rewards or variable income. This will
134 M. Bezuidenhout
result in employees being demoralised in times of crisis/change. In respect of indi-

vidual rewards, according to Badion (2021) and Wingrove (2020) organisations
should make sure that their reward strategies capitalise on their approach towards:
• Additional benefits, for example working hours and location flexibility, vacation,
insurances, healthcare, and facilities (i.e. gyms and cafeterias, work station
resources).
• Non-financial rewards, for instance empowerment, timely personal recognition,
development opportunities, team engagement, autonomy.
• Promoting external equity/external competitiveness. Because COVID-19
affected each industry differently, it is important to know how other organisa-
tions in the same industry/field are managing increases and bonuses.
It is important for organisations to utilise robust information to support a detailed
awareness of what is required now and, in the future, to balance business needs with
the ability to attract, retain and reward employees using every total rewards tool
(Findley Inc., 2020). An organisation’s remuneration strategy should therefore
respond to the new work scenario and according to Westfall (2021), 76% of compa-
nies have altered their remuneration strategy because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Therefore, moving forward, the aftermaths of the COVID-19 will transform an
organisation’s decisions regarding their remuneration strategies in the long term. In
fact, planning, implementing and analysing remuneration strategies as an element
of an employer’s total rewards (TR) strategy requires agility and perseverance
(Findley Inc., 2020).
Findings and Discussion
This section will discuss various concepts relating to the changing nature of remu-
neration within the new normal. But first, a brief discussion of the influence of
COVID-19 and 4IR on remuneration strategies/practices, where after the changing
nature of work and lastly the proposed considerations in terms of remuneration
strategies will be discussed.
COVID-19 and Remuneration
The coronavirus pandemic that hit the world in 2020 took employee remuneration
on a roller coaster ride with tight labour markets and soaring remuneration ahead of
stay-at-home instructions and increased unemployment (Tytle, 2021). Organisations
were forced to implement cost reduction measures to survive during the pandemic.
This resulted in disruptions to their business activities. Organisations were also
compelled to make arduous choices such as retrenchments and layoffs as a measure
to cut on payroll costs (Adikaram et al., 2021). It is noted that businesses employed
payroll savings differently. Some organisations opted for salary cuts/reductions to

manage headcount without resorting to retrenchments. However, the pandemic’s
influence on remuneration is not as far-reaching as with previous downturns (Tytle,
2021). Countless job seekers were prepared to ‘hold out for more money’ instead of
receiving a reduction in remuneration. These job seekers presumed that the econ-
omy will normalise once a COVID-19 vaccine becomes available (Tytle, 2021).
Fourth Industrial Revolution and Remuneration
The fourth industrial revolution (4IR) or industry 4.0 (these will be interchangeably
used in this chapter), is presenting technologies that alter the lines amongst the
physical, digital and biological domains across all areas (Piwowar-Sulej, 2020:104).
Technologies such as artificial intelligence, quantum computing and robotics will
all radically surpass any digital growth brought about during the past 60 years
(Piwowar-Sulej, 2020).
Because of 4IR, organisations will have to adopt a new approach to rewards
(Reward & Employee Benefits Association, 2019). Changes within the industrial
domain will lead to changes in the world of work. Certain jobs will cease to exist,
with new or modified jobs emerging – new skills and competencies will be required
from employees (Helm, 2018; Grzybowska & Łupicka, 2017a, 2017b). Piwowar-
Sulej (2020) postulates that because employees will have to be ready for new chal-
lenges related to technological changes, employers should focus on competencies
that would be needed to achieve their business objective. This is to ensure that
organisations remain competitive and agile. Organisations should therefore ensure
that their workforce pursue training required to fill any skills gaps. It is important
for employees to obtain skills ‘on-demand’ to adjust to their roles and responsibili-
ties that have been transformed (Hinton, 2018). Linking to this, Pedron (2018) pos-
tulates that it is imperative that the workforce be retrained and coached to cope with
changing work demands. This will guarantee that employees have appropriate and
relevant skills to stay competitive in industry 4.0. This implies that in the re-
evaluation of remuneration strategies, organisations should consider implementing
competency-based pay (CBP) as well as skills-based pay (SBP).
With industry 4.0, a challenge would be the evolving employer–employee rela-
tionship and how it will affect payroll. Ten Bulte (2018) found that, in terms of
remuneration, more flexible and individual rewards should be offered by providing
benefits such as cafeteria-style benefits. The remuneration system in the 4IR should
furthermore match an employee’s contribution to the organisation. It is therefore
important that employees receive remuneration based upon individual, group and
organisational performance (Shamim et al., 2016). It is further important that organ-
isations ensure that there is a connection between performance and reward, i.e.
profit sharing and additional incentive pay. However, organisations need to design
and implement a target-based incentives policy that aligns to the new work environ-
ment (De-la-Calle-Durán & Rodríguez-Sánchez, 2021).
136 M. Bezuidenhout
Emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence will automate most of the

HR procedures, shifting HR services towards a Smart HR concept (Sivathanu &
Pillai, 2018). Table 8.1 presents how remuneration, as an element of HRM, is sus-
tained by conventional IT and how it will be sustained by ubiquitous computing
technologies (Piwowar-Sulej, 2020). Conventional technology is explained by
interconnections emanating from IT devices that adopt a fixed tangible correlation
between the employee and their workplace. Ubiquitous computing technology is
characterised by connections based upon sensors and devices ingrained in products,
processes, individuals, and buildings and on infinite access to computing, data and
communication networks from any location at any time (Piwowar-Sulej, 2020, p.108).
When discussing changes in remuneration strategies, employers should be mind-
ful of the various types of occupations and functions in the organisation (Piwowar-
Sulej, 2020:109). It is furthermore important for organisations to analyse the level
of high-tech maturity of the existing place of work, the area, or the country
(Piwowar-Sulej, 2020). The impact of 4IR will however not be the same for low-
skilled, medium-skilled and experienced employees as reflected in Table 8.2
(Piwowar-Sulej, 2020:109). It is acknowledged that the opinions presented in the
table are new and controversial. The benefits of paying in cryptocurrency are for
example, increased security and stable prices. The lawful identification of crypto-
currencies like Bitcoin has not been approved in South Africa; however, the
Table 8.1 Approaches to remuneration supported by traditional and ubiquitous computing

technologies
Element Supported by traditional technology Supported by ubiquitous computing
Remuneration Pay systems are based on manual job Software manages pay-survey analyses,
evaluation, pay-survey analyses, complex bonus and commission
spreadsheets to analyse bonus and structures, reports and analytics. Pay is
commission structures based on specific work output
Source: Adapted from Piwowar-Sulej (2020:108)
Table 8.2 Changes in remuneration related to 4IR

Low-skilled Creative jobs, highly skilled
HRM element employees Medium-skilled employees specialists, managers
Remuneration More cafeteria More cafeteria Less cash-based rewards, more
remuneration remuneration. New line IT freedom/choices
systems for building an More cafeteria remuneration
individualised total Newline IT systems for building
remuneration package an individualised total
Bitcoin remuneration package
Bitcoin
Combination of data
‘on-demand” – artificial
intelligence used in order to deliver
market reports about remuneration
and benefits for different positions
Source: Adapted from Piwowar-Sulej (2020:110)
prospective use thereof as a payment method should not be disregarded as it does

have certain benefits (Hamukuaya, 2021). A disadvantage, however, is that the legit-
imacy of paying the workforce in cryptocurrency is unknown.
The following are examples of challenges identified within the remuneration
field relating to the 4IR which organisations would need to consider (Wisskirchen
et al., 2017; World Economic Forum, 2016: 17):
• Formula-based pay. For example, if an employee currently fulfils several roles,
how will an organisation pay the employee during the 4IR? Will the employee be
paid for the primary role and then be paid in addition for additional skills?
• Flexible remuneration structures: If poorly formulated, it can be in contravention
with the equal payment concept. Where positions require equal skill, effort, and
responsibility, and where these positions are performed under similar working
conditions, it is mandatory for organisations to pay employees equally regardless
of their sexual orientation. However, the phrase ‘equal work’ in the context of
4IR is relatively vague.
• Flexible-work: telecommunication, co-worker spaces, virtual teams, freelancing,
and online talent platforms will be exceeding the physical boundaries of the
office. It will furthermore redefine the boundary between one’s job and private
life. In addition, with more flexible working hours and the managing of extra
responsibilities, there seems to be a greater need for more flexible
remuneration.
• Performance-related remuneration. With the 4IR, it would be possible for
employees to work any time and at anywhere. This means that the traditional
working time model and working hours-related payment will not be appropriate
anymore.
• Legislative minimum wage until now is not yet adjusted to requirements of
4IR. The associated element for the minimum wage is ‘time wage’. Since collec-
tive bargaining agreements apply in many sectors, organisations need to ensure
that employees’ remunerations are above the respective minimum wage – this
despite the type of remuneration chosen.
• Pay-on demand. In the new era of the 4IR, funds are directly deposited, since
organisations do not need time to accumulate cash, or calculate taxes manually.
Pay-on demand enables employees to receive their remuneration for time they
have worked but have not been paid yet. Employees can therefore obtain funds
when unforeseen expenses occur as they do not have to wait for the next salary
date. However, with pay-on demand, organisations need to consider the pay-out
limits. Employees are only entitled to a pre-determined percentage or rand
amount during each pay period. The rest of an employee’s salary is dispersed on
payday as usual.
• Cryptocurrency payroll. According to a GetApp survey, 61% of remuneration
managers indicated their employees showed interest in being paid in the form of
cryptocurrencies like, for example Bitcoin, Ethereum or Dogecoin.
138 M. Bezuidenhout
The Changing Nature of Work
Remote work and remote pay are the new normal (Westfall, 2021). Organisations
are transforming – away from full-time, life-long employment with fixed jobs with
explicit job descriptions (Hattingh, 2021). Even though the normalcy that appears to
be unfolding for now in the workplace is the implementation of remote working
(Hamouche, 2020), there is still uncertainty as to how remote working influences
employee performance (Aitken-Fox et al., 2020). This could have huge ramifica-
tions in terms of remunerating the workforce.
Temporary work from home brought about a new normal, with employees mov-
ing away from expensive metropolitan areas where their employers are situated.
Organisations can therefore consider offering remote employees’ remuneration that
corresponds with a lower cost of living (Sammer, 2020). It is to be expected that
there could be a radical move in the direction of hybrid working models that will
draw on the advantages of both remote and office working (PriceWaterhouse
Cooper, 2020). Even before the pandemic, flexible work was important for several
employees (Tytle, 2021). Remuneration professionals should take note that that
there are other forms of flexible work arrangements in addition to home office
working arrangement. Certain positions can accommodate flexible hours or allow
reorganising of shift or even work-sharing (Tytle, 2021). However, according to
Nguyen (2021), for several professions, especially collaborative, high skill level,
high-value roles, working from home may not be viable. In fact, Nguyen (2021)
warns organisations not to confuse a temporary abnormal with a new normal.
The latest notion in favour of flexible location working (or location flexibility)
triggered a growth in remote work possibilities (Westfall, 2021). However, manag-
ing a remote workforce could create problems in terms of remuneration. How will
it impact employee remuneration if they are working permanently from home – will
it be based on the cost of living at the organisation’s place of business or where the
employee resides? How will skill, position, and merit influence remuneration deci-
sions? (Asure, 2021). Before the pandemic, organisations adjusted the remunera-
tion of their remote workers to accommodate for geographic cost of living
differentials (Westfall, 2021). After the pandemic, organisations are adjusting
remote employee remuneration to account for local cost of living. It was found that
remote workers would take a pay cut to work remotely on a full-time basis. These
employees are willing to forego benefits and paid time off. For many, employee’s
flexibility is worth the cost (Westfall, 2021). With regard to remote working an area
of concern, is the fact that it could result in discord amongst blue-collar and white-
collar employees if only the second-mentioned group of employees are allowed
flexibility. Employees who are not permitted to gain from flexible work arrange-
ments would probably want more remuneration to atone for this.
As organisations recognise the feasibility of remote work, some are reconsider-
ing their recruitment and remuneration practices. If a jobs’ tasks can be completed
remotely, the question arises whether it should be compared to the local talent mar-
ket or to the local or overall market (Tytle, 2021). Some organisations are reducing
the remuneration of employees who permanently move to remote work if they relo-
cate to a lower-cost area. The move to working remotely could save organisations
money if they reclassify employees according to their remote status. The opportu-
nity to work remotely is of importance to prospective employees when considering
positions, even though it could result in a decrease in remuneration. The benefit of
living in a lower-cost area weights more than a high salary. For an organsation the
best approach would be to reduce the remuneration of new employees who live in
less expensive areas rather than upsetting their current remote workforce
(Tytle, 2021).
In addition to flexibility becoming important, employee benefits have become
even more important. The reason is that health and well-being became a priority for
employers and employees alike (La Chica, 2021). Non-monetary benefits, accord-
ing to De-la-Calle-Durán and Rodríguez-Sánchez (2021) have the greatest impact
on employees. Employees will sense that the organisation is interested in the bottom
line as well as each employee’s individual needs beyond their career. With work
being transformed, mostly being placed outside the boundaries of an office setting,
employees are dealing with (La Chica, 2021):
• Fear of insufficient insurance covers, for example insurance for an occupational
accident or injury whilst working from home
• Mental well-being as they manage work–life balance, and for some the conse-
quences of physical and social isolation
• Fear of support for vaccination costs in countries without government subsidies
or limited access
• Financial well-being during a time of uncertain job security
Organisations can respond to this by understanding the effect these develop-
ments and the new ways of working have on not only their employees and their
diverse needs but also on their families. Benefit programmes will need to be respon-
sive to individual employee situations and life stage requirements (La Chica, 2021).
It is therefore important for organisations to ensure that their benefit plans are
straightforward, worthwhile and cutting-edge. To align benefits with work transfor-
mation, organisations need to consider the following (La Chica, 2021):
• Virtual care/telehealth, guaranteeing that all employees can make us of this ben-
efit and that they are aware of what is offered
• Bespoke benefits that will address the demands and personal preferences of a
diverse workforce
• Flexible retirement and financial security programmes
• Fair, inclusive and available health and wealth-related benefits
140 M. Bezuidenhout
Proposed Considerations in Terms of Remuneration Strategies
From the literature, there are both short- and long-term considerations for organisa-
tions (PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2020; KPMG, 2020). As a short-term measure,
organisations can minimise costs by deferring or reducing employee remuneration
and benefits. Organisations, however, will have to focus on their remuneration strat-
egies over the long term as well (PriceWaterhouse Cooper, 2020) and act strategi-
cally in the context of the new world of work (KPMG, 2020). In addition to cater for
more work place flexibility, organisations also need to consider the following during
the new normal (Findley, 2020), to:
• Align the pay strategy for remote workers to the overall talent and remuneration
strategy. However, with remote working, organisations will have to consider, for
example how work will be evaluated and rewarded (KPMG, 2020).
• Reduce fixed pay whilst increasing the variable pay that relates to employee per-
formance and productivity (Am et al., 2020). A variable pay approach provides
more financial viability than an increase during uncertain economic times
(Badion, 2021; Wingrove, 2020). This helps provide incentives to employees to
work at greater levels whilst sustaining a healthy and dynamic environment.
• Offer remuneration and benefits packages that is flexible with the aim of provid-
ing organisations with a competitive advantage (Am et al., 2020). COVID-19
brought about employees’ individual need for flexibility within the workplace in
the long run. This is forcing employers to review the design and implementation
of flexible work programmes that can improve employees’ changing work–life
demands. With respect to expanding workspace flexibility, organisations also
have to consider diverse demands of work schedules (Ye & Hong, 2020). This
includes the introduction of a personalised remuneration structure that allows
employees to design their own package that better suits their needs and prefer-
ences (Buheji & Buheji, 2020). Flexibility in incentive plans needs to be intro-
duced to pave the way for future volatility.
• Embed all elements of well-being into benefits programmes. Over and above
helping employees maintain physical health, the mental, emotional and financial
health of employees is crucial during any crisis and should not be ignored. With
working from home growing in significance, it brings its own set of distinctive
problems. A 2017 study from the International Labour Office revealed employ-
ees reported higher stress levels amongst the remote workforce. These employ-
ees, probably, have greater sleep disorders than their colleagues working in the
office (Messenger et al., 2017).
• Update base pay structures. It is time for organisations to use more contemporary
information to improve base pay plans’ basic design. This is required to illustrate
existing and imminent financial influences of the pandemic more correctly
(Findley, 2020).
• Align incentive remuneration with existing organisational conditions and the
company’s strategic plan. Where organisations measure remuneration plans
annually, it could still be necessary to conduct further assessment in the short
term to ensure that incentive remuneration is financially feasible. This is espe-

cially important for organisations that are facing financial difficulty. Where
organisations are growing, and they are profitable, they would most likely main-
tain or increase incentive pay to reward and stimulate performance.
• Use premium pay to attract and retain employees. According to a recent World at
Work pulse survey, incentives and spot payments are more popular now than
before the onset of the global pandemic. Of the 26% of organisations offering
hazard pay, 9% offer a flat cash amount, 8% tie incentives to hours and shifts
worked and 9% offer hazard pay based on other performance criteria
(Findley, 2020).
• Make greater use of non-monetary benefits/incentives. This will continue to
motivate and reward employees (Ye & Hong, 2020). The reality of remote work-
ing is that employees may become disconnected and begin building an invisible
wall. It is therefore important for organisations to boost their employee recogni-
tion through public messages in corporate communications. An organisation can
also consider the design of ‘digital prizes’ for team motivation (De-la-Calle-
Durán & Rodríguez-Sánchez, 2021).
• Customise and refine TR programmes to deliver more compelling employee
value propositions, tailoring TR to individual or group needs. It is therefore
important for organisations to match rewards with employee preferences (Ye &
Hong, 2020). Studies reveal that organisations that offers personalised rewards
programmes exhibited favourable business outcomes (Lahiri, 2018).
• Evaluate and adjust pay programmes as the demand for talent deployment and
re-skilling increases (Ye & Hong, 2020). Following any crisis (and the imple-
mentation of the 4th IR), some organisations could internally re-deploy employ-
ees to respond to the unexpected changes within the business environment.
Whilst talent reallocation is mainly based on matching skills (e.g. transferring
sales to customer services), organisations still need to offer training to employees
to prepare them for their new roles. Adopting a skills-based remuneration pro-
gramme could be implemented to identify and remunerate upskilled employees.
This can be achieved through in-house training or external certification
programmes.
Throughout the impact of COVID-19 (and as a result of 4IR), organisations need
to focus on future workforce problems as they prepare for the ‘recovery’ process
(Deloitte, 2020). Deloitte (2020) proposed workforce-related strategies that are best
arranged across five important processes, namely: Reflect, Recommit, Re-engage,
Rethink and Reboot. These processes provide a basis for organisation to succeed
following a crisis (Deloitte, 2020). Figure 8.1 depicts the five actions as proposed by
Deloitte (2020). Each of these five actions will be briefly discussed.
Reflect Organisations must examine what has worked, what was learned, and what
was overlooked in the response. This process will bring in various viewpoints.
Recommit Organisations need to recommit to the welfare of employees. This can

be done by focussing on physical, psychological, and financial concerns – at home
142 M. Bezuidenhout
Fig. 8.1 Five critical

factors for workforce-
related strategies. (Source: Reflect Recommit
Adapted from Deloitte
(2020:9))
Purpose
Potential
Perspective
Reboot Re - engage
Rethink
Source: Adapted from Deloitte (2020:9)
and in the workplace. Psychological welfare will consist of workplace practices

such as flexible schedules that focus on employees’ mental and emotional health.
Organisations must realise that the meaning of performance would probably differ-
ent in the post-COVID workplace.
Re-engage Organisations need to re-engage and reorganise their employees. This

is to increase their commitment towards organisational priorities that are quickly
changing. Teams will become significant and should be developed and organised in
such a way that will allow for changes in business priorities and results. Organisations
will therefore have to change their remuneration strategies to be aligned with team-
based pay.
Rethink Rethinking work implies that organisations need to re-evaluate their

labour force, their structure, remuneration and performance management. Changes
in labour force structures give rise to the option for wide-ranging re-invention. In
the past few years, organisations of all sizes have progressively accepted the alterna-
tive workforce – employees, including contractors and freelancers. All of this will
influence remuneration strategies within an organisation. How will this new work-
force be paid? What effect will it have on internal equity within the organisation? Is
it fair to all employees? What does the relevant legislation say about these types of
employees? Will labour unions support this type of new workforce? As part of this
process, organisations should review and clarify their interim remuneration, reward
programmes and promotion plan. This should be done whilst managing expectan-
cies throughout the recovery process and in the direction of maintainable operations
(Deloitte, 2020).
Reboot Organisations need to bolster their HR and people operation priorities.

They also need to readjust the HR functions and people operations to be aligned
with the organisation’s business and workforce priorities. In various organisations,
however, their HR teams, procedures and employee reward programmes are not
ready for the truths of recovery. The HR function therefore needs to direct their
know-how towards remuneration, performance management and promotion
realities.
Practical Implications
This section will discuss the practical implications for HR professionals within the
remuneration sphere. HRM practitioners should work together with the organisa-
tion’s executives and employees to transform the challenges caused by COVID-19
(and the 4IR) into opportunities. HRM practitioners, in addition, should reconsider
their HRM practices, i.e. remuneration, and to adjust them to the employees’ new
working conditions caused by the COVID-19 crisis (Hamouche, 2020). Organisations
also need establish new foundations, by reassessing the new trends in HRM prac-
tices (Przytuła et al., 2020). Authors such as Kaufman et al. (2020) and Przytula
et al. (2020) suggest that organisations should transform to a hybrid workplace
model. This hybrid model should be flexible enough that it will allow the organisa-
tion to quickly and cost-effectively transform to the requirements of the new world
of work. It would be required of HRM practitioners to redesign positions within the
organisation (Hamouche, 2020). HR policies should be developed in accordance
with the needs of employees, especially for those employees that have limited
access to employee benefits. When re-evaluating and re-adjusting an organisation’s
incentive plans, as a response to market turbulence, HR practitioners should note
that a one-size-fits-all approach might not succeed. Two important elements of
remuneration redesign are motivation and equity. HR practitioners therefore need to
make sure that revised incentive plans are unbiased as well as efficient in motivating
above-average and low performers without causing free-riding problems (Ye &
Hong, 2020).
Limitations
The COVID-19 pandemic has surprised all organisations, giving rise to an intricate
and challenging environment for both management and HRM practitioners.
However, there is insufficient research that focuses on the influence of this crisis on
remuneration strategies (and remuneration in general). A quantitative approach can,
therefore, not be systematically created to inform remuneration practice implemen-
tation in the new normal setting. The reader must therefore rely on previous remu-
neration practices and generalise them to the current situation.
144 M. Bezuidenhout
In view of the limitation/s discussed above, it is proposed that imminent research

pay attention to quantitative research in terms of best practice execution taking into
account the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, taking into consideration that the
studies mentioned here were conducted during COVID-19, it is impossible to accu-
rately determine the long-term challenges and opportunities pertaining to remunera-
tion strategies. As suggested by Hamouche (2020), forthcoming studies should
focus on longitudinal analysis to determine challenges and opportunities and how to
implement remuneration strategies in the new normal. It is further suggested that
future research methodically gauge how employee benefits and policies continue to
change throughout the pandemic and beyond. Research conducted before the pan-
demic has emphasised growth in unique employee benefits, for example on-site
dining and health facilities, over and above traditional benefits. These added perqui-
sites may progressively become significant overtime as employees expect their
organisations to offer a wide-ranging set of incentives and benefits to fulfil their
different well-being needs. Further research is required to understand whether such
incentives significantly lead to employee health and well-being and if employee
needs have transformed because of COVID-19.
Conclusion
Remuneration remains the biggest cost for organisations. Managing the difficulties
and capitalising on the ability of remuneration practices to attract, retain and engage
employees became more challenging because of the suddenness and magnitude of
COVID-19. More than ever, it is imperative that organisations review their remu-
neration strategy and to make sure that it is feasible for the immediate future
(Findley, 2020). Adjusting to the new normal is a good time for organisations to
move away from obsolete philosophies and to revamp current remuneration strate-
gies and practices (Ye & Hong, 2020).
The new working environment (due to COVID-19 and 4IR) calls for remunera-
tion strategies that focus on short-term improvement practices. Organisations may
be inclined to dismiss the demand for transformation or see recovery as returning to
the past. However, this could be detrimental to organisations. These organisations
will soon realise that the competition has capitalised on the recovery to re-assess
their labour force and business, thereby securing their future success. The COVID-19
pandemic has forever altered employee’s job requirements, their place of work, and
the way they want to be paid. This, together with the onset of on-demand pay and
cryptocurrency payroll systems, highlights the call to discard pay practices that are
out-dated and to offer employees more flexible pay options.
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Magda Bezuidenhout is a contributing author. She gained 19 years’ experience in the field of
Human Resources Management before joining the higher education environment. Magda holds a
doctor in Philosophy in Business Management, with specialisation in Human Resource
Management with underpinning Master’s in Business Leadership, Bachelor of Commerce (Hons)
and Bachelor of Commerce both in HRM. She has published several articles in accredited journals,
with her main research focus area being remuneration, specifically executive remuneration. She is
also a co-author of a book entitled Remuneration Management: A South African Perspective and a
contributing author in the book entitled Human Resource Management in South Africa.
Contemporary Theories and Professional Practice Standards. She is registered as a Chartered
Personnel Practitioner with the South African Board of People Practitioners (SABPP) and a regis-
tered Chartered Reward Specialist with the South African Reward Association (SARA). Her areas
of specialisation include Remuneration, Recruitment and Selection and general Human Resource
Management.
Part II
Critical Issues in Understanding the
Impact of the New Normal on the
Psychology of Employees

(Chaps. 14–17)
Overview
The chapters by Bezuidenhout (Chap. 9), du Plessis (Chap. 10), Potgieter (Chap.
11), Ong et al. (Chap. 12) and Ferreira (Chap. 13) include advance theories, research
and recommendations on guiding employees through the changes brought on by the
150 Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New Normal on the Psychology…
new normal. These chapters critically evaluate contextual and personal enablers and
impeding factors including potential processes and interventions that facilitate man-
aging human resources in the new normal. Perspectives on the potential future man-
ifestation of constructs relating to managing human resources in the new normal
such as adaptability, employability, commitment, employee well-being and flour-
ishing are included.
Chapter 9
Well-Being in a Post-Pandemic World –
A Positive Psychological Perspective
Adéle Bezuidenhout
Introduction
People, already experiencing a dazzling rate of change, the demands of the fourth
industrial revolution and the COVID-19 pandemic, are especially vulnerable to
stress, anxiety and mental ill-health in the workplace. The COVID-19 crisis event
(pandemic) forced people to reorganise their lives overnight, develop the digital
skills to work and collaborate remotely, cope with a lack of childcare and on-site
schooling facilities, increased work insecurity, ill-health and death of loved ones
and the threat of redundancies and loss of income. As a result of these upheavals, a
new crisis emerged in the form of employees who depleted their mental health
resources, missed their support networks of colleagues and friends at work and felt
isolated and alienated.
Even though many employees were struggling to adjust to new working patterns
and working from home, businesses demanded even more from employees, as they
had to adjust to rapidly changing customer demands and fought for survival during
the perilous economic environment brought on by the pandemic.
What was once considered unthinkable, such as employees, including civil ser-
vants working from home, schools, colleges and face-to-face universities changing
to online distance delivery of education overnight, medical doctors conducting con-
sultations virtually and police stations being closed to the public due to COVID-19
lockdown restrictions have become the new normal. These changes to everyday life,
however difficult, are still insignificant when compared to the immense tragedy of
ill health, and loss of life of family members, friends and other close acquaintances
during the pandemic. Travel bans isolated family members who live and work in
A. Bezuidenhout (*)
Department of Organisations, Systems and People, University of Portsmouth,
Portsmouth, Hampshire, United Kingdom
e-mail: Adele.bezuidenhout@port.ac.uk

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_9
152 A. Bezuidenhout
different countries, removed family support without warning and many people lost
their sense of mental well-being and became hopeless, anxious and depressed.
Deloitte (2020) reports that although 80% of organisations recognise the impor-
tance of employee well-being, only 12% believe they are ready to meet the chal-
lenge. This underscores the importance of an increased focus on worker well-being
while maintaining a steadfast focus on meeting organisational goals and objectives.
Making the Business Case for Well-Being
Mental health problems cost UK economy at least £117.9 billion per year (McDaid
& Park, 2022). It is estimated that 17.9 million working days were lost due to stress,
anxiety and depression in Great Brittan during 2019/2020. Moreover, this accounted
for 55% of all working days lost due to ill health. Upon further investigation, the
single most important contributing factor was workload, including too many tasks,
unrealistic deadlines and too much responsibility, and a lack of managerial support
(UK Health and Safety Executive, 2020. Occupations particularly prone to experi-
ence excessive job demands and suffer as a result include ambulance staff, police,
teachers, social workers (Johnson et al., 2005), senior executives and those in the
technology sector (UK HSE, 2018). Typical examples of these direct and indirect
costs include mental ill-health absence, presenteeism, poor performance and con-
tinuous staff turnover (Deloitte, 2020). Linking this to an everchanging business
environment with a constant need for adaptability, creativity, innovation and change,
the imbalance between demands and resources becomes very pronounced. An
organisation consisting of disengaged, depleted employees faces a very insecure
future in a highly competitive, agile and adaptable business environment.
Unfortunately, with the onslaught of the pandemic, and resulting redundancies,
(Partington, 2020), workloads increased exponentially, causing more strain on sur-
vivors. Alarmingly, not even 50% of organisations train line managers to support
employees with poor mental health and less than 50% of organisations have a well-
being strategy (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development [CIPD], 2021;
People Management, 2021). The CIPD views the role and actions of the line man-
ager as pivotal in ensuring the well-being and engagement of their employees and
with line managers being unable to provide this support, negative consequences are
to be expected (CIPD, 2020). Furthermore, line managers themselves are not
immune to the signs and symptoms of poor psychological well-being. Line manag-
ers often experience a lot of pressure to ensure productivity targets are met and
experience stressful work situations daily. They are also susceptible to both emo-
tional and physical exhaustion, with their mental health suffering as a consequence
(Jonsdottir et al., 2020). When the term ‘employee’ is used in this chapter, it should
be read as inclusive of line managers who are themselves employees of the larger
organisation. Although they are largely responsible for creating an organisational
climate to support their subordinates’ well-being, they are also sub-ordinates to a
higher level of management and also experience the effects of the organisational
9 Well-Being in a Post-Pandemic World – A Positive Psychological Perspective 153
climate. Corbett (2020) provides an example of the pressures experienced by line

managers in the higher education sphere in the form of continuous policy changes
and fiscal pressures. In addition, the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic appears to
have further added to the detriment of line-managers well-being, causing unwel-
come additional strains and stresses (Corbett et al., 2022). More research into the
complexities of line managers’ experience of well-being, clarifying their dual role
is needed.
As the case for improving employees’ mental well-being has become more
urgent on the national and international agenda, the UK government has incorpo-
rated the improvement of workplace well-being in a far-reaching web of legislation
including the Education Act 2011, The Social Action, Responsibility and Heroism
Act 2015, The Care Act (England) 2014 and The Health and Social Care Act 2012
that led to the statutory introduction of Health and Well-being Boards in local
authorities across England in 2013. In Scotland, Scotland Performs and Community
Empowerment Act (Scotland) 2015, and in Wales the Social Services and Well-
being (Wales) Act, 2014, The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015,
informed by Wales We Want consultation forms a widely integrative framework for
infusing well-being in everyday life. Northern Ireland has had a Well-being
Framework aimed at informing public service design and embedding well-being in
policy since 2016 (https://whatworkswell-being.org/practice-examples/
well-being-in-uk-legislation/).
Reflected in this legislation is a commitment from the government and a com-
mon responsibility on all citizens to prioritise well-being to flourish as human
beings (Goldie et al., 2016). Following the government’s guidance, it is the duty of
the public service sector in the United Kingdom to accept responsibility for the
well-being of its citizens. As always, policy needs to be aligned with the legislation,
to empower public service departments to effectively implement well-being in all
spheres of their work.
From the above, it follows that there are different ways of looking at workplace
well-being, from national governments to for-profit organisations, not-for-profit and
other types of organisations all have different agendas, definitions and ways of
implementing well-being initiatives. For this chapter, the focus will fall on subjec-
tive, workplace well-being. This does not imply in any way that the importance of
physical and other states of well-being is less important, but for the sake of clarity
and conciseness, this chapter will provide a critical reflection of a few of the most
popular theoretical frameworks to study subjective well-being from a positive psy-
chological paradigm. Positive psychology is often referred to as ‘the science of
well-being’, and is concerned with positive experiences, contexts and processes that
support well-being, achievement and harmony (Zelenski, 2019, p. 11). This chapter,
therefore, offers the perfect framework to study the well-being of all employees,
including ordinary employees, as well as line managers on all hierarchical levels of
the organisation.
154 A. Bezuidenhout
A Positive Psychological Lens
In line with current world trends, it is not always easy to distinguish between what
is real and what is fake. Many false ideas or even myths exist around the meaning of
the term ‘positive psychology’. Firstly, there seems to be a general belief that posi-
tive psychology is a form of ‘Pop-culture or popular’ psychology or a series of
untested beliefs and assumptions, similar to ‘your grandmother’s good advice’ that
are found on social media and other dubious popular publications (Zelenski, 2019).
Proponents of positive psychology have also warned against a popular mistaken
belief that positive psychology is a type of ‘happy-ology’, symbolised by ‘yellow
smiley faces’ on social media by people living a peaceful and prosperous life (Hart
& Sasso, 2011, p. 82; Seligman, 2011).
Secondly, there is a common misconception is that positive psychology disre-
gards and ignores all negative emotions, including, e.g. sadness, stress and burnout.
While the truth is in fact that positive psychology as a science values the full range
of human emotions, including the ‘negative’, or darker side of life (Compton &
Hoffman, 2019; Donaldson et al., 2019). A false ‘positivity’ is harmful to individu-
als and may even detract from a team’s performance (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005).
Positive psychologists view negative emotions as a natural part of life and the
acceptance of these experiences as essential to ‘live a good life’, as referred to by
Seligman (2002), widely accepted as the father of positive psychology. The idea of
‘the good life’, or a life worth living, has its roots in philosophy and refers to ‘a
well-lived and fulfilling life’ (Compton & Hoffman, 2019). In Seligman’s view, the
good life constitutes a life that allows people to use their ‘strengths’ continuously to
experience authentic happiness and abundant gratification (p. 13). Positive
Psychology’s view of the good life includes gratifying interpersonal relationships,
positive individual qualities, and an ability to manage one’s state of mind and emo-
tions. The desire to live a good life necessitates a conscious evaluation of different
aspects to establish which may offer the greatest sense of well-being (Compton &
Hoffman, 2019).
In essence, positive psychology can be described as a study of the strengths of
ordinary human beings. It is a call to all to adopt a more open and appreciative per-
spective regarding human potentials, motives and capacities (Sheldon & King,
2001, p. 16). It emphasises ‘positive subjective experiences, positive individual
traits, and positive institutions’ to improve quality of life and prevent ‘pathologies
that arise when life is barren and meaningless’ (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
2001, p. 5). Although it acknowledges the existence and importance of negative
experiences, the idea is that psychology does not focus solely on peoples’ struggles
and ailments but views ordinary people as capable, talented individuals and aims to
help them to achieve their full potential (Kauffman & Scoular, 2004). The main aim
of positive psychology is to foster happiness and the experience of subjective well-
being in all people (Kun et al., 2017; Seligman, 2002).
A content analysis of existing definitions, studies and curricula on Positive
Psychology revealed six major themes:
Theme 1: Mainly concerned with virtues, character strengths, positive personality

traits, attributes, abilities, talents
Theme 2: Mainly concerned with happiness, positive emotional well-being, a sub-
jective sense of fulfilment, satisfaction with the quality of work–life
Theme 3: Development process of becoming, growth, capacities, the actualization
of potential, development of the highest, authentic self
Theme 4: The good life or life worth living
Theme 5: Thriving and flourishing
Theme 6: Optimal/adaptive functioning/behaviour, resilience. (Hart & Sasso, 2011;
Zelenski, 2019)
Identifying these themes helps to provide a focus and boundaries to the disci-
pline of positive psychology and counter some of the misconceptions about the
academic discipline. The focus on positive emotions, happiness, becoming, thriving
and resilience provide a scientific foundation and a useful theoretical framework for
studying psychological well-being.
Well-Being
The World Health Organisation (WHO) views mental health as a state of well-being
in which a person can realise their abilities, cope with everyday stresses, work and
contribute to society. This section provides a brief overview of useful theoretical
frameworks for understanding well-being from a positive psychological
perspective.
Applicable Theoretical Frameworks
The first theory, the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, may raise a question,
as it precedes the existence of the positive psychology movement explored in this
chapter. As with the birth of any new field of specialisation, a theory is born from an
existing body of knowledge and founded upon a rich foundation of existing related
and interdisciplinary knowledge. The COR theory is especially important in this
development because although it was originally developed to advance academic
insight and understanding of the stress phenomenon, it also emphasizes the role of
job resources and job demands in employees’ experience of their work lives.
Scholars of organisational psychology, work psychology, organisational behaviour
theory and recently positive psychology, have used this theory as a seminal work to
further develop and build on.
156 A. Bezuidenhout
The Conservation of Resources Theory
Conservation of Resources (COR) theory begins with a firm belief that people
attempt to obtain, retain, foster and protect the things they value most of all Höbfoll
et al., 2018). The COR theory helps to understand the impact that the loss of one’s
resources (or the loss of these resources), has on employees. The theory proposes
that this scarcity of resources is the single most important contributor to the experi-
ence of stress. Conversely, any gain in resources is in turn very important in an
environment where employees have a sense that they have lost some of their
resources (Höbfoll, 1989, p. 337; Poalses & Bezuidenhout, 2018).
The COR theory proposes that employees are generally proactive and internally
motivated to identify, develop and protect their resources (Höbfoll, 1988, 1989;
Höbfoll et al., 2018). When people are required to continue working, even when
their resources have been depleted, and they have not had the opportunity to rest and
recover, the result will be the experience of strain, tiredness, cynicism, stress, anxi-
ety and eventually burnout. It can therefore be concluded that burnout is one of the
most undesirable outcomes of job demands outweighing the resources for a signifi-
cant period, or when the anticipated returns are not received on the investment of
resources (Bezuidenhout & Celliers, 2010; Höbfoll, 1988; Lee & Ashforth, 1996).
In the context of the COR theory, resources are valued physical, psychological,
social, or organisational characteristics associated with a job. Employees also use
their psychological characteristics or strengths (e.g. self-efficacy; energy, knowl-
edge and skills), used to help them cope with job demands. Höbfoll (2002) also
argued that although everyone values generic work conditions such as job security,
individual employees also differ in terms of the value they attach to a specific job
characteristic (such as flexibility, autonomy or remote working).
Furthermore, the COR theory proposed that in challenging, stressful job con-
texts, employees and managers alike mainly strive to maintain and accumulate
resources that have intrinsic value to them personally (e.g. autonomy or flexibility).
Generally, the more challenging and stressful the environment, the more importance
affected employees attach to these resources (Höbfoll, 2002). In these situations,
Höbfoll et al. (2018) state that having good social support can help individuals com-
plete their tasks, achieve promotional goals and bolster their self-esteem (Höbfoll,
1989; Höbfoll et al., 2018).
From a positive psychological point of view, it is easy to see how employees’
success will add to their self-confidence, personal growth and the achievement of
their full potential. For this reason, the COR theory forms an important foundation
for further exploration of psychological well-being.
The PERMA Model of Well-Being
The father of positive psychology, Seligman offers a model to conceptualise well-

being, called the PERMA model (Seligman, 2011).
The five elements of the PERMA model are Positive emotions, Engagement,
Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment. An important contribution of the
PERMA model lies in the fact that it includes both eudaimonic and hedonic ele-
ments. While workplace well-being is most often categorised as ‘domain-specific
well-being’ as it only applies to one aspect of life (Warr & Nielsen, 2018), the
PERMA model is a more holistic model of well-being and is not necessarily devel-
oped to be used in the workplace (Kun et al., 2017). It would thus be wise to remain
cautious when applying the PERMA model to well-being in the workplace, but it
does, however, offer another way of looking at well-being and may generate useful
holistic options for designing psychological well-being interventions for the work-
place. Each of the elements suggests specific techniques and interventions that can
be used to improve people’s subjective well-being and should therefore also contrib-
ute to their sense of well-being at work (Seligman, 2011).
The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Theory
The JD-R theory builds on older psychological theories, including the Conservation
of Resources model, the Job Demand-control (JD-C) model (Karaseck Jr., 1979)
and the Job-Demand-Control-Support model that added a social dimension (Johnson
& Hall, 1988). The JD-R model combines previous knowledge on job design, con-
trol, demands and resources, and combined this with existing theories on motiva-
tion, engagement, stress and burnout (Bakker, 2014; Bakker & Demerouti, 2017).
The theory is still evolving, as new research results are integrated into the existing
framework (Bakker, 2021). The theory integrates job demands and resources, as
well as reversed causal relationships, job crafting, personal resources and engaging
leadership (Schaufeli, 2017). New developments in the JD-R Theory focus on flow
at work, job crafting and playful work design (Bakker, 2021).
The JD-R Theory identifies two main drivers, a motivation promotion process
and a health impairment process (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014, p. 46). The negative
health impairment process is linked to continuous high job demands (Hakanen &
Bakker, 2017, p. 361). When demands are heavy and sustained, they cause strain,
tiredness, stress and eventually exhaustion, detachment, cynicism and burnout
(Maslach, 2017, pp. 143–144; Bakker, 2014, p. 392). In contrast, the positive health
promotion process depends on the availability of resources and helps employees to
persist and complete their tasks (Schaufeli, 2013). Job resources refer to the physi-
cal, social, psychological and organisational support structures that help employees
to achieve personal ambitions, as well as their work-related goals (Bakker, 2017,
p. 68, 2021; Bakker et al., 2005). The Buffer effect refers to the effect of several job
demands that predict strain, but the availability of job resources such as opportuni-
ties for growth and development (Bakker et al., 2005; Demerouti et al., 2001) that
foster resilience, even when faced with many challenges.
The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory thus provides a framework explain-
ing how the interaction between job demands and resources are balanced in
158 A. Bezuidenhout
different contexts to foster employee well-being (Bakker, 2017; Bakker &

Demerouti, 2007; Van Wingerden et al., 2017).
• Work Engagement
Globally, there is an increased awareness of the relevance of well-being at work,
as reflected in the professional standards of the CIPD in the United Kingdom. It is a
curriculum demand that Human Resource Practitioners need to be well versed in
covering key theories of well-being at work including engagement and burnout,
positive psychology, Person-Environment fit, the psychological contract and work–
life balance (CIPD, 2021, 2022).
Engaged employees create their own job and personal resources and share their
engagement with their co-workers (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Work engagement
also mediates the relationship between the presence of job demands and resources
and work performance (Bakker, 2017). When employees have sufficient job
resources to meet the challenges their jobs pose, it encourages work engagement
(Van Wingerden et al., 2017). Therefore, it can be concluded that job demands and
resources support work engagement and this, in turn, leads to positive work
outcomes.
• Burnout
Burnout is described by Maslach and Jackson (1986) as a syndrome of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalisation and diminished personal accomplishment. Maslach
(2017) confirms the link between continuous and unrealistically heavy job demands
and employee burnout. Prolonged, heavy demands exhaust employees’ energy, and
inevitably they become tired, and then exhausted, cynical, and begin to lose their
confidence and experience reduced self-efficacy, constituting the three dimensions
of burnout (Maslach et al., 2001). Furthermore, increases in job demands, such as
work overload, emotional demands and work–home interference; decreases in job
resources, social support, autonomy, opportunities to learn, and feedback, predict
burnout. Regrettably, burnout in turn predicts decreased organisational outcomes in
the form of involuntary sick absence and intention to leave the organisation’s
employment (Schaufeli et al., 2009).
From a positive psychological perspective, the organisation needs to monitor the
well-being of employees, encourage positive outcomes such as engagement, growth
and development, and ensure that employees have the energy to invest their full
potential in their jobs. In the next section, various interventions will be proposed to
encourage health and well-being among employees.
Interventions Aligned to a Positive Psychological Philosophy
Both Organisational Psychologists and Human Resource Managers, in fact, all peo-
ple professionals, have to decide how best to support employees coming out of the
COVID-19 pandemic to regain some sort of normality. Considering the J-DR
theory, this would imply a renewed investigation into post-pandemic job demands
and job resources. The following section considers possible interventions that would
meet the requirements of a positive psychological approach, while also acknowl-
edging the realities of the business environment and individual differences.
Coaching
The idea that positive psychology could inform coaching practice originated with
Carol Kauffman (2006) when she wrote about how coaching can be used from a
positive psychological approach to overcome challenges, harness personal resources
and achieve goals. She believed that Positive Psychology would form a ‘natural
home’ for coaching, suggesting it is an ideal practice through which the subject,
teaching and comprehension of Positive Psychology can be applied (Kauffman &
Scoular, 2004; Boniwell & Kauffman, 2018). Biswas-Diener and Dean (2007)
coined the term ‘Positive Psychological Coaching’, focussing on helping an
employee to recognise their inner strengths, behave positively and improve their
well-being. Several authors have since confirmed the compatibility of coaching as
an intervention aligned with Positive Psychological principles (Green, 2014; Green
& Spence, 2014). The natural outcome of these purposeful, positive behaviours
would be goal achievement, improved performance and increased organisational
productivity (Boniwell & Kauffman, 2018). Likewise, both Van Zyl and Stander
(2013) and Grant et al., 2009), emphasise the idea that Positive Psychological
Coaching is about taking advantage of an individuals’ strengths to facilitate the
achievement of both personal and organisational goals.
Consequently, Burke (2017) designed a conceptual framework identifying six
important characteristics of Positive Psychological Coaching namely, Knowledge,
Strength-based models, Positive diagnosis, Optimal-functioning goals, Positive
psychology interventions and Positive measures. Subsequently, Burke (2017) pro-
moted coaching as an effective Positive Psychological Intervention that can be used
successfully to support employees to overcome various challenges.
From an organisational perspective, however, it is safe to assume that imple-
menting a positive psychological intervention per se, is not a priority, and can be
met with resistance. When employees are viewed as a resource to be maximised to
increase profit, it could be detrimental to employees’ mental health, flourishing and
well-being (Pfeffer, 2018). It can nevertheless be argued that because coaching
focuses on adopting a positive approach, focussing on growth, change and acting, it
aligns perfectly with the positive psychological philosophy. Coaching aims to criti-
cally assess individual strengths, motives and areas for development, while also
encouraging optimal performance, and improvement at work (Hayden & Hayden,
2020). Theoretically, coaching is thus beneficial to both the individual and the
organisation, improving individual well-being, and performance and organisational
outcomes.
160 A. Bezuidenhout
Essentially, coaching is a conversation in which a coach uses open-ended ques-

tions and reflections ‘… aimed at stimulating the self-awareness and personal
responsibility of the client’ (Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011, p. 74). Empirical
findings support the benefits of coaching for the well-being, engagement and moti-
vation of clients receiving coaching (Hicks et al., 2013). It is thus reasonable to
argue that coaching is a promising positive psychological intervention, likely to
improve employees’ psychological well-being.
PERMA-Related Well-Being Interventions
Each of the five main elements of the PERMA model inspires different workplace
interventions, implying interventions aimed at improving positive emotions,
engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment. Different interventions
have been investigated and found to be most effective at improving each of these
elements (Neumeier et al., 2017). Zelenski (2019) further argues that a focus on any
of the elements has the potential to help individual employees to flourish.
Learning and development Interventions often foster Positive Emotions, for
example pleasure, happiness, pride, enthusiasm, relief, optimism and affection in
organisations. These positive emotions, in turn, encourage positive behaviour.
Happy and optimistic employees, also tend to be more engaged in their jobs and
experience a state of ‘flow’ where they are completely absorbed in their work and
not even aware of time passing (Kauffman, 2006). In addition, Aarrestad et al.
(2015) argue that employees who are taught to maintain positive emotions and opti-
mism are better at asking for help, giving help and working together in teams.
One of the most popular interventions used to teach employees how to regulate
their emotions and maintain a calm, positive mind set, is mindfulness training.
Positive mindfulness interventions can be described as mindfulness-based interven-
tions, with the primary aim of enhancing positive human functioning (Allen et al.,
2021). Employees are often taught deep breathing techniques to regulate their emo-
tions and behaviour, intentionally focussing on experiencing (Baer, 2003). Evidence-
based research conducted by Arch and Craske (2006) found that a 15-minute
focused breathing exercise decreased negative emotions and helped employees to
calm down and regulate their emotions successfully. Allen et al. (2021) are of the
view that interventions such as meditation training, positive mindfulness digital
applications, online positive mindfulness courses, self-compassion and many more
exciting opportunities hold much promise for enhancing well-being in the future.
Chapter Summary
This chapter aimed to provide an overview of the different theories and interven-
tions at the disposal of Organisational Psychologists as well as People practitioners
to support employees during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. These positive
psychological interventions hold much promise to support employee well-being and
indirectly also improve organisational effectiveness in future. Employees and organ-
isations have a wide choice of exciting new well-being promotion interventions to
choose from and these should be used wisely to ensure a better work–life quality
for all.
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Adéle Bezuidenhout In 2009, I received my doctoral degree in Industrial and Organisational

Psychology from the University of South Africa with a focus on the experience of female academ-
ics in terms of burnout, work engagement and sense of coherence. This study was undertaken from
a positive psychological perspective and formed the foundation of my further research into the
work experiences and well-being of academics. I have worked for different traditional, distance
learning and hybrid universities in South Africa, and the United Kingdom, holding positions as a
senior lecturer (Tshwane University of Technology, University of Portsmouth), as a Professor of
HRM (Unisa) and in the invited position of Professor Extraordinaire (Unisa). Furthermore, I
achieved a C2 rating from the South African National Research Foundation in 2019.
During my career in academia, I have published on the topic of work engagement, burnout,
well-being, distance learning, technology, e-tutors, human resource development, roles and com-
petencies and the mental health of academics. I’ve acted as section editor of the SAJHRM and was
registered with the SABPP as a Master Practitioner. I currently lecture on Positive and Social
Psychology, Human Resource Development and Change Management at the University of
Portsmouth. My lectures are research-informed and involve a combination of traditional, hybrid
and distance learning delivery. I have supervised about 20 research Masters’ students and 10
Doctoral students to completion during my academic career. These students conducted their
research in South Africa, Uganda, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Lesotho. I am currently focussed on
achieving an international perspective and am involved in research project teams studying the well-
being of academics in the United Kingdom and distance learning in Italy and South Africa.
Chapter 10
Working Remotely in the New Normal:
Towards a Conceptual Framework
for Managing Employee Well-Being
Melissa Du Plessis
1. What Is Already Known About the Theme?

The rapid change brought about by the 4IR and COVID-19 pandemic has had a
significant impact on the nature of work and the work environment (Hattingh,
2020). This change, uncertainty and disruptive technologies require employees to
redefine their work roles and change their lifestyles and habits. The COVID-19
pandemic has, furthermore, caused many employees, especially knowledge work-
ers, to work remotely (Harnett & Kieran, 2020). Although working from home has
many benefits, it could also be detrimental to employees’ well-being (Park et al.,
2021). Organisations and, more specifically, HR professionals are required to sup-
port remote workers and eliminate the negative effects of digital work (Park
et al., 2021).
2. What New Insights Are Contributed by This Chapter?
A conceptual framework with several initiatives for managing remote workers’
well-being at organisational, group and individual level is proposed. This contribu-
tion was realised by conducting a systematic review of existing literature on the
demands of remote work and its implications for employee well-being.
3. What Are the Practical Implications?
Several well-being initiatives are proposed at organisational, group and individ-
ual level. They could, perhaps, assist HR professionals in developing digital well-
ness interventions to manage the well-being of remote workers in the new normal.
M. Du Plessis (*)
Department of Human Resource Management, University of South Africa (Unisa),
e-mail: vannim@unisa.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_10
166 M. Du Plessis
Introduction and Background
Society and the world of work in particular currently experience the workings of a
revolution that will fundamentally change the way we live, work and relate to one
another. Driven by technology, this transformation – also known as the Fourth
Industrial Revolution (4IR) – presents diverse and fascinating challenges as well as
opportunities for the evolving human-resources (HR) function. The rapid pace of
change and increasingly powerful and disruptive technologies have a significant
impact on not only the nature of work and the work environment (Hattingh, 2020),
but also the way that HR connects with the organisation (Jesuthasan, 2017).
COVID-19 has accelerated change and its impact has been far-reaching and will
be long-lasting (Nelson, 2020). It has changed the workplace, causing many
employees to redefine their work roles and change their lifestyle and habits, and
forcing organisations to shift to digital or hybrid models. COVID-19 has compelled
companies to intensify their digital transformation and employees to acquire the
technological skills to perform their work remotely. Since remote work has become
the norm, organisations and their employees seek ways to navigate the ‘new normal’
(Gigauri, 2020; Ipsen et al., 2021; Pattnaik & Jena, 2021).
As new technologies increase flexibility and allow employees to work remotely,
HR must develop new policies and systems that will ensure employees’ productivity
and will eliminate the negative effects of digital work. Existing literature predicts
that remote work or a more flexible approach to work is likely to become a perma-
nent feature of the new normal (Harnett & Kieran, 2020; Henry et al., 2021; Pattnaik
& Jena, 2021).
There is little doubt that the nature of work is changing, and that agile working
enabled by advanced technology will be a megatrend in the future world of work
(The World Bank, 2020). Since more flexible, remote-friendly and digital work will
be the norm in future, employee well-being is increasingly of great importance
(Gigauri, 2020; Ipsen et al., 2021). During the COVID-19 pandemic, employee
well-being has come to organisations’ attention and will continue to be their focus
in the new normal (Clark, 2020; del Rosario, 2020; Matli, 2020). How HR should
manage employee well-being in the new normal remains an open question.
The purpose of this chapter is to contribute towards a conceptual framework for
managing individual well-being in the new normal. This objective will be achieved
by conducting a systematic review of the existing literature on remote work, of the
effect of remote work on the well-being of knowledge workers, and of HR initia-
tives that organisations could adopt to organise and manage remote work in the
future. It is anticipated that the conceptual framework will assist HR professionals
in developing digital wellness interventions to manage the well-being of knowledge
workers who work remotely.
10 Working Remotely in the New Normal: Towards a Conceptual Framework… 167
Theory and Research
Conceptualising Knowledge Workers
Knowledge workers are considered expert employees whose primary contribution

to an organisation is the creation and application of knowledge as well as the analy-
sis of subject-specific information (Charalampous et al., 2019; Drucker, 1967; Vuori
et al., 2019). Knowledge workers, according to Brinkley (2006), are classified as (1)
managerial and professional employees; (2) employees with advanced skillsets and
expertise that are certified by a university degree and (3) employees who perform
tasks that require expert thinking, problem-solving and complex communication
skills. Knowledge work is characterised by abstract production that demands physi-
cal involvement, self-initiative and creativity, flexibility, autonomy and mobility
(Charalampous et al., 2019; Sokół & Figurska, 2017; Vuori et al., 2019; Wright
et al., 2018).
Knowledge workers use technology to overcome ambiguity and complexity
(Vuori et al., 2019), to communicate and to work independently away from the
office environment. According to Wessels et al. (2019), knowledge workers increas-
ingly take advantage of flexible work arrangements to balance their work and home
demands. Moreover, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many knowledge workers
were forced to work from home (Waizenegger et al., 2020). They were required to
use a multitude of technologies and different communication systems to perform
their work and engage with colleagues while managing their home environments
and maintaining a healthy work–life balance (Bolisani et al., 2020; Waizenegger
et al., 2020). Although working from home may be an attractive solution for knowl-
edge workers since it increases their autonomy and flexibility, it may result in longer
working hours, a need to be online for most of the day, and increased job stress
(Bolisani et al., 2020).
The Nature of Remote Work
The pandemic has forced knowledge workers to work from home and while most
(68.7%) (Harnett & Kieran, 2020) prefer a more hybrid approach of working from
home, 85% of the surveyed workers in Belgium believe that remote work is the
‘new conventional workplace’ (Baert et al., 2020) and 55% of the knowledge work-
ers surveyed in Europe are supportive of remote work (Ipsen et al., 2021). This
phenomenon is already evident in the post-pandemic work plan of major corpora-
tions such as Facebook, Microsoft and Google (Kelly, 2021; Novet, 2021). In South
Africa, 79% of employees currently work remotely (Anon, 2021). Some 40% of the
respondents who participated in Robert Walters’ 2021 Salary Survey indicated that
they would like to work from home full time, while 27% would want to work
remotely 50% of the year (Smith, 2021).
168 M. Du Plessis
In recent decades, technology has brought about considerable change within

organisations (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016). Technology has also made possible
distance or remote work. Remote work is a working style that allows knowledge
workers to work outside a traditional office environment. The concept is often used
interchangeably with the concepts of telework or telecommuting (Henry et al.,
2021) and is considered a type of work that is done remotely and with online tech-
nologies (such as smartphones, tablets, laptops and so forth) to communicate with
clients and co-workers (Belzunegui-Eraso & Erro-Garcés, 2020). Employees who
work remotely are changing the notion that they must be at the office for a certain
number of hours per day to be productive.
Literature indicates that telework holds several benefits for employees such as
spending less time commuting to and from work (Barbuto et al., 2020; Ipsen et al.,
2021), being available to attend to personal obligations at home (Belzunegui-Eraso
& Erro-Garcés, 2020), and greater flexibility (Allen et al., 2015). Although working
remotely has been linked to higher productivity (Nakrošienė et al., 2019; Toniolo-
Barrios & Pitt, 2021), job satisfaction (Nagel, 2020) and better job performance
(Song & Gao, 2020), employers are increasingly concerned about the implications
of telework on their employees’ health and well-being (Clark, 2020; Harnett &
Kieran, 2020; Ipsen et al., 2021; Lovewell-Tuck, 2020; Santana & Cobo, 2020;
Segel, 2020).
Because organisations have to adapt their workforce, the working conditions and
work design of employees have changed fundamentally, and because physical inter-
action is limited, the potential misfit stemming from the new person-environment
incongruence has several implications for employees’ well-being and the productiv-
ity of organisations (Carnevale & Hatak, 2020). Working remotely brings a new
dimension to how work is done and, consequently, makes new job demands. It is
crucial to comprehend not only the job demands and resources that arise from work-
ing remotely, but also its effect on employee well-being. To this end, the job demand-
resources model (JD-R model) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) provides a valuable
framework for explaining how telework affects employee well-being.
The JD-R theory is a well-known theoretical model in occupational health psy-
chology suggesting that employees’ working conditions (classified as job demands
and resources) affect their well-being and performance. According to the JD-R the-
ory, job demands are the physical, mental, social and other organisational aspects of
a job that require effort (Bakker & Demerouti, 2016). The literature on telework
classifies work overload, task interdependence, professional isolation, family inter-
ference and distractions, inadequate workstations and working with technology that
lacks richness as job demands (Galanti et al., 2021; Jamal et al., 2021; Wang et al.,
2021). Conversely, job resources refer to the physical, psychological, social and
organisational aspects of a job that reduce job demands (Bakker & Demerouti,
2016). Since the employee is not physically at the office, a psychological and physi-
cal distance develops between employee and employer. Job autonomy and flexible
arrangements, enough technological resources, technical support, technical training
and expertise and self-leadership are, therefore, job resources (Galanti et al., 2021;
Jamal et al., 2021). Existing literature, consequently, describes telework as a job
resource because it allows for more flexibility and autonomy (Abendroth &
Reimann, 2018; Beauregard et al., 2019; Galanti et al., 2021). This classification of
telework is, however, dependent on individual differences. The JD-R theory has
further broadened to include personal resources (e.g. optimism and self-efficacy)
which refer to individuals’ beliefs about how much control they have over their
environment (Tummers & Bakker, 2021). In a study conducted by Pulido-Martos
et al. (2021) during the COVID pandemic, the researchers found that vigour at work
(physical strength, emotional energy and cognitive liveliness) has significant impli-
cations for the physical health of employees. The researchers further perceive social
support as a source of resilience during unavoidable change.
Since we have entered the new normal and since telework will be more promi-
nent than ever before, it is necessary to explore the implications of telework on
employees’ well-being. To this end, the relationship dynamics between telework
and employee well-being is examined.
Conceptualisation of Individual Health and Well-Being
Employee well-being is an essential aspect of HRM. How employees’ function in

an era of rapid change is crucial for the survival, development and advancement of
an organisation. Although remote work benefits employees, several scholars warn
that it can potentially threaten their well-being (Charalampous et al., 2019; Felstead
& Henseke, 2017; Matli, 2020; Park et al., 2021). It is, therefore, imperative for
organisations to continue investing in employee well-being to ensure effective
organisational functioning, especially in the new normal.
The Oxford English Dictionary (2021) defines well-being as the state of being
content, healthy or happy. From a positive-psychology viewpoint, Seligman (2018)
developed the PERMA model consisting of five well-being components, namely
positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment. The
author explains that each component is intrinsically rewarding and, if combined,
they purportedly help humans to flourish. Seligman’s (2018) PERMA model of
well-being served as a theoretical framework to gain a better understanding of
remote work and its effect on knowledge workers’ well-being.
Method
Research Approach
The critical review of existing literature entailed a broad systematic review (or
meta-analysis) of contemporary research on the themes regarding remote work.
This approach allowed the author to systematically analyse documented research on
remote work and its implications for individual well-being after COVID.
170 M. Du Plessis
Eligibility Criteria
The eligibility criteria of the study were based on the PICO (Population [knowledge
workers], Intervention [remote work], Comparison [individual well-being] and
Outcomes [individual and organisational well-being]) approach (Tawfik et al.,
2019). The boundaries of the systematic review were defined. Studies that satisfied
the following criteria were included in the review:
• Only research articles on remote workers’ well-being published from 2016 to
2021 were included.
• Only job demands as conceptualised by the JD-R theory (Bakker & Demerouti,
2016) were included.
• Publications that addressed the five components of well-being (positive emo-
tions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment) as conceptual-
ised by the PERMA model (Seligman, 2018) were considered eligible for
the review.
A search was conducted online using the following search engines: Google
Scholar, EBSCOhost, ProQuest, Taylor and Francis and SpringerLink. The follow-
ing search descriptors were used: COVID-19, individual or employee well-being,
PERMA, 4IR, knowledge workers, new normal, post-COVID, remote work and
telework. Search bias was reduced by searching references from included studies
and looking at related or cited articles on Google Scholar. The collected records
were imported into a referencing manager called Mendeley© and duplicates were
removed.
Data Analysis
A qualitative approach was followed to explore the implications of remote work on

employee well-being. In the first phase, the author carefully scrutinised the articles
to gain an in-depth understanding of the characteristics of knowledge workers, the
nature of remote work, the job demands associated with remote work and its impli-
cations for individual well-being. The author also studied the relevance of the
COVID pandemic and 4IR on employees’ well-being. In the second phase, the
author gained a general picture of the nature of knowledge workers’ work; the dis-
ruptions brought about by the COVID pandemic and 4IR; flexibility and working
remotely and remote workers’ well-being. The relationship dynamics between the
demands of working remotely and the well-being of employees were explored.
Exploring the job demands that influence remote workers’ well-being allowed the
author to theorise initiatives for managing remote workers’ well-being. The concep-
tualisation of wellness initiatives for HR professionals took place in phase 3 of the
data analysis process. In the last phase, the author integrated the knowledge gained
from the systematic review by developing a conceptual framework for managing
knowledge workers’ well-being in the new normal.
Strategies to Ensure Data Quality
The collected data included only full-text articles and quality was assured by review-
ing each article in terms of its scientific and methodological properties. The manner
in which findings were reported ensured that the link between the data and conclu-
sions about the data was explicit, and that the claims made about the data were
credible. Aspects such as publication bias, credibility, true value, appropriateness,
reflection on the research endeavour and best practices were also considered. The
articles have been retained for future scrutiny and are available to critical reviewers.
Possible limitations of the data analyses are that empirical data were neither col-
lected nor included and the eligibility criteria of the publications were not assessed
by independent reviewers (Tawfik et al., 2019).
heoretical Integration: The Relationship Dynamics Between

T
the Demands of Remote Work and the Well-Being
of Knowledge Workers
Since the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly altered the way people work, it is
almost certain that working remotely full-time will become the norm for most
organisations and employees. For the successful adoption of such programmes, the
various job demands and well-being implications that come with remote work must
be considered. Exploring the demands that affect knowledge workers’ experiences
when working remotely could provide valuable insight into how HR professionals
could organise and manage distance work in the future. From the systematic review,
four distinctive categories of job demands were identified, namely job characteris-
tics; connectedness, isolation and loneliness; work-family conflict and boundary
management and online presence and Zoom fatigue. These demands and its impli-
cations for individual well-being are further discussed in this section.
Job Characteristics
Working remotely is a source of job stress because it alters the way employees orga-
nise and think about their work (Miglioretti et al., 2021). Studies have shown that
the impact of telework on individual well-being is dependent on job characteristics
such as workload, task interdependence, autonomy and flexibility.
While the shift to working from home, which occurred in 2020, afforded knowl-
edge workers greater flexibility and has proved that a remote workforce can indeed
be productive, current research shows that knowledge workers work longer hours,
spend more time in meetings and alternate between different communication chan-
nels (Bentley et al., 2016; Maurer, 2020). Consequently, knowledge workers work
172 M. Du Plessis
harder than before the COVID pandemic (Ghislieri et al., 2021; Osborne, 2021).
Studies conducted by Matli (2020) and Wang et al. (2021) confirm that working
remotely results in working longer hours and affects employees’ work–life balance.
Maurer (2020) and Jacobs (2020) contend that an increased workload makes it dif-
ficult for knowledge workers to disconnect from their work and, as a result, they
experience more job stress and disengagement.
Task interdependence refers to the degree to which employees rely on each other
to effectively perform their work (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Jobs that involve
a high level of task interdependence require more coordination and interaction with
other members of the team. Since telework is dependent on technology for exchang-
ing information, it is rather difficult to communicate and coordinate work, which
diminishes the positive outcomes of telework. Existing literature further indicates
that working remotely full-time complicates knowledge sharing, which reduces
innovation and creativity and, consequently, harms the cognitive well-being of
employees (Bolisani et al., 2020; Isa, 2020). Additionally, Bolisani et al. (2020)
conclude that working from home affects the intellectual productivity of knowledge
workers. It has been found that where low-task interdependence is associated with
greater productivity, job satisfaction and individual well-being (Golden & Veiga,
2005; Turetken et al., 2011), high-task interdependence could lead to disengage-
ment, job stress and burnout (Jamal et al., 2021).
More recent evidence on telework suggests that job stress and exhaustion may be
mediated by autonomy (Oakman et al., 2020) and flexibility (Song & Gao, 2020).
Song and Gao (2020) submit that working remotely increases individual well-being
and quality of life because more autonomy and flexibility allow employees to man-
age and organise their work schedules better and to be more productive. Similarly,
Carnevale and Hatak (2020) claim that autonomy and flexibility within remote work
environments provide employees with sufficient cognitive and emotional resources
to manage additional and often incompatible demands. Several researchers believe
that appropriate job resources – such as autonomy and flexibility – may mitigate the
adverse effects of job demands (Galanti et al., 2021; Jamal et al., 2021; Miglioretti
et al., 2021; Perry et al., 2018). Jamal et al. (2021) found a positive relationship
between autonomy and flexibility, and between job satisfaction, performance and
productivity, which improves employees’ work–life balance.
Connectedness, Isolation and Loneliness
Interpersonal relationships are an essential aspect of organisational life (Gigauri,

2020; Sinclair et al., 2020). Before the COVID-19 pandemic, regular face-to-face
interaction was one of the most significant factors in building and sustaining com-
pany culture. As organisations adapt to the new normal, employees will have lesser
and lesser physical, social and professional interaction (Carnevale & Hatak, 2020).
As communication with their co-workers occurs through their phones, electronic
mail, instant messaging and conference calls, teleworkers do not have much
face-to-face interaction. Consequently, they often suffer from social isolation and
feel isolated and disconnected from their superiors and colleagues (Galanti et al.,
2021; Nakrošienė et al., 2019; Oakman et al., 2020; Xiao et al., 2021).
Professional isolation is viewed as the biggest disadvantage of telecommuting
since it limits opportunities for social interaction between employees (Baert et al.,
2020; Jamal et al., 2021). It is defined as employees’ perception that they are dis-
tanced from their colleagues because of fewer opportunities to interact and form
interpersonal relationships s(Golden et al., 2008). In addition, it has been observed
that teleworkers fear that being out of sight and out of mind affects their career
advancement (Kim et al., 2021; Nakrošienė et al., 2019), performance evaluation
(Song & Gao, 2020), productivity (Schroeder et al., 2021) and job satisfaction
(Galanti et al., 2021; Nakrošienė et al., 2019). Windeler et al. (2017) maintain that
professional isolation may lead to loneliness, anxiety, burnout, depression and vari-
ous physical disorders.
Employees benefit from social relationships at work. Social support is an impor-
tant resource for maintaining their affective well-being and mental health (Hager,
2018). Teleworkers have weaker affective ties with their co-workers, which result in
unfulfilled social needs and, consequently, emotional exhaustion and disconnected-
ness; lower job satisfaction and poor job performance (Charalampous et al., 2019;
Toscano & Zappalà, 2020). Allen et al. (2015) argue that limited social interaction
with co-workers result in social stigmatisation. For employees who live alone,
working from home full-time without face-to-face interaction and social support
can lead to mental problems such as depression (Xiao et al., 2021).
Conversely, Anderson et al. (2015) found that social relationships not related to
work promotes teleworkers’ mental well-being. Having compatible co-workers to
interact with informally increases job satisfaction and organisational commitment,
and reduces psychological strain (Bentley et al., 2016; Charalampous et al., 2019).
Finally, Cernas-Ortiz and Wai-Kwan (2021) found that connectedness outside
employees’ jobs will not only reduce work-family conflict but also increase employ-
ees’ affective well-being. Socially connected employees are, therefore, more likely
to experience affective well-being when working remotely (Beauregard et al., 2019).
Work–Family Conflict and Boundary Management
Technology is transforming the nature of the work–family interface and is blurring

the lines between teleworkers’ work and family roles. As telework involves working
in one’s personal space, it erases the physical demarcation between work and home
(Allen et al., 2015). Moreover, technology (e.g. MS Teams) and constant connection
via technological devices require teleworkers to work more hours and check their
e-mails and instant messages more frequently after hours. Job demands such as
workload, cognitive load, and emotional labour, intensifies conflict between tele-
workers’ work and family lives.
174 M. Du Plessis
According to the theories of role stress and role conflict, work–family conflict
occurs when contextual demands in one domain (such as their work) drain the per-
sonal resources of individuals, leaving insufficient resources to function optimally
in the other domain (the family role) (Sirgy et al., 2020; ten Brummelhuis & Bakker,
2012). It occurs when role pressures from the work and non-work domains are
incompatible, causing the individual to feel stressed, anxious and guilty for not cop-
ing with the different roles (Golden, 2021). Although it is argued that telework
allows for the better segmentation of work and non-work roles, studies have shown
that work–family conflict is harmful to the psychological well-being of employees
(Allen et al., 2020; Ghislieri et al., 2021; Palumbo, 2020).
Literature shows that employees who work from home and experience work–
family conflict are emotionally exhausted and unhappy, are often subject to occupa-
tional stress, are less engaged in their work and experience negative affect towards
their employer (Darouei & Pluut, 2021; Ghislieri et al., 2018; Palumbo, 2020; Song
& Gao, 2020). Song and Gao (2020) report decreased life satisfaction and a work–
life imbalance. Mediators and moderators such as an employee’s life stage (marital
status and parenthood) (Lippe & Lippényi, 2020; Zhang et al., 2020), choice in
where to work (Anderson & Kelliher, 2020), experience of working remotely
(Gajendran & Harrison, 2007), supervisor support and organisational culture and
boundary management (Allen et al., 2015) have, however, been found to decrease
conflict between the work–family interface and working remotely.
Online Presence and Zoom Fatigue
With the widespread use of technology, most knowledge workers are expected to be
available to answer work-related calls and e-mails, and to deal with issues even after
hours, which has led to a culture of being ‘always on’. This perceived expectation
leads to workaholism, work-family conflict and poor interpersonal relationships
(Matli, 2020; Park et al., 2021). In a recent study on employee stress and anxiety,
Molino et al. (2020) reported that employees experience application multitasking,
information overload, frequent system upgrades and downtime, and technological
problems.
Continuous online connection and hours of screen exposure lead to besides
stress, anxiety and fatigue, headaches and eye-related complications, discomfort
and reduced productivity, also to poor interpersonal relationships (Bolisani et al.,
2020; Miglioretti et al., 2021; Spagnoli et al., 2020; Xiao et al., 2021). Charalampous
et al. (2019) found that remote workers find it difficult to detach themselves from
their work because they are permanently connected to the office via technology.
Telework results in an overworking culture that requires greater work efforts and,
consequently, increases work-related fatigue (Palumbo, 2020).
Zoom fatigue is another concern for most knowledge workers since most meet-
ings and training opportunities were moved online due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Zoom or screen fatigue is a phenomenon of emotional and physical exhaustion
caused by video conferencing (Fosslien & Duffy, 2020). Zoom burnout, according
to Robinson (2020), also influences teleworkers’ psychological and physical health
and compromises their career growth.
Suh and Lee (2017) claim that telework causes technostress. The inappropriate
use of technology may be another factor that influences remote workers’ well-being
(Charalampous et al., 2019). The results of technostress include anxiety and behav-
ioural strain, exhaustion, mental fatigue, poor concentration and insomnia (Spagnoli
et al., 2020).
onceptual Framework for Managing Individual Health

C
and Well-Being in the New Normal
The effects of working remotely on remote workers’ well-being were discussed in

the previous section. In this section, several resources that could assist HR profes-
sionals in managing knowledge workers’ well-being in the new normal are pro-
posed. The job demands (discussed in the previous section) of working remotely
served as the foundation for identifying the resources and the proposed resources
are grouped at organisational, group and individual level.
Organisational Resources
The proposed organisational resources include organisational culture, supervisor

support, attention to virtual work characteristics, wellness programmes and career
development and training.
Organisational Culture
A positive and safe organisational culture can, according to Park et al. (2021),
enhance remote workers’ psychological well-being by facilitating consensus on
common organisational values. In a study conducted by Ghislieri et al. (2021) dur-
ing the COVID-19 pandemic, it was found that the adoption of a family-friendly
culture could reduce work-family conflict. Within a digital workspace, an organisa-
tion’s culture must embrace and support digital transformation (Buchanan et al.,
2016); individual attributes such as kindness, altruism, empathy and connection
must be prioritised (Park et al., 2021; Veldsman, 2021).
176 M. Du Plessis
Supervisor Support
Literature indicates that remote workers’ well-being could be influenced by a lack

of organisational support (Baert et al., 2020; Como et al., 2020). Remote workers
need resources such as managerial guidance, recognition and technological support
to remain productive and motivated (Golden, 2021; Kumar & Mokashi, 2020).
Similarly, Kim et al. (2021) found that results-based management and trust-building
efforts improve organisational performance. Supervisor support and flexibility
boost work–life wellness (Rudolph et al., 2021), and that family-supportive supervi-
sor behaviours (e.g. emotional support and role-modelling) enhance employee well-
being since work–family conflict is reduced (Como et al., 2020; Sinclair et al.,
2020). Lastly, literature indicates that employees will require support from their
organisations and supervisors to find suitable work plans in the new normal (Como
et al., 2020).
Focus on Virtual-Work Characteristics
To prepare for the future of work, organisations need to rethink the way work is
done. In today’s digital landscape, employees are no longer confined to a single job;
they value flexible work arrangements and work in ways that require significant
changes in the way workspaces are designed and communication is facilitated
(Lindley et al., 2019). To adapt to the new normal, organisations should pay atten-
tion to these trends and adapt their practices accordingly.
To aid employees in coping with the challenges of working remotely and to
increase employee productivity and well-being, Wang et al. (2021) propose that
organisations focus on their employees’ virtual-job characteristics. Management
could, for example, engage in more supportive management practices (such as using
motivating language, building trust and sharing information) (Wang et al., 2021);
maintain flexibility and collaboration (Gigauri, 2020); encourage autonomy; offer
developmental opportunities and resources for working remotely; set clear perfor-
mance expectations and encourage regular contact with co-workers (Perry et al.,
2018). Management could also promote job crafting behaviours (Ingusci et al.,
2021) and identify ergonomic risks to avoid physical discomfort (Charalampous
et al., 2019). Lastly, the risk of workaholism and signs of technostress could be
monitored through organisational analysis tools (Spagnoli et al., 2020).
Wellness Programmes
Literature on the implementation of wellness programmes among remote workers

are scant. In an article published during the COVID-19 pandemic, Rachidi (2020)
stresses the importance of wellness programmes during transition and uncertainty.
The author maintains that virtual wellness programmes should include counselling
services and access to mental health professionals to aid employees and their
families in coping with psychological problems. Caligiuri et al. (2020) encourage

companies to offer employees who engage in virtual work stress-mitigating support
such as webinars on resilience and tutorials on mindfulness. Similarly, Zheng et al.
(2016) suggest that wellness programmes could assist employees in managing
work–family conflict.
From the above, one could conclude that existing wellness programmes must be
redesigned to address all life domains. These may include employee assistance pro-
grammes; resource and referral services; psychological counselling and support
services; training in stress management, resilience and coping behaviour; virtual-
connection or -support circles, and assistance with flexibility, a work–life balance
and taking time off (Carnevale & Hatak, 2020; Gauche et al., 2017; Rachidi, 2020).
Career Development and Training
When organisations support remote workers and offer them opportunities for career
development and training, it will decrease their psychological strain, reduce their
social isolation and increase their psychological well-being (Bentley et al., 2016;
Park et al., 2021). Information about career opportunities and mentoring may be
crucial to alleviate concerns about career advancement (Charalampous et al., 2019).
Training opportunities could facilitate employees’ adjustment to working
remotely (Carnevale & Hatak, 2020; Grant et al., 2019; Matli, 2020; Toniolo-Barrios
& Pitt, 2021). In addition, agile work requires specific supervisor training such as
being mindful of employees’ mental health challenges (Park et al., 2021) and super-
visor support behaviours (Sinclair et al., 2020).
Group Resources
Group resources, according to Park et al. (2021), are the most dominant factor
affecting remote workers’ psychological well-being. They emphasise communica-
tion, social relationships and support from co-workers and their supervisors.
Communication with their co-workers and supervisors plays a crucial role in the
psychological well-being of remote workers since they share work information and
processes, identify problems and implement solutions and build relationships in
their work groups (Beauregard et al., 2019; Charalampous et al., 2019; Nayani
et al., 2018). Opportunities for regular communication reduce the negative impact
associated with feeling isolated or lonely while working remotely (Darouei & Pluut,
2021; Oakman et al., 2020). Lastly, social support could increase remote workers’
psychological well-being when they derive a sense of belonging from their work-
groups and teamwork and develop trust in their colleagues (Ipsen et al., 2021; Park
et al., 2021).
178 M. Du Plessis
Individual Resources
Resources for maintaining individual well-being include work–life wellness, job

crafting, leisure crafting, mindfulness, playful work design and boundary
management.
Work–Life Wellness
Because work–life wellness is a relatively new concept in wellness research, litera-

ture on the concept is rather scarce. Work–life wellness is the individual’s ability be
well in different aspects of life (Como et al., 2020). It focuses on how employees
nurture wellness by various means, instead of concentrating on the conflicting
factors.
The work–life wellness of remote workers is jeopardised by, among other things,
over-working and work interference in their personal life. Their elimination could
result in improved physical and mental health and productivity (Como et al., 2020).
Remote workers could reach their desired level of wellness by adopting boundary
management strategies such as balance, integration, and segmentation. Organisations
could further assist employees by having regular check-ins, showing empathy,
focusing on outputs and changing performance expectations and by offering super-
visor support and flexibility (Como et al., 2020). By maintaining their work–life
wellness, employees could reduce stress caused by attempts to juggle their work
and family responsibilities.
Job Crafting
Owning to recent research, we have in-depth understanding of how employees

change their jobs of their own accord to improve their performance and well-being.
This is known as job crafting. Originally, job crafting has been defined in terms of
the physical and cognitive changes that employees make to their tasks or relation-
ships at work (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Scholars have also extended the
conceptualisation of job crafting to include self-initiated skills development (Lyons,
2008) and modifying job demands and resources (Tims et al., 2012).
Job crafting behaviours could lead to positive outcomes for employees by
increasing the person-job fit; enhancing the meaning of work; job satisfaction, work
engagement and organisational commitment; improving work performance and
productivity and reducing the negative impact of job demands and health conse-
quences (such as burnout) (Bruning & Campion, 2019; Ingusci et al., 2021).
Employees could, for example, improve their coping resources and activate new
forms of autonomy, participate by using technology and increase their task variety
and clarity (Ingusci et al., 2021).
To optimise time-spatial flexibility – the ability of knowledge workers to decide

when, where and for how long they should work daily – in the new world of work,
employees should ideally engage in time-spatial job crafting (Wessels et al., 2019).
Time-spatial job crafting extends existing job crafting theory to include changes to
the employee’s working hours and place or location of work. Wessels et al. (2019)
conceptualise time-spatial job crafting as a context-specific type of job crafting
where employees (1) reflect on specific work tasks and private demands; (2) select
workplaces, work locations and working hours that complement the work tasks and
private demands and (3) possibly adjust either their place or location of work and
their working hours or private demands to ensure that these still complement each
other to optimise time/spatial-demands fit. Time-spatial job crafting strategies
include reflection, selection and adaptation (see Wessels et al., 2019). Bruning and
Campion (2019) outline several managerial guidelines for improving job crafting.
Leisure Crafting
Petrou and Bakker (2016) conceptualise leisure crafting as the proactive pursuit of
specific goals, human connections, learning and personal development in leisure
activities. It enables employees to seek fulfilment and shape their leisure activities
in a manner that addresses their passions and values. Leisure crafting further
involves companionship and the development of interpersonal relationships.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, remote work blurs the lines between the
work and home domain, thereby risking work intensification and the devaluation of
leisure time. To manage the demands of working remotely, employees should create
boundaries between work and leisure time through leisure crafting. Leisure crafting
will help them to unwind, to get rid of stressors that lead to emotional exhaustion,
and to experience the art of mastery and control (Abdel Hadi et al., 2021). Employees
could, for example, find challenging activities outside their work domain, increase
their skills through leisure activities (such as learning a new language), foster rela-
tionships through leisure activities, and engage in mentally stimulating activities
(Petrou & Bakker, 2016; Tsaur et al., 2020).
Recent research has extended the theory on leisure crafting by examining spe-
cific types of non-work or home crafting strategies. Demerouti et al. (2020) concep-
tualise home crafting as the changes that employees make to balance their home
demands and resources with their personal needs to enhance meaning and restore
their person-environment fit. Home crafting, therefore, includes specific proactive
behaviours that employees engage in within their home domain. Demerouti et al.
(2020) identify three home crafting behaviours that employees could adopt: (1)
seeking resources (e.g. create variety in duties at home), (2) seeking challenges (e.g.
look for challenging activities next to work) and (3) reducing demands (e.g. ensure
that activities after work are mentally less demanding).
180 M. Du Plessis
Mindfulness
Mindfulness refers to being aware of and paying attention to what is happening in

the present moment with an open mind and accepting the experience (Agnoli &
Vannucci, 2020). In a mindful state, one neither ruminates on past events nor con-
templates the future – one simply observes what is currently happening (Pattnaik &
Jena, 2021). Consequently, mindfulness increases objectivity in relation to one’s
internal and external experiences. It encourages employee engagement, enhances
employee morale, decreases stress and distress, improves psychological well-being,
boosts work productivity and creates a strong employee experience (Agnoli &
Vannucci, 2020; Pattnaik & Jena, 2021).
With regard to remote work, Toniolo-Barrios and Pitt (2021) explain that mind-
fulness may be beneficial as it can (1) help employees to mentally disconnect from
work when they need to, (2) improve employees’ attention to work tasks and thereby
enhancing their performance and (3) allow employees to better manage screen-time
and Zoom fatigue. Techniques available to remote workers include mindfulness
meditation, 3-minute breathing, body scan, the grounding exercise and mindful
check-in. (See Toniolo-Barrios and Pitt (2021) for a full description of each
technique.)
Playful Work Design
According to Bakker et al. (2020a), employees might strive for improved work per-
formance by changing their personal experiences of their work tasks and engaging
in playful work design (PWD). PWD refers to the process through which employees
proactively create conditions at work that foster play and enjoyment without chang-
ing the design of the job itself (Bakker et al., 2020b). Bakker et al. (2020b) assert
that employees generally engage in two types of play, namely ludic and agonistic
play. The first allows employees to make the task more fun by, for example chang-
ing the work situation to provide oneself and others with amusement (i.e. designing
fun). The latter enables employees to compete with themselves by, for example try-
ing to beat the clock when performing a task (i.e. designing competition).
When employees engage in PWD, they can increase their motivation and creativ-
ity, reduce boredom, foster a sense of belonging, stimulate energetic performance,
increase their job satisfaction and perceptions of competence and reduce job stress
and burnout (Bakker et al., 2020a, 2020b; Scharp et al., 2019). In a study conducted
during the COVID-19 pandemic, Bakker and van Wingerden (2021)found that by
using humour with co-workers during video calls, teleworkers satisfied their psy-
chological need for autonomy, relatedness and competence.
Resilience and Positive Coping Behaviour
The rapid pace of change and changing nature of work cause a sense of insecurity,
anxiety and distress among employees (Cheng et al., 2021; Jamal et al., 2021; Matli,
2020; Molino et al., 2020). Authors have, however, proposed adaptive individual
attributes such as resilience (Blake et al., 2020; Park et al., 2021), coping flexibility
(Cheng et al., 2021), adaptive coping (Gauche et al., 2017; Hall et al., 2020; Sinclair
et al., 2020) and positive coping behaviour (du Plessis, 2021; Marx, 2017) to deal
with the demands of the new normal. Resilient copers, according to Cheng et al.
(2021), tend to use positive actions such as acquiring technical skills to meet the
demands of working remotely and engaging in personal meditation to disconnect
from work demands. Consequently, these employees adopt a more complex view by
recognising the controllable and uncontrollable aspects of remote work.
Boundary Management
The way employees manage their work–home boundaries have implications for
their well-being (Rothbard & Ollier-Malaterre, 2015). Boundary management is a
strategy that may mitigate the potential for work–family conflict. It concerns the
manner in which employees strive to limit conflicting demands between work and
family, and to successfully navigate these conflicts (Golden, 2021). Strategies that
improve boundary management include in-house training and education on how to
formally develop boundaries between work and family responsibilities (Hudson,
2018; Oakman et al., 2020) and ensure a clearly demarcated workspace (Como
et al., 2020). Golden (2021) identifies several best practices for teleworkers’ work–
home boundary management.
Several resources for improving remote workers’ well-being at organisational,
group and individual level were proposed in this section. The conceptual framework
is presented in Fig. 10.1. It illustrates the relationship dynamics between the
demands of working remotely, its implications for individual well-being, and the
proposed resources for improving remote workers’ well-being in the new normal.
Table 10.1 presents a summary of the proposed initiatives that could assist HR
professionals in managing knowledge workers’ well-being in the new normal.
These initiatives were derived from the organisational, group and individual
resources proposed in Fig. 10.1.
Practical Implications
Based on the systematic review conducted in this chapter, several well-being initia-
tives that could assist HR professionals in managing remote workers’ well-being in
the new normal were theoretically proposed and portrayed in the form of a concep-
tual framework. These initiatives, as summarised in Fig. 10.1 and Table 10.1, were
182 M. Du Plessis
Fig. 10.1 Conceptual framework for improving individual well-being in the new normal. (Note:
Author’s own compilation)
grouped at organisational, group and individual level. The initiatives proposed at

organisational level could assist HR in developing a supportive and caring organisa-
tional culture that support digital transformation, are cognisant of employees’ vir-
tual job characteristics, offer virtual wellness programmes and provide opportunities
for career development and training. At group level, several initiatives were pro-
posed to reduce feelings of isolation and loneliness. HR professionals could, for
example, use online platforms or social networking services to increase social sup-
port and collaboration.
At individual level, the proposed resources could aid individual employees in
personally managing their own well-being while working remotely. They could, for
example, engage in leisure and home crafting activities or take time to meditate
daily. HR professionals could also develop interventions such as online training and
development programmes, digital support systems to manage job crafting, or mind-
fulness techniques and practices to help employees enhance their well-being flour-
ish. In conclusion, not only will remote workers’ well-being be enhanced if they
receive the necessary support from their organisations, but their motivation, produc-
tivity and performance, engagement and commitment will also increase (Park et al.,
2021). It is therefore anticipated that the proposed framework will provide guidance
to HR professionals.
Setting a Future Research Agenda
Scholars who are interested in the dynamics of remote work and their implications
for employees’ well-being could expand on the systematic review and conceptual
framework presented in this chapter. The evolving demands of working remotely
Table 10.1 Summary: Initiatives for managing individual well-being in the new normal
Organisational initiatives
Attention to Career
Organisational Organisational virtual Wellness development
culture support characteristics programmes and training
Organisational values Managerial Supportive Counselling Career
Family-friendly guidance and management services planning
culture support Flexibility and Mental health Training
Positive and safe Results-based collaboration professionals programmes
climate management Developmental Stress-mitigating Career
Embrace digital Trust building opportunities support advancement
transformation efforts Job crafting Employee Coaching and
Family behaviours assistance mentoring
supportive Ergonomics programme
supervisor Organisational Resources and
behaviours analysis tools referral services
Technological Training on
support resilience and
coping
Virtual
connections/
support circles
Group initiatives
Opportunities for Social support Opportunities to Nurture a sense of Teamwork and
regular develop social belonging trust
communication relationships
Individual initiatives
Work–life wellness Job crafting Leisure crafting Home crafting
Boundary Change task Find activities Seek resources
management boundaries outside work Seek challenges
strategies (balance, Change domain Reduce demands
integration, cognitive tasksIncrease skills
segmentation) Change through leisure
Regular health checks relational activities
Flexibility and boundaries Foster social
support Time-spatial relationships
job crafting through leisure
Engage in
mentally
stimulating
activities
Mindfulness Playful work Resilience and Boundary management
design (PWD) coping behaviour
Mindfulness Create Resilience In-house training
meditation entertainment Coping flexibility Demarcated workspace
3-minute breathing and fun Adaptive coping
Body scan Create Positive coping
The grounding challenges and behaviour
exercise competition Personal
Mindful check-in meditation
Note: Author’s own compilation
184 M. Du Plessis
combined with the unique challenges brought about by the 4IR and COVID-19
pandemic could be explored to refine the conceptual framework for possible empiri-
cal testing. The conceptual framework (or specific level initiatives) could further be
tested in different industries or among different populations to determine if the
interventions are context specific and whether the initiatives are indeed effective for
enhancing remote workers’ well-being in the new normal.
Conclusion
As organisations have to contend with the new normal in which flexibility and
remote work is the norm (Gigauri, 2020; Ipsen et al., 2021), HR professionals are
expected to guide their employees to adapt to the unprecedented work environment.
Because the future will necessitate a more hybrid approach to work, for many
organisations employee well-being has come to the fore and will continue to be the
focus in the new normal (del Rosario, 2020; Matli, 2020; Rudolph et al., 2021).
Since remote and digital work will be an important trend in the future world of work
(Bentley et al., 2016), HR is required to develop new policies and systems to lessen
the job demands that arise from working remotely. To this end, a conceptual frame-
work with several initiatives for managing remote workers’ well-being was devel-
oped. The author anticipates that the conceptual framework will assist HR
professionals in developing wellness interventions that could promote the well-
being of knowledge workers who have to work remotely as a result of the new normal.
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0.1080/09585192.2015.1020447
Dr Melissa Du Plessis is a senior lecturer in the Department of Human Resource Management at

Unisa. She is an HR Professional registered with the South African Board of People Practices
(SABPP) and an Industrial Psychologist registered with the Health Professions Council of South
Africa (HPCSA). Melissa completed her PhD degree in Psychology in 2018. She has published
numerous articles in accredited journals and presented a research paper at an international confer-
ence. Melissa has, furthermore, contributed chapters to various books in the areas of Human
Resource Management and Training and Development. Her research interest is individual and
organisational health and well-being.
Chapter 11
Agile Coping in the New Normal
Post-COVID Career Space: Does Your
Cognitive Orientation Matter?
Ingrid L. Potgieter
Introduction
The post-COVID career space (which includes the digital era accelerated by the
COVID-19 pandemic) has brought about many changes, challenges and opportuni-
ties to the workplace and its employees. Globalisation and fast-paced technological
evolution have caused careers, occupations and jobs within the digital career space
to become almost completely without boundaries and more complex than ever
before (Coetzee, 2021; De Loitte Insights, 2019; Intuit Report, 2020). The new
normal post-COVID career space is faced with further instability, unpredictability
and uncertainty regarding job and career security. According to Coetzee (2021),
within this digital career space, employees are taking the responsibility of managing
personally meaningful careers. A career is defined as a sequence of roles and posi-
tions that a person has throughout his working life (Hafsoh et al., 2021). This new
normal post-COVID career space requires individuals to adopt new cognitive think-
ing and emotional states that result in either positive or negative coping responses
from employees.
Many other authors have found career well-being and career agility to be signifi-
cant coping attributes within the new normal post-COVID career space (Coetzee
et al., 2020; Coetzee, 2021; Lent, 2018; Van der Heijden & De Vos, 2015). Potgieter
(2021) also found coping attributes to be significant contributors to career well-being.
To cope with the turmoil and uncertainties of the new normal career space,
employees should have psychological resources to help cope with the new demands
of the post-COVID digital career context. The new normal working context fosters
new cognitive thinking states that facilitate agile coping within the workplace
I. L. Potgieter (*)
e-mail: visseil@unisa.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_11
194 I. L. Potgieter
(Konstant, 2020; UBC, 2020). Hirschi (2018) defined cognitive orientation as an

individual’s preferred way of making decisions or solving problems in changing
situations.
This chapter explores cognitive orientation in relation to agile coping attributes
(facets of career well-being and career agility) that have emerged as essential coping
attributes of the new normal post-COVID career space.
Chapter Objective
Although some research on the link between the constructs of cognitive orientation,
well-being and career agility is present, no study has been conducted examining this
link within the new normal post-COVID career space or new normal working con-
text. In the modern career space, the constructs of career well-being and career agil-
ity have been explored by various scholars (see, for example, Aderibigbe &
Chimucheka, 2019; Coetzee, 2021; Coetzee et al., 2021a, 2021b; Potgieter et al.,
2019; Steiner & Spurk, 2019; Wilhelm & Hirschi, 2019). Theory and research on
the construct of cognitive orientation are also found; however, no research was
found on how this construct impacts agile coping within the new normal post-
COVID working space. This chapter addresses the current gap in research on the
three constructs of cognitive orientation and agile coping attributes (facets of career
well-being and career agility), with the aim of exploring whether cognitive orienta-
tion significantly correlates with the agile coping attributes (facets of career well-
being and career agility) as well as whether cognitive orientation significantly
predicts agile coping attributes (facets of career well-being and career agility).
As a starting point, this chapter first discusses modern theoretical stances sup-
porting cognitive orientation and agile coping attributes from the coping circumplex
model perspective (CCM: Stanislawski, 2019). Thereafter, this chapter reports and
discusses the empirical findings related to the study constructs. Finally, this chapter
provides practical implications for the new normal post-COVID career space theory
and organisational support practices.
Theoretical Framework
Compas et al. (2001) defined coping as conscious or unconscious as well as inten-

tional and unintentional responses to stress. In the context of coping, the new nor-
mal post-COVID career space includes significant career shocks for employees
(Hite & McDonald, 2020). These shocks, accompanied by the uncertainty about
employment and employability as well as new workplace configurations, will cause
significant concerns and anxiety among employees (Hite & McDonald, 2020;
Savickas & Porfeli, 2012), eliciting certain stress responses from individuals
(Coetzee, 2021). Segerstrom and Smith (2017) noted that personality is an essential
11 Agile Coping in the New Normal Post-COVID Career Space… 195
element in coping with stressful conditions. It thus stands to reason that cognitive
orientations (as a mental function of personality) are essential psychosocial
resources to sustain career well-being and career agility (as agile coping attributes)
amidst the turmoil of chaotic conditions. The post-COVID career space causes even
greater chaos and uncertainties within the workspace. It is thus essential to explore
the link between cognitive orientation and career well-being and career agility as
coping mechanisms for surviving and thriving within the new normal post-COVID
career space.
According to the coping circumplex model (CCM: Stanislawski, 2019), indi-
viduals cope with stress via cognitive, emotional or behavioural responses. When
faced with stressful situations (such as the new normal post-COVID career space),
individuals should adopt problem-solving and emotion regulation strategies
(Stanislawski, 2019). Col and Cook (2004) defined problem-solving as active
behavioural and cognitive attempts to understand a situation or problem, predict the
course of events to follow and then choose and act upon the most appropriate solu-
tion to the identified problem. Coetzee (2021) noted that problem-solving com-
prises negative emotional coping (when individuals feel helpless, experience
negative emotions and become disengaged) as well as positive emotional coping
(which includes efficiency, growth and positive reinterpretation of situations and
positive emotions and expectations).
Negative emotional coping leads to lower well-being (Stanislawski, 2019),
whereas positive emotional coping leads to higher well-being. In addition, negative
emotional coping leads to lower career agility (Coetzee, 2021), whereas positive
emotional coping leads to higher career agility.
Cognitive Orientation
Cognitive orientation is associated with the reason why individuals behave in a

certain manner, without relying on consciously controlled systematic decision-
making based on considerations of personal gain (Kreither & Benbenisty, 2020).
Cognitive orientation is thus the unconscious explanation of the behaviour displayed
by individuals. Chatterjee and Hunt (1996) suggested that cognitive orientation is
linked to an individual’s personality. Personality refers to the inherited individual
differences in the patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving (Potgieter &
Coetzee, 2013).
Cognitive orientation is thus grounded in the personality type theory, founded by
Jung. Jung (1921, 1959, 1971) believed that every individual is motivated both by
his/her personal experiences and by emotionally toned experiences from the past.
Jung (1921, 1959, 1971) branded these past experiences as the collective uncon-
scious, which may include those elements that we have never experienced ourselves
but which have come down to us from our ancestors. Jung (1971) further believed
that individuals are unconsciously pushed by past events and are also pulled by
future expectations and that these events and expectations influence behaviour.
196 I. L. Potgieter
Jung (1971) further explained that an individual’s personality is grouped into

attitudes (extraversion, introversion, judgement and perception) as well as mental
functions (sensing, intuition, thinking and feeling). Kreitler and Kreitler (1969)
explained that an individual’s cognitive orientation is a mental function. The cogni-
tive orientation model is thus grounded in the mental functions of the Jung-type
personality theory. Cognitive orientation is thus a multidimensional concept that
includes the facets of a thinker, innovator, people-carer and realist.
Individuals with a “thinker” cognitive orientation use a logical and analytical
process in making decisions or judgements. Such individuals use logic and formal
methods of reasoning and do not consider any personal or emotional factors in their
thinking function. An individual with a dominant thinking orientation typically
identifies alternative courses of action, the consequences of each possible course of
action, the potential risks and benefits of each alternative course (which also include
the consequence of no action) and, based on facts and logic, selects the best alterna-
tive or course of action. An individual with a thinking cognitive orientation is thus
concerned with matters of truth and rationality.
In contrast, individuals with a “people-carer” cognitive orientation make deci-
sions or base their judgements on subjective values. Their orientation is not based
on logic and is rather concerned with ideas of justice and ethics. Such individuals
involve personal terms in their cognitive orientations and consider personal stakes
of individuals or groups in their decision-making. In decision-making situations,
people-carer individuals assess the values involved in each alternative course of
action, how people will feel about the alternative, how they will react and whether
the outcome will benefit the individual or group.
Individuals with a “realist” cognitive orientation perceive information by means
of their senses. They prefer data that are factual, precise, concrete and practical
dealing with specifics and logic. They focus their attention on known facts and
break down every situation into isolated pieces for evaluation and assessment.
Individuals with an “innovator” cognitive orientation mediate their perceptions
so that data are received as a whole, through a set of associations. They apply intu-
ition to explore the unknown and to sense possibilities and implications that are not
obvious. Such individuals are innovative and seek alternative interpretations and
implications beyond the known and objective facts. They develop many alternative
ideas as opposed to dealing in specific facts or solutions to problems.
Positive Coping Attributes
Career Well-Being
Career well-being is an intrinsic positive psychological drive that indicates the long-
term commitment that an individual has about his/her career success, career changes
and their sustainability within the complexities of the modern career space (Bester
et al., 2019).
According to the coping circumplex model (Stanislawski, 2019), effective cop-

ing depends on intrinsic psychological drives (cognition and affect) and the condi-
tions in which coping strategies are required. Career well-being is thus a long-term
psychological state of subjective well-being that is a result of an individual’s current
career situation instead of his/her expected future career situation (Coetzee, 2021).
Several authors have found that individuals that feel positive about and are satisfied
with their current career situation (thus possessing positive psychological condi-
tions) display certain self-regulatory behaviours in career adaptation processes
(Potgieter et al., 2019; Steiner & Spurk, 2019; Wilhelm & Hirschi, 2019).
Career well-being is a multidimensional concept and relates to three essential
intrinsic psychological conditions that individuals can employ to cope with the
dynamic, complex and ever-changing career context, such as the new normal post-
COVID career space. These conditions include a positive career effect (individual’s
emotions and positive perception of his/her career), career networking/social sup-
port (formal and informal ties between employees) and career meaningfulness (the
level of importance an employee attaches to the subjective experience at work)
(Coetzee et al., 2021b).
A “positive career effect” is a result of positive emotions that arise when indi-
viduals are satisfied with the achievement of their career goals. Positive emotions
are a useful coping mechanism to deal with stressful situations or conditions (such
as the new normal post-COVID career space) (Hosie et al., 2006; Reich et al., 2010;
Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).
“Career networking/social support” refers to formal as well as informal ties
between employees (Pedersen & Lewis, 2012). Several researchers have found pos-
itive correlations between social support/networking and effective coping mecha-
nisms (Berman et al., 2002; Charuvastra & Cloitre, 2008; Crabtree, 2004;
Ellingwood, 2001; Hamilton, 2007; Potgieter, 2019; Riordan & Griffeth, 1995;
Yıldırım et al., 2017). It has been found that social support motivates employees,
results in enhancement of trust and respect and improves feelings of security.
Employees who positively experience social support and networking are able to
manage their emotions through cognitive processes (Lee et al., 2004). Supportive
relationships in the workplace improve career satisfaction and therefore positively
influence career well-being (Karatepe & Olugbade, 2017).
Career meaning is defined as the level of importance an employee attaches to the
subjective experience of work at a specific point in time. “Career meaningfulness”
refers to the highest level of satisfaction of an employee’s career. Not only can a
career provide basic needs but an employee can also perceive his or her career as
being important and making a positive contribution to other people or to the society
at large. The employee therefore has a positive evaluation of his or her career.
Several authors have found a correlation between the perception that one’s job and
career has meaning and well-being (Cameron et al., 2003; Dik & Duffy, 2008; May
et al., 2004; Olivier & Rothmann, 2007; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Wrzesniewski
& Tosti, 2005). Meyers (2007) noted that individuals spend most of their time
engaged in work-related activities, and it is therefore essential that they find
198 I. L. Potgieter
meaning in the roles and tasks that they perform. Career meaningfulness is associ-
ated with positive emotions and effective coping mechanisms (Allan et al., 2018).
Several authors have found that individuals with high career well-being are able
to solve problems effectively, engage in creative and flexible thinking and have a
high professional achievement (Diener & Seligman, 2004; Sirgy, 2012). Frederickson
and Branigan (2005) as well as Sirgy (2012) also suggested that positive emotional
and cognitive states allude to creative and flexible thinking, essential for coping
within the new normal post-COVID career space. Bless and Fiedler (2006), how-
ever, stated that positive states are not always more adaptive compared to negative
states as it depends on whether the situation is perceived as an opportunity or
a threat.
Gaining a deeper insight into the influencing role of people’s cognitive orienta-
tions and how they influence their career well-being in the new normal post-COVID
working context may inform organisational career support practices. Such practices
are important for creating the psychological conditions employees need to cope
with, and adapt to, changing technological work contexts as well as the new normal
post-COVID career space.
Career Agility
According to the coping circumplex model (Stanislawski, 2019), career agility is an

externally driven positive emotional coping attribute and is used in predicting and
solving the challenges in occupations, careers and jobs within the new normal post-
COVID career space. According to Coetzee et al. (2021a), career agility is the adap-
tive readiness or willingness to adapt and respond to changes that influence career
satisfaction, career success and career well-being.
Career agility as a multidimensional concept includes three forms of adaptive
behaviour during problem-solving, which include technological adaptivity, agile
learning and career navigation (Coetzee et al., 2021a). These three facets of coping-
related problem-solving reflect positive emotional coping that indicates an ability to
adapt to and cope with the new normal post-COVID career space (Coetzee et al.,
2021a). Coetzee et al. (2020) further found that career agility acts as a motivational
aspect that encourages the development of personal resources essential for achiev-
ing career goals and success.
“Technological adaptivity” relates to the excitement and optimism that individu-
als may have regarding the change and technological advancement associated with
the new normal work context. Technologically adaptive individuals perceive the
technological changes to contribute to new career opportunities and proactively
engage in interventions to update their skills and knowledge to take advantage of the
new opportunities (Andersen, 2020; Coetzee et al., 2021a; Konstant, 2020).
“Agile learning” relates to the positive coping behaviour and positive emotions
in striving for and driving career goals. Individuals feel energised and actively
search for opportunities to acquire new knowledge and skills that will contribute to
their career success in the modern career space (Coetzee et al., 2021a).
“Career navigation” relates to efficient and positive problem-solving behaviour
by means of active readiness to search for new career opportunities. Career naviga-
tion is further associated with individuals who are aware of their environment and
are informed about the changes and resulting opportunities in the workspace
(Andersen, 2020; Coetzee et al., 2020).
Coetzee et al. (2020) found that technological adaptivity, agile learning and
career navigation (as facets of career agility) as well as psychological adaptive read-
iness of individuals significantly and positively contribute to coping behaviours
within the changing and complex career space. Johnston (2018) also noted that
individuals with career agility possess positive emotional dispositions and a learn-
ing orientation that significantly influence career adaptability. Coetzee (2021) found
that career agility and career well-being are important agile coping attributes that
underpin adaptive readiness to adapt to and succeed within the complex and chang-
ing employment context.
Although numerous studies report on the importance of coping within the new
normal working context, no study was found on the influence of an individual’s
cognitive orientation on agile coping within the new normal working context.
Based on the literature review above, the following research hypothesis is
formulated:
H1: Individuals’ cognitive orientation is significantly correlated with agile coping
attributes (career well-being and career agility).
H2: Individuals’ cognitive orientation significantly predicts agile coping attributes
(career well-being and career agility).
Methods
Participants
A convenience sample technique was used, and the participants of this study were
(N = 177) adult workers (mean age = 34 years; standard deviation (SD) = 10.14)
from across the globe (South Africa: 72%; Western Europe: 12%; Eastern Europe:
6%; Africa: 6%; Australia/New Zealand: 2%; United States: 2%). Genders were
almost equally represented (men = 46% and women = 54%), and, in terms of race,
67% were White/Caucasian people, 18% Black Africans, 5% Asians and 3% mixed
races. Participants were employed in managerial- (39%), staff- (38%) and profes-
sional consultant-level (23%) positions.
200 I. L. Potgieter
Measuring Instruments
Cognitive Orientation Participants’ cognitive orientation was measured by the

cognitive orientation scale (Coetzee et al., 2021a). The scale measures four facets of
cognitive orientation: thinker (nine items; e.g. “I want tasks to be logical”); innova-
tor (eight items; e.g. “I generally try risks that others might avoid”); people-carer
(five items; e.g. “I prefer to focus on what is positive, harmonious, and uplifting”)
and realist (five items; e.g. “I prefer to attend to facts and details in a careful and
orderly manner”). The 27 items were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale
(1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). Preliminary research indicated construct
validity and high internal consistency reliability of the cognitive orientation scale
(Coetzee et al., 2020). The internal composite consistency reliability coefficients for
the subscales were as follows: thinker (0.78); innovator (0.84); people-carer (0.82)
and realist (0.76).
Career Well-Being The well-being of participants was measured using the career
well-being scale (Coetzee et al., 2021b). This scale measures three states of career
well-being: affective career state (six items; e.g. “I have the necessary resources to
achieve my career goals”); career networking/social support state (four items; e.g.
“I have a network of support from others when needed”) and state of career mean-
ingfulness (four items; e.g. “I feel that what I do in my career is valuable and worth-
while”). The 14 items were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly
disagree; 7 = strongly agree). Construct validity and high internal consistency reli-
ability was found in the initial research (Coetzee et al., 2021b). The subscales were
found to have internal consistency reliability of 0.86 (affective career state); 0.85
(career networking/social support state) and 0.87 (state of career meaningfulness).
Career Agility Career agility of the participants was measured by the career agility
scale (Coetzee et al., 2020). The scale measures three facets of career agility: techno-
logical adaptivity (seven items; e.g. “I feel that the acceleration of technology brings
new, exciting job and career opportunities”); agile learning (five items; e.g. “I feel it
is important to search for new and better growth opportunities”) and career naviga-
tion (six items; e.g. “I regularly scan the environment for new career opportunities”).
The 18 items were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree;
7 = strongly agree). Preliminary research indicated construct validity and high inter-
nal consistency reliability of the career agility scale (Coetzee et al., 2020). The inter-
nal composite consistency reliability coefficients for the subscales were as follows:
technological adaptivity (0.90); agile learning (0.79) and career navigation (0.81).
Procedure
Data were collected via the professional LinkedIn online platform. An electronic
link to the questionnaire was sent to all the participants. All responses were captured
on an Excel spreadsheet and converted into an SPSS file for data analysis purposes.
Considerations of Ethics
Permission to conduct this study and an ethics clearance certificate were obtained
from the college ethics committee (ethics certificate reference: ERC Ref#: 2019_
CEMS/IOP_010). Informed consent was obtained from all the participants, and par-
ticipation was completely voluntary. The privacy, anonymity and confidentiality of
all the participants were ensured and honoured.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations and multiple regression analysis were

performed using SAS/STAT® software version 9.4M5© (2017). Tolerance (less than
0.20) and the variance inflation factor (VIF exceeding 4.0) were used to assess any
concerns about multicollinearity. Results were interpreted at the 95% confidence
level interval (Coetzee et al., 2020).
Results
Table 11.1 shows that the internal composite consistency reliability coefficients for
all the constructs were high (≥0.75 to ≤0.91). The cognitive orientation of people-
carers was significantly correlated with affective career state (as a facet of career
well-being) (r ≤ 0.32; p = 0.001; medium practical effect) and career networking/
social support (r ≤ 0.35; p = 0.001; medium practical effect). The state of meaning-
fulness was significantly correlated with all four cognitive orientation mindsets
thinker (r ≤ 0.20; p = 0.01; small practical effect); innovator (r ≤ 0.15; p = 0.05;
small practical effect); people-carer (r ≤ 0.40; p = 0.001; medium practical effect)
and realist (r ≤ 0.15; p = 0.05; small practical effect). The overall career well-being
significantly and positively correlated with thinker (r ≤ 0.14; p = 0.05; small practi-
cal effect) and people-carer (r ≤ 0.42; p = 0.001; medium practical effect). In addi-
tion, all four cognitive orientations significantly correlated with all facets of career
agility (0.22 ≥ r ≤ 0.47; p = 0.001; small-to-medium practical effect).
202
Table 11.1 Descriptive statistics, internal consistency reliability and bivariate correlations
Mean SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 Thinker 5.85 0.95 0.89 –
2 Innovator 4.84 1.12 0.83 0.24** –
3 People-carer 5.53 1.07 0.81 0.27*** 0.29*** –
4 Realist 5.35 1.06 0.75 0.63*** 0.19* 0.26** –
5 Affective career 4.82 1.34 0.87 0.08 0.03 0.32*** 0.05 –
state
6 Career networking/ 4.89 1.38 0.84 0.10 0.08 0.35*** 0.06 0.55*** –
social support state
7 State of career 5.67 1.30 0.89 0.20** 0.15* 0.40*** 0.15* 0.65*** 0.51*** –
meaningfulness
8 Overall career 5.09 1.14 0.91 0.14* 0.09 0.42*** 0.10 0.91*** 0.79*** 0.83*** –
well-being
9 Technological 5.34 1.06 0.89 0.37*** 0.47*** 0.38*** 0.40*** 0.26*** 0.38*** 0.45*** 0.41*** –
adaptiveness
10 Agile learning 5.62 1.12 0.89 0.22* 0.29*** 0.37*** 0.25** 0.46*** 0.31*** 0.43*** 0.48*** 0.45*** –
11 Navigation 5.38 1.10 0.75 0.30*** 0.33*** 0.39*** 0.30*** 0.18** 0.34*** 0.29*** 0.30*** 0.67*** 0.45*** –
12 Career agility 5.42 0.91 0.90 0.37*** 0.45*** 0.45*** 0.40*** 0.35*** 0.42*** 0.46*** 0.47*** 0.90*** 0.71*** 0.86*** –
Source: Author’s own work. Table 11.2 shows that both the regression models were practically significant: model 1 (career well-being): F = 20.15; p = 0.0001;
R2 = 0.51 (large practical effect) and model 2 (career agility): F = 11.84; p = 0.0001; R2 = −0.37 (medium practical effect). The tolerance values for all the
models were greater than 0.30 and the VIF values were lower than 0.26, which showed that multicollinearity was not a threat to the findings
Note: N = 177; ***p = 0.001; **p = 0.01; *p = 0.05; r ≥ 0.30 ≤ 0.49 (medium practical effect size); +++ r ≥ 0.50 (large practical effect size)
I. L. Potgieter
Thinker
Career well-
Agile coping attributes

being
Innovator
β = .32***
β = .31***
People-
carer β = .24** Career
agility
Realist β = .19*
Fig. 11.1 Cognitive orientation as a predictor of agile coping attributes. (Source: Author’s
own work)
Table 11.2 Results of multiple regression analysis

β Model info
Non- Adjusted
Variable standardised Standardised SE t p Fp R2
Career – – – – – 20.15*** 0.51
well-being
Thinker 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.98 0.33
Innovator 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.31 0.76
People-carer 0.32 0.31 0.06 5.05 <0.0001***
Realist 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.07 0.94
Career agility – – – – 11.84*** 0.37
Thinker 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.97 0.33
Innovator 0.26 0.32 0.05 4.73 <0.0001***
People-carer 0.20 0.24 0.06 3.49 0.0006**
Realist 0.16 0.19 0.07 2.43 0.02*
Note: N = 177; ***p ≤ 0.0001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05. β = standardised estimate; SE = stan-
dard error
The results provide supportive evidence for hypothesis 1, H1: Individuals’ cog-
nitive orientation is significantly correlated with agile coping attributes (career well-
being and career agility).
As shown in Fig. 11.1 and Table 11.2, the cognitive orientation of people-carer
was a statistically significant and positive predictor of career well-being (β = 0.31;
p < 0.001). Innovator (β = 0.32; p < 0.0001), people-carer (β = 0.24; p < 0.01) and
realist (β = 0.19; p < 0.05) were all found to significantly and positively predict
career agility.
204 I. L. Potgieter
The results provided partial supportive evidence for the research hypothesis H2:
Individuals’ cognitive orientation significantly predicts agile coping attributes
(career well-being and career agility). The results, however, showed that cognitive
orientation was a stronger predictor of career agility than career well-being.
Discussion
The results of the empirical study provide us with insights into the influence of an
individual’s cognitive orientation on agile coping (facets of career well-being and
career agility). The empirical study provides evidence that individuals’ cognitive
orientation correlates with career well-being and career agility and that the cogni-
tive orientation of innovator, people-carer and realist significantly predicts agile
coping attributes. These results are in line with research conducted by Volk et al.
(2021) who found personality to be an independent influencer on the ability of indi-
viduals to adopt positive coping responses.
For people to develop healthy levels of a positive career effect, career network-
ing/social support and career meaningfulness, they need to adopt a people-carer
cognitive orientation. Individuals who base decisions and problem-solving on ideas
and consider the direct personal influence on others will have positive emotions
about their career success and career goals, will have healthy formal and informal
relationships within the career space and will find their careers to have meaning.
Such individuals will thus have an overall high career well-being.
The results revealed that individuals with a thinker cognitive orientation (thus,
those individuals who use logical and analytical processes in making decisions or
judgements) as well as those individuals who use factual data to make decisions and
solve problems have high career meaningfulness. Such individuals will thus believe
that the process they follow in making decisions and solving problems adds to the
importance of their career and that they make significant contributions within their
careers. The results, however, also revealed that individuals with an innovator cog-
nitive orientation, that is, those individuals who take in information primarily
through hunches and impressions, also show high career meaningfulness.
The results revealed that all four cognitive orientations (people-carer, thinker,
realist and innovator) significantly correlated with all four facets of career agility. It
thus seems that irrespective of the cognitive orientation an individual uses, he or she
will have high motivational aspects to achieve their career goals. Such individuals
will show enthusiasm about the technological changes present within the new nor-
mal working context and will strive to search for opportunities to upskill themselves
to adapt to the new changes and opportunities.
For people to develop agile coping attributes in confidently dealing with the new
normal working context, characterised by high demands, challenges and opportuni-
ties, they need to consciously display cognitive orientation abilities. It is evident that
all four cognitive orientations are significantly correlated with career agility and
career meaningfulness (as a facet of career well-being). However, it seems as if
those individuals with a cognitive orientation of people-carer will display higher

overall well-being (as they will have high positive career effects, high social support
and career networking as well as high career meaningfulness). None of the results
of this study can directly corroborate those of previous research as no study has yet
been conducted on the correlations between cognitive orientation, that is, the mental
functions of personality attributes and agile coping attributes.
Individuals with a dominant people-carer cognitive orientation value relation-
ships and are prone to connect with other individuals and form close informal con-
nections. These results indirectly corroborate the findings of Cao et al. (2020) who
found that individuals with a strong social support show higher levels of career
well-being. Chew et al. (2020) also found that individuals with emotional and social
support from others display higher positive coping responses. The results further
revealed that the cognitive orientation of people-carer was the only predictor of
career well-being. It is thus important that if individuals are to possess high career
well-being, then a degree of people-carer cognitive orientation should be present.
Potgieter (2021) found that workplace friendships significantly correlated with a
positive coping behaviour. She also found workplace friendship to be a significant
predictor of positive coping. It thus confirms the finding of this study that a people-
carer cognitive orientation (as a person who values and engages in workplace
friendships or social connections) will have positive coping resources. The finding
is also linked to the conclusions of Boult et al. (2017) who found that individuals
with a feeling orientation (that is, people-carer) have higher career well-being than
do individuals with a thinking orientation.
Although studies were found on the interaction between well-being and person-
ality, no study was found on the relationship between agile coping attributes and
cognitive orientation. All research found focused on the attitude functions of per-
sonality (that is, extraversion, introversion, judgements and perceptions), and no
study was found measuring the effect of mental functions (that is, the cognitive
orientations) in relation to well-being, agility or coping.
This result thus suggests that having social networks and support as a result of a
people-carer cognitive orientation significantly activates agile coping attributes
(that is, career well-being and career agility). The finding supports earlier research
showing that a people-carer orientation in the form of social networks and interper-
sonal relationships permits the investigation of an unknown and demanding situa-
tion and the initiation of agile behaviours that increase the likelihood of coping
(Brown et al., 2017; Feeney & Collins, 2015; Spreitzer & Hwang, 2019).
Although the empirical study’s findings point to promising new insights regard-
ing the influence of cognitive orientations on agile coping with the new normal
post-COVID career space, these findings should be interpreted with caution. This
study was a quantitative study and cross-sectional in nature. No cause–effect asso-
ciations could thus be established. It is recommended that this study be replicated in
a longitudinal study, especially as the new normal working context is still unstable
and ever-changing. The cognitive orientation scale used in this study is new and
underresearched. Replication future studies may help validate the usefulness of this
scale in diverse occupational and Industry 4.0 settings.
206 I. L. Potgieter
Implications for Organisational Practice
The findings of the empirical study may have practical implications for enhancing
employees’ agile coping capability in the post-COVID career space. The results
suggest that organisational career counselling practices should be designed to
encourage and enable employees to adopt a people-carer cognitive orientation.
According to Coetzee (2021), people’s careers, well-being and agility are socially
embedded. Xie et al. (2017) noted that the social environment of the organisation is
generally considered instrumental to efficient coping attributes. It is recommended
that employers facilitate social events to provide a platform for employees to engage
in social connections. Informal ties may contribute towards a more people-carer
cognitive orientation in decision-making and problem-solving situations.
Although not all decisions, judgements and problem-solving should be made
with a purely people-carer orientation (without implementing a thinker cognitive
orientation), within this turbulent and chaotic new normal post-COVID career
space, it is essential to focus on agile coping attributes. It is evident that individuals
with a people-carer cognitive orientation will display higher career well-being and
career agility (that is, agile coping attributes). Organisations should thus take cogni-
sance that different cognitive orientations of employees adjust and cope differently
with the new normal post-COVID career space. As a result, organisations should
encourage all employees to adopt a people-carer cognitive orientation to enhance all
employees’ overall agile coping behaviour.
Conclusion
It is important for organisations to recognise and acknowledge the complex process

involved in coping with changes, challenges and demands as a result of the new
normal post-COVID working context. Organisations should assist employees in
identifying their cognitive orientations necessary to adjust to the new normal post-
COVID career space.
The concluding insights from this chapter allude to the positive associations
between employees’ cognitive orientations and agile coping attributes (career well-
being and agility). This chapter has revealed that although all cognitive orientations
significantly, to some extent, correlated with career well-being and career agility, a
people-carer orientation was the most significant contributor to all facets of career
well-being and career agility. In addition, people-carer was the only cognitive orien-
tation to predict both career well-being and career agility. Although the findings of
this empirical study would need further replication and exploration, it is trusted that
the results of this study may create awareness and encourage practitioners and
researchers to consider the different cognitive orientations of employees as impor-
tant facets in agile coping within the new normal post-COVID career space.
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Potgieter completed her MCom degree in human resource management and industrial psychology
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international journals. She has presented several papers at national and international conferences.
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edited and co-edited a number of scholarly books published by an international publisher. She has
further been selected as the vice-chair for the SABPP HR Research Initiative Committee (HRRI).
Chapter 12
Promoting Employees’ Mental Health
in the Post-COVID New Normal: Using
a Peer Support Model
Lee Za Ong, Chung-Yi Chiu, and Ngonidzashe Mpofu
Introduction
Mental health concerns are one of the most prevalent conditions among the working-
age population in the United States. Before the coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)
pandemic, there was a call to action to improve psychological well-being in the
workplace. Goetzel et al. (2018) advocated for developing an action plan to address
mental health issues as it has become a cost burden related to health and productiv-
ity. The statistics were even higher during the pandemic. Giorgi et al. (2020) reported
that COVID-19 has extensively affected employees’ mental health, especially
among high-risk frontline workers, social care professionals, workers in essential
goods production, and workers in the delivery and transportation industries.
Furthermore, employees who work remotely, those that are unemployed, and inter-
national migrant workers are vulnerable to isolation and have been experiencing
negative psychological impacts (Chirico & Ferrari, 2021; Czeisler et al., 2021).
According to Vahratian et al. (2021), from August 2020 to February 2021, the per-
centage of adults with anxiety or depression increased from 36.4% to 41.5%. Health
professionals are at a high risk of burnout and experience long-term effects of
L. Z. Ong (*)
Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology, Marquette University,
College of Education, Milwaukee, WI, USA
e-mail: leeza.ong@marquette.edu
C.-Y. Chiu
Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, College of Applied Health Science, Champaign, IL, USA
e-mail: chiucy@illinois.edu
N. Mpofu
Department of Counseling, Idaho State University, College of Health, Pocatello, ID, USA
e-mail: ngonidzashempofu@isu.edu

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_12
212 L. Z. Ong et al.
depression, anxiety, and chronic stress (Gaspar et al., 2021). In addition, the pan-
demic also impacted other industries such as tourism and hospitality where employ-
ees experienced acute stressors such as pandemic-induced panic, unemployment,
and lack of social support, which led to impaired health and well-being (Chen, 2020).
Workplace mental health promotion programs encountered challenges for
COVID-19 survivors during the pandemic. Recognizing the importance of employ-
ees’ mental well-being, corporations have been proactive in providing mental health
care to support their employees during COVID-19. Adam (2020) highlighted eight
major corporations that implemented mental health programs to help their employ-
ees cope with the new reality. The programs that these corporations provided are
categorized as follows: (a) instrumental support (personal protective equipment,
protection protocols), (b) informational support (mental health awareness cam-
paigns, behavioral health campaigns in dietary, sleep, and physical activities), and
(c) emotional and psychological support (employee assistance programs, one-on-
one counseling, individual self-help resources, team social hours, manager support,
and internal mental health ambassadors providing peer support in mental health
care) (Adams, 2020; Chirico & Ferrari, 2021).
Despite the prevalence of an increase in mental well-being among employees,
studies have consistently shown that employees underutilize counseling services
that are available due to the negative stigma and overall lack of mental health liter-
acy (Carleton et al., 2020). Moreover, the wellness programs to improve workplace
mental health have yet to yield long-term results. More research is needed to docu-
ment the effectiveness of implementing a strength-based approach and positive psy-
chology, psychoeducation, mental health first aid, and addressing stigma (Chirico &
Ferrari, 2021).
On the other hand, peer support has proven to be an effective and accessible
medium to improve psychological morbidity, increase motivation for rehabilitation
therapy, and reduce social isolation (Hope et al., 2021). The Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration (SAMSHA) defines “peers” as individuals
who live with mental health conditions and who are in the recovery process
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). “Peer support” refers to a
process in which people who have shared experiences in mental health or life chal-
lenges come together as equals to give and receive help based on lived experiences
(Gillard, 2019; Schmutte et al., 2020). Agarwal et al. (2020) reported that the
Sustaining Resilience at Work (StRaW) training yielded positive effects on employ-
ees’ ability to support colleagues and maintain their well-being. Employees can be
encouraged to participate in peer support training mainly to improve attitudes
toward mental well-being within their organization.
This chapter aims to describe the utilization of a peer support model in the work-
place to promote the positive mental well-being of employees.
12 Promoting Employees’ Mental Health in the Post-COVID New Normal… 213
heoretical Background of Peer Support Models

T
in the Workplace
History and Philosophy of Mental Health Peer Support Model
Mental health mutual support groups started in the early twentieth century and have
become a central component of the behavioral health-care system across the United
States (Mental Health America, 2021; Myrick & del Vecchio, 2016). Consequently,
peer support services are billable to health insurance in some states in the United
States since it has become a pivotal component in recovery-oriented mental health
systems (Mental Health America, 2021; Myrick & del Vecchio, 2016). On the other
hand, informal and community-based social and peer support are well-established
in the community, especially in communities that experience inequity in mental
health services, lack of access, stigma, or mental health illiteracy (Drebing et al.,
2018; Shalaby & Agyapong, 2020). With the popularity of social media platforms
as a social connection, this community-based peer support model has expanded to
the digital world (Andalibi & Flood, 2021; Fortuna et al., 2019; Prescott et al., 2020).
“Peer support” is a term used to describe support among peers. Mead et al. (2001)
defined it as:
A system of giving and receiving help found on key principles of respect, shared responsi-
bility, and mutual agreement about what is helpful…It is about understanding another’s
situation empathically through the shared experience of emotional and psychological pain.
When people identify with others who they feel are “like” them, they feel a connection.
This connection, or affiliation, is a deep holistic understanding based on mutual experience
where people are able to ‘be’ with each other without the constraints of traditional (expert/
patient) relationships (p. 135).
The literature presents various forms of peer support practiced in the community.
Generally, there are two main categories of peer support (Penney & Prescott, 2016;
Schmutte et al., 2020). The first type of peer support is an informal and unstruc-
tured, peer-developed group that utilizes a non-hierarchical approach. It is a
relationship-based approach rooted in the potential for mutual growth and healing,
with clear principles and practices reflecting equality and respect. In the past
30 years, independent, peer-run organizations, which receive some government
funding, have offered this type of organic support group (Penney & Prescott, 2016).
An example of a peer support model in this category is the Intentional Peer Support
(IPS) model. IPS has been emerging where it provides skills training to peer support
groups worldwide to build reciprocal relationships among its members. The skills
training is based on IPS’ core competencies in the ongoing coaching and mentoring
devoted to building reciprocal relationships, exploring personal narratives, and
mutual learning in the context of personal growth and community building (Hopper
et al., 2020; Mead, 2014). IPS has a fidelity tool for practitioners to conduct fidelity
assessments (Ostrow & Croft, 2014). However, the effectiveness of the practice is
yet to be widely measured. Future research is needed to conduct outcomes to estab-
lish the evidence-based practice (Penney et al., 2021).
The second type of peer support is termed the “peer staff model.” The rapid
expansion of peer specialists and similarly titled positions within traditional mental
health programs across the country has widely incorporated this model (National
Association of State Mental Health Program Directors (NASMHPD), 2012; Penney
& Prescott, 2016). Based on this model, employees with psychiatric histories work
in paraprofessional roles within traditional mental health programs, often perform-
ing the same tasks as non-peer staff as peer support specialists or providers where it
is a paid position (Ahmed et al., 2015; Asad & Chreim, 2016). These workers may
or may not receive training on or exposure to the principles and practices of grass-
roots peer support. Relationships between peer staff and service users are generally
hierarchical.
Core Competencies of Peer Support
SAMSHA developed the earliest core competencies that guide peer support special-
ists in behavioral health services (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
2015). The competencies consist of (a) engaging peers in collaborative and caring
relationships; (b) providing support; (c) sharing lived experiences of recovery; (d)
personalizing peer support; (e) supporting recovery planning; (f) linking to
resources, services, and supports; (g) providing information about the skills related
to health, wellness, and recovery; (h) helping peers manage crises; (i) valuing com-
munication; (j) supporting collaboration and teamwork; (k) promoting leadership
and advocacy; and (l) promoting growth and development. The requirement of
training and the credentials of peer supporters are not consistent due to the various
settings, tasks, job titles, and services provided at the state level. Most states in the
United States require peer support workers to complete a training and certification
program before providing peer support services to individuals in the mental health
recovery process (Cronise et al., 2016).
Meanwhile, based on the grassroots peer-developed approach, IPS has listed its
core competencies as the IPS principles (Learning vs. Helping, Relationship vs.
Individual, Hope and Possibility vs. Fear); tasks (Connection, Language, Listening,
Mutuality, Moving Towards vs. Away From); skills (Relational Self-Awareness,
Giving Reflective Feedback, Receiving Reflective Feedback); and integrative prac-
tices (Co-Reflection, Personal and Social Change) (Penney et al., 2021).
Hope et al. (2021) defined the peer support model and listed the five crucial prin-
ciples for peer support programs during the COVID-19 pandemic. Table 12.1 pro-
vides the descriptions of each peer support principle: acceptance, respect with
dignity, reciprocity, mutual responsibility, and trust/integrity.
Collins-Pisano et al. (2021) conducted an international virtual focus group study
to gather the peer support members’ perspectives on this area, in an effort to develop
a guide for digital peer support core competencies. A total of 10 themes were identi-
fied by the group: (1) protecting the rights of service users, (2) technical knowledge
and skills in the practice of digital peer support, (3) available technologies, (4)
Table 12.1 Key principles of a peer support model

Acceptance Aware of own biases and privilege; honest, direct, and respectful
Open to other views
Respect with Value differences and unique abilities; keep confidences; respect people’s
dignity right to make their own decisions, even “wrong” ones
Reciprocity The importance of give and take; reclaiming “help” as a natural process
between two or more people; social exchange
Mutual Each person takes responsibility for their actions; negotiation of
responsibility “responsibility”; shared power – no hierarchy
Trust/integrity Believing in one another; holding hope for each other; building relationships
that focus on one another’s well-being; confidentiality
Source: Authors’ own work
Table 12.2 Recommendations for digital peer support competencies

Authors’ recommendations Examples of digital peer support efforts to enhance best practices
for digital peer support
competencies
Ensure equity in digital peer Interventions should be designed using community engagement
support delivery methods to address inequities, health disparities, and linguistic
and cultural considerations
Understand available Gaining technology literacy is important to digital peer support
technologies and analytical specialists’ ability to adhere to and use technologies that best fit
techniques the preferences and accessibility of service users
Prevent digital fatigue Digital peer support specialists should maintain normal hours
through separating work and and locations and ensure timely and consistent feedback to
personal life maintain boundaries and prevent exhaustion
Self-determination is key to Supporting service users’ technology preferences has the
engagement potential to promote engagement in digital peer support services
Protect the rights of service Complying with privacy laws, such as the Health Insurance
users Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), can help protect
service users’ personal health information and ensure the secure
storage of records and safe communication
Technical knowledge and Practicing with different digital platforms or devices and seeking
skills in the practice of feedback on skill development can help digital peer support
digital peer support specialists acquire the skills necessary to comfortably use
technologies used in digital peer support
equity of access, (5) digital communication skills, (6) performance-based training,

(7) self-care, (8) monitoring digital peer support and addressing the digital crisis,
(9) peer support competencies, and (10) health literacy (emerging). Collins-Pisano
et al. (2021) provided recommendations for digital peer support competencies based
on their qualitative data analysis in Table 12.2.
Workplace Peer Support Programs During COVID-19
A peer support program mainly consists of these three ingredients that link to effec-
tive outcomes: (1) a forum for participants to share their experiences that may
improve psychological morbidity, increase motivation for mental health treatment,
and reduce social isolation, (2) a platform for participants to understand their acute
illness, provide internal and external validation of recovery progress, provide tools
to improve participants’ understanding of the relevant parts of the health-care sys-
tem, and help manage expectations for recovery, and (3) a structure for participants
to reciprocate that may facilitate resilience, trust, and a sense of purpose (McPeake
et al., 2021).
Several workplace peer support programs have been identified during COVID-19
to promote mental health among their employees. A workplace peer support pro-
gram, “Sustaining Resilience at Work” (StRaW), supports employee mental health
from the perspective of the trained peer supporter. StRaW training has shown a
positive effect on practitioners’ ability to support colleagues in maintaining their
own psychological well-being. Participants reported feeling more aware of their
own and others’ mental health needs based on situational, personal, and environ-
mental circumstances. They noted that they were more likely to recognize problems
in others and more able to self-reflect than pre-StRaW training (Agarwal et al., 2020).
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Peer Support Pilot
Project is a project that incorporates a peer support model. A voluntary peer support
specialist is assigned to provide support and encouragement to all FEMA employ-
ees deployed to joint field offices, disaster recovery centers, staging areas, area field
offices, regional offices, and other settings. A peer support specialist assists in job
and career stress, family concerns, and emergencies such as automobile accidents,
serious illnesses, and hospital visits. According to the non-scientific feedback, this
project has yielded a positive outcome in terms of experienced empathy due to
shared lived experiences, decreased loneliness, and increased accessibility to emo-
tional support (Wallace, 2016).
Resilience in Stressful Events (RISE) is a confidential peer support program at
Johns Hopkins that provides in-person psychological first aid and emotional support
to health-care workers who experience stressful clinical events, such as unexpected
complications or the death of a patient. For the COVID-19 response, RISE coordi-
nates multidisciplinary teams such as employee assistance and hospital wellness
programs, chaplains, and psychiatrists to offer intentional and immediate support to
health-care workers. Edrees et al. (2016) reported that the RISE approach showed
the potential to enhance organizational cohesion and reduce adverse effects for
health-care workers.
RecycleForce is a social enterprise in Indianapolis that uses on-staff peer men-
toring of formerly incarcerated individuals as part of its bundle of workforce train-
ing, subsidized employment, and support services (Harrod, 2019). The strengths of
the peer mentoring program include positive shared experience, empowerment
culture, and circle of trust. The study also found that RecycleForce participants had
higher rates of employment and earnings in unemployment insurance-covered jobs.
Trauma Risk Management (TRiM) is a peer support process that aims to support
police personnel following trauma to reduce stigma and encourage help-seeking
(Watson & Andrews, 2018). The purpose of TRiM is to train the participants to
identify and refer those at risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
to mental health services. After the training, the TRiM group reported experiencing
reduced PTSD symptoms. They also demonstrated less-stigmatized views toward
mental health challenges and perceived fewer barriers to help-seeking than did the
non-TRiM group. The researchers suggested that TRiM may indirectly reduce dis-
tress by encouraging early recognition and intervention (Watson & Andrews, 2018).
UPSIDEs (Using Peer Support in Developing Empowering Mental Health
Services) is a global effort in meeting the needs of people with severe mental health
conditions utilizing a peer support model. The project consists of a six-country con-
sortium implementing research on peer support for people with mental health con-
ditions in high, lower-middle, and low-income countries. The project has learned
that during COVID-19, alternatives to face-to-face delivery of peer support have
created challenges in observing individuals’ reactions, talking about emotional
issues, and offering appropriate support (Mango et al., 2020).
Digital/Online Peer Support Program
Online peer support groups provide a venue for their members to share information
and build social capital. With the advent of technology, there has been growth in the
use of online peer supports. Peer mentoring websites and forums are one common
avenue for online support in mental and behavioral health and health education as
they are a convenient source of information sharing (Jong et al., 2021; Pelletier
et al., 2020).
Peer support may offer support that extends beyond medical care. Based on a
systematic review of research related to peer support groups, evidence has shown
that online peer-to-peer communities provide a valued space to strengthen social
ties and exchange knowledge that supports offline clinical relationships with indi-
viduals with chronic illnesses. Online communities serve as a platform for group
members to exchange lived experiences and knowledge about everyday life with
illness. Moreover, online communities can mobilize and raise collective awareness
about illness-specific concerns (Kingod et al., 2016).
There is qualitative evidence that focuses on the feasibility of using mentoring in
the online context. It suggests that online peer mentoring tools need to be tailored
toward the needs of specific populations while recognizing barriers to accessing
online supports. An investigation into mental health-related open Facebook groups
revealed that these online peer-to-peer groups increase feelings of connectedness,
reduce feelings of isolation, and provide a platform for sharing perspectives relating
to personal experiences. Group membership may offer hope and increase feelings of
empowerment in individuals using Facebook groups as a support mechanism

(Prescott et al., 2020).
Strand et al. (2020) investigated the outcome of a combined digital and offline
peer support group entitled “ReConnect.” ReConnect is an Internet-based portal
that group members created to use in two mental health communities in Norway for
6–12 months. It included an online peer support group that facilitated combined
participation in local offline peer support groups.
Benefits of Peer Support in the Workplace
Work is an essential aspect of an individual’s identity. Research has shown that

maintaining a positive work experience is associated with increased organizational
commitment, enhanced job performance, and job satisfaction (Agarwal et al., 2020).
However, occupational stress is likely to reduce organizational commitment,
increase turnover, and prompt absenteeism (Bowling et al., 2015). The vital emo-
tional support for workers within their organizations often comes from colleagues
and managers. Bowling et al. (2015) documented that social support from immedi-
ate supervisors and colleagues can help decrease feelings of perceived work over-
load and occupational stress. Research has shown that peer support programs in
organizations promote psychological resilience by enhancing coping skills and pro-
viding social support. Peer support training in an organization can increase the abil-
ity of employees to support colleagues and maintain their own psychological
well-being (Agarwal et al., 2020). In addition, peer support programs can strengthen
employee resilience (Wallace, 2016) and improve social network support (Walker &
Bryant, 2013; White et al., 2020). Peer support also increases engagement in mental
health treatments, reduces symptoms, reduces isolation, and improves recovery out-
comes (Best & Lubman, 2012; Chapin et al., 2013; Davidson & Rowe, 2008; Kim,
2012; McGuire et al., 2020; Shalaby & Agyapong, 2020).
Peer-to-peer support has benefited employment and mental health promotion
among low-income individuals and families. Peer-to-peer supports are one strategy
for building social capital that can also influence the employment outcome and
employees’ mental health (Abbott et al., 2019). Consequently, organizations have
been implementing peer support programs to facilitate employees’ abilities to pro-
vide peer support and decrease perceived workplace stress. Participants in the peer
support training reported that the training benefited both themselves and the peers
they supported. The evidence further suggests that peer support can improve
employees’ attitudes toward work and their personal well-being and is associated
with more positive attitudes toward mental and physical health, increased positive
coping strategies (e.g., exercise), and decreased negative coping strategies (e.g.,
using alcohol to cope with distress). Peer support programs can also improve pre-
senteeism, lessen sick leave rates, and increase self-esteem.
Challenges and Limitations of a Peer Support Model
Boundaries can be a challenge when providing peer support to colleagues in orga-

nizations. For a peer support program in a 24-hour intensive care unit, the peer sup-
porters need to learn to set limits and pay attention to their self-care (Wallace, 2016).
Novice peer supporters without any formal training might be confused about their
role and responsibility. Participants reported experiencing an “identity crisis” and
uncertainty about their role, either as a professional therapist or to be warm, open,
and friendly, sharing their own experiences like a friend (Cheng et al., 2020).
Moreover, a digital support group in various social media platforms added extra
layers to the complexity of boundary issues among peers. Griffiths et al. (2015)
pointed out that although there are advantages in using a digital peer support model,
such as improved social support, they identified disadvantages in the online peer
support group. They pointed out that digital peer support can also affect unhelpful
social interactions/contact with other members (Griffiths et al., 2015).
Matching peers based on their shared experiences is one of the most common
practices in a peer support model, but peer support program leaders should imple-
ment a careful peer selection process and provide training and continuous support.
Andalibi and Flood (2021) emphasized that peers should account for the severity of
illness when matching and educating peers on how to provide support while avoid-
ing suggesting unhelpful coping mechanisms is essential. Similarly, Joo et al. (2022)
also noted that matching peers based on similarity can be a challenge due to the
difficulty in maintaining appropriate self-disclosure, balancing personal involve-
ment, and setting boundaries. They argued that it is more beneficial to match peers
based on their common topics and interests. Sharing emotional lived experiences
can be a source of their vulnerability. Thus, peers should avoid sharing unhealthy
coping mechanisms and learn to safeguard against being judgmental or providing
medical advice.
A peer support model allows peers to maintain consistent contact, even when
they had to do it remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, Mango et al.
(2020) cautioned that inequalities in access to mobile technologies put peer support
participants in vulnerable and high-stress situations during their most isolation
period. Organizations might find it challenging to implement a peer support model
in communities that experience low resources in mobile technology. Peers might
find it difficult to talk about emotional issues and offer appropriate support because
alternatives to face-to-face delivery of psychosocial support among peers are not
always straightforward.
Finally, Strand et al. (2020) found unique challenges in the combined online–
offline support group. They identified challenges that peer support groups encoun-
tered including transitions from anonymity online to revealing one’s identity offline,
confidentiality, and barriers related to participation in offline peer support groups.
Peer Support Model Outcomes
Most outcome research in a peer support model is with a qualitative design or con-
tent analysis (Griffiths et al., 2015; Kingod et al., 2016; Strand et al., 2020; White
et al., 2020). There is still a lack of evidence on the impact of improved clinical
outcomes on mental health symptoms (Griffiths et al., 2015; White et al., 2020).
White et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis on the effect of a peer support model,
and they found that the outcome measures mainly focus on holistic natural recovery
outcomes and not as much as on improved psychological symptoms.
Researchers have conducted outcome measures other than the reduction or
absence of mental health symptoms. A peer support model measures its effective-
ness based on peer-specific domains that involve the recovery process in resiliency,
beliefs and values of recovery, self-awareness, motivation, self-management, and
hope. This domain consists of an individual’s internal perspectives and skills in
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects (Wheeler et al., 2020).
The ability to build their community is another outcome domain that researchers
have investigated. Community-building skills are an ability to develop professional
and social relationships. It enables an individual to make the connection with exter-
nal supports, including other individuals, treatment services, organizations, and
communities. Drebing et al. (2018) reported that community engagement was asso-
ciated with measurable improvements in social support, clinical symptoms, self-
efficacy, and coping among peers. Terrion (2013) found that relationships facilitate
positive benefits such as psychological adjustment and the initiation and mainte-
nance of recovery and abstinence. Moreover, Prescott et al. (2020) noted that peer
support is associated with increased feelings of connectedness and reduced feelings
of isolation. It provides a platform for the comparison of perspectives relating to
personal experiences.
Overall, Wheeler et al. (2020) identified a list of potential outcome measurement
instruments that prioritized a holistic person-centered orientation. The peer support
program could use the measurement instruments in informal and community-based
settings to measure personal and community skills building. They recommended
that the outcome instruments that measure symptoms of disorders (e.g., depression,
anxiety, or frequency of substance use) or clinical treatment (i.e., followed the tra-
ditional medical model) should have low priority as a program evaluation tool.
Ethical Principles, Legal Issues, and Best Practices
Creamer et al. (2012) recommended several areas to clarify when developing a peer
support program: (a) goals of peer support, (b) selection of peer supporters, (c)
training and accreditation, (d) role of mental health professionals, (e) role of peer
supporters, (f) access to peer supporters, (g) looking after peer supporters, and (h)
program evaluation. Similarly, Hope et al. (2021) provided strategies for developing
and sustaining an online support program during the pandemic. Table 12.3 summa-
rizes the strategies to sustain a peer support program during the COVID-19 pan-
demic that could expand to post-pandemic.
Digital peer support spans multiple technology modalities: peer-delivered and
smartphone-supported interventions, peer-supported asynchronous technology,
artificial peer support, informal peer-to-peer support via social media, video games,
and virtual worlds. Digital peer support is an emerging area of research that shows
promise in improving mental health symptoms, medical and psychiatric self-
management skill development, social functioning, hope, and empowerment
(Fortuna et al., 2019). However, some peer support groups or programs do not
adhere to evidence-based practices and protocols that ensure fidelity and systemati-
cally monitor outcomes. Digital technology has the potential to overcome these
fundamental limitations of routine peer support by providing real-time guidance in
fidelity-adherent delivery of peer-delivered and technology-assisted interventions.
Preliminary evidence suggests the feasibility of using mobile technologies and
social media to guide fidelity-adherent intervention delivery (Fortuna et al., 2018).
Rosenberg et al. (2022) strongly advocated for quality assurance of the peer sup-
port program by providing coach training. They pointed out that the program could
find it challenging to sustain fidelity monitoring due to limited supervision and
insufficient resources. To ensure continued quality assurance, randomized control
trials have shown that paraprofessionals can provide support with similar levels of
fidelity compared to mental health professionals with adequate training and ongoing
supervision (Rosenberg et al., 2022). Furthermore, a peer support program with a
trained moderator or consultant is essential to promote appropriate boundary
Table 12.3 Strategies for developing and sustaining an online peer support program during the
COVID-19 pandemic
Strategy Action
Preparation Form an innovation team; consider a multidisciplinary team with a diverse set of
skills and motivation for involvement; assess the needs of the population; set
goals and objectives for the peer support; get familiar with online platforms
Recruitment Start early; use a variety of strategies; use informational brochures for all
stakeholders
Facilitation Demonstrate active listening and empathic communication skills; negotiate
boundaries and ground rules; manage side conversations and interruptions;
moderate asynchronous communities to ensure that all members feel connected
and heard
Trauma- Know the developmental, behavioral, cognitive, social, and physical effects of
informed trauma
approach
Planning Size of the group; duration of the meeting; frequency of the meeting
logistic
Planning for Debriefing; regular reflection
in between
maintenance, health social relationship facilitation, and community connectedness

(Strand et al., 2020).
Cheng et al. (2020) launched a peer support program for mental health profes-
sionals in China during the peak of the COVID-19 lockdown to address the emer-
gency needs of frontline health-care workers who were facing the crisis with
insufficient response resources. For example, Wuhan, a city and major transit hub of
11 million people, was hit by the pandemic just before the traditional Chinese New
Year Lunar Spring Festival, a season that is also known as the “biggest human
migration on our planet” (Cheng et al., 2020, p. 787). Ten of thousands of people
flooded acute care, overloading local hospitals and staff to the breaking point.
Cheng et al. (2020) recommended that the quick peer support program must strictly
be only for social support. If clinical interventions are involved, then the program
would require proper licensure from regulatory bodies or malpractice insurance
may be required.
In addition to the SAMHSA Working Definition and Guiding Principles of
Recovery, the National Association of Peer Supporters (NAPS) issued the National
Practice Guidelines for Peer Supporters and Supervisors (NPGPS). The NPG
described 12 core values of peer support and included examples of the values in prac-
tice. Table 12.4 presented the twelfth NPGPS core values that peer supporters across
the country ratified (National Association of Peer Supporters (NAPS), 2019, pp. 4–15).
Conclusion
The pandemic has had great impacts on work and economy as well as many other
areas. One of the salient influences on humankind is our mental health. The pan-
demic has worsened social isolation, stress, depression, and anxiety. Mental health
Table 12.4 NPGPS core values of peer support and practice guidelines
Core value Practice guidelines
Peer support is voluntary Support choice
Peer supporters are hopeful Share hope
Peer supporters are open-minded Withhold judgment about others
Peer supporters are empathetic Listen with emotional sensitivity
Peer supporters are respectful Be curious and embrace diversity
Peer supporters facilitate change Educate and advocate
Peer supporters are honest and direct Address difficult issues with care and compassion
Peer support is mutual and reciprocal Encourage peers to give and receive
Peer support is equally shared power Embody equality
Peer support is strengths-focused See what is strong not what is wrong
Peer support is transparent Set clear expectations and use plain language
Peer support is person-driven Focus on the person, not the problems
issues still seem to be taboo topics in the workplace, and individuals with such
issues face personal and public stigma. However, mental health is related to work
behavior, productivity, satisfaction, and achievement. When an organization is open
to and supportive of care for its employees’ mental health, then it is healthier in
terms of work environment, culture, value, and sustainability. Applying peer sup-
port approaches to take care of peers’ mental health has many benefits for employ-
ers and employees.
We reviewed some peer support models and approaches. The common principles
are acceptance, respect with dignity, reciprocity, mutual responsibility, and trust/
integrity. These principles also encourage employees to care for each other with
empathy and understanding, rather than hierarchy competition and hidden mental
health concerns. A positive work culture will build work resilience, sustainability,
and prosperity. In order to set up a peer support practice in a workplace, employers
may need to consider platforms (e.g., in-person, provide spaces, social media), pro-
fessional training, ethics, confidentiality, follow-up health-care access, and health-
care benefits.
In summary, a peer support model is beneficial in minimizing the stigma of men-
tal health and improving mental health awareness. Providing proper training of peer
support skills to employees can foster positive psychological health of the organiza-
tion. A peer support model in the workplace promotes the self-management
approach in mental health care. It can be cost-effective and empowering. Employer
organizations should consider integrating peer support skills training in employee
orientation and in-services using world-class best practices while conducting fidel-
ity assessments for quality assurance. Although peer support practice and research
in the workplace are in still the exploratory stage, this approach has some prelimi-
nary data to show its benefits in enhancing employees’ personal and community
skills building and improve their quality of life. Practitioners and researchers may
apply community-based participatory research to enhance evidence-based practice
in peer support and outcomes of effectiveness, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness.
Such collaborative research will be valuable for the new work norm after the pan-
demic and tailored to an organization’s culture.
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Lee Za Ong, PhD, CRC, LPC, is an assistant professor in the Department of Counselor Education
and Counseling Psychology in Marquette University. Dr. Ong received her PhD in rehabilitation
psychology from the University of Wisconsin – Madison. She was awarded the National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA) Innovations in Research and Practice Grant Program to conduct the
effectiveness of peer support competency training on student athletes’ mental health promotion.
She is also the principal investigator and project director of a training grant awarded by the US
Department of Education through the Rehabilitation Services Administration Long-Term Training
Grant for Rehabilitation Counseling with a Mental Illness specialty to increase the number of clini-
cal rehabilitation counselors as well as by the Health Resources and Services Administration
(HRSA) for Behavioral Health Workforce Education and Training (BHWET) Program for
Professional grant to increase and diversify the distribution and number of behavioral health pro-
viders who specialize in child and adolescent counseling. Dr. Ong emphasizes research collabora-
tion with community agencies by helping them develop program evaluation or quality assurance
plans to highlight the existing but often unrecognized community assets.
Chung-Yi Chiu, PhD, CRC, LPC, is an associate professor in the Department of Kinesiology
and Community Health at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Dr. Chiu received her PhD
in rehabilitation psychology from the University of Wisconsin – Madison and her master’s degree
in occupational therapy from the National Taiwan University. She is the founder and director of the
Health Promotion and Rehabilitation Laboratory. Her research interests are health promotion for
people with chronic illnesses and disabilities, psychosocial adjustment, and social participation.
Ngonidzashe Mpofu, PhD, CCMHC, CRC, NCC, earned her PhD in rehabilitation counselor
education and supervision from the University of Wisconsin – Madison and her MEd in the dual
emphases of clinical rehabilitation and clinical mental health in school and communities from the
Pennsylvania State University – University Park. She is an assistant professor at the Idaho State
University (ISU) within the Department of Counseling and is the program coordinator for clinical
rehabilitation counseling emphasis. Dr. Mpofu’s primary line of research focuses on workplace
well-being, sustainable community health practices, and quality of life across the lifespan of
diverse populations and in various settings around the globe. She is the director of the Global Health
& Wellbeing Institute at the ISU and is an author and co-author of several book chapters and arti-
cles in leading titles within the rehabilitation, mental and community health, and human resources
fields, attending and presenting on these topics at local, regional, national, and international con-
ferences. Dr. Mpofu is a workplace well-being consultant to organizations, creating and facilitating
operation plans aimed at the recruitment and retention of regional and frontline managers, team
leaders, and staff workers, centering on employee career skills development and training.
Chapter 13
Career Adaptability as a Predictor
of Employees’ Career Agility and Career
Embeddedness
Nadia Ferreira
Introduction
In the new world of work, individuals must develop the ability to adapt as conven-
tional career paths continue to evolve and change. Industry 4.0 brings about new
career opportunities, revives industries and creates innovative ways of working
(Hirschi, 2018). The new world of work involves frequent shifts between jobs,
organisations and careers, which necessitate enhanced career adaptation capabilities
(Rudolph et al., 2017).
Employees need career agility and career embeddedness to adapt in the digital
world or work. Coetzee et al. (2020) identify three facets of career agility that
describe individuals’ adaptive readiness for proactive career self-management in
Industry 4.0, namely, technological adaptivity, agile learning and career navigation.
Employees are expected to be proactive and adaptable in managing their careers in
the new world of work. Self-regulatory career behaviours include self-initiated,
future-orientated and change-inducing behaviours (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) and
can influence employees’ career agility and career embeddedness.
The changing work conditions brought about by COVID-19 have elevated the
importance of individuals’ career embeddedness. Employees have to navigate and
develop their careers. The recent construct “career embeddedness” has been
explained by Ferreira et al. (2022) as individuals’ perception of their career devel-
opment support needs and the degree to which their personal careers fit in with
organisational cultures and values. The impact of COVID-19 will continue to influ-
ence individuals’ careers and the manner by which they adapt to changes. Although
much has been written on the link between job embeddedness, commitment and
N. Ferreira (*)
e-mail: ferren@unisa.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_13
230 N. Ferreira
adaptability, there seems to be a lack of literature on the construct of career embed-

dedness and its link to career agility and career adaptability. Career adaptability
refers to a psychosocial construct that denotes the resources individuals have for
coping with current and anticipated tasks, transitions and traumas in their occupa-
tional roles, altering their social integration to a larger or lesser extent (Savickas,
2013; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).
Through the lens of the career construction theory, career adaptability can be
explained as core psychosocial resources or transactional competencies necessary
for achieving adaptation goals (Savickas, 2013). Higher levels of adaptability are
expected from employees who show a willingness to perform adaptive behaviours
in the constantly changing world of work (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). The adaptive
readiness of employees seems to initiate the self-regulated career management
resources of career adaptability.
It is critical for employees to be agile and embedded in their careers in order to
survive in the work context they find themselves in, and organisations should take
note of their employees’ skill sets. Employees need to be flexible, agile and embed-
ded in their careers and simultaneously learn new skills. These behaviours are criti-
cal for ongoing success, not only for employees but also for the organisations for
which they work. Career agility and career embeddedness denote the preparedness
or adaptive readiness to adapt proactively to technological changes and to engage in
continuous learning, which may prompt the use of career adaptability resources
(Coetzee et al., 2021).
Chapter Objective
Research studies on the link between the constructs of career agility, career embed-
dedness and career adaptability are limited. Theory and research on the constructs
of career agility and career embeddedness are equally scant. Research has been
conducted mostly by popular media (Andersen, 2020; Konstant, 2020; UBC, 2020)
and only recently by scholars (Coetzee et al., 2020, Ferreira et al., in press). This
chapter addresses the current gap in research on the three constructs of career agil-
ity, career embeddedness and career adaptability. Its aim is to determine whether
career adaptability positively predicts career agility and career embeddedness and
to investigate the relationship between them. First, this chapter reviews modern
theoretical stances underpinning the three constructs from the perspective of the
career construction theory (Savickas, 2013). Second, it discusses an empirical study
on the link between the three constructs. Finally, this chapter critically considers the
implications for the new world of work and organisational and career development
support practices.
13 Career Adaptability as a Predictor of Employees’ Career Agility and Career… 231
Problem Statement
This chapter investigates the relationship between individuals’ career agility, career
embeddedness and career adaptability. It wants to establish whether individuals’
career adaptability predicts their career agility and career embeddedness. Based on
the relationships between them, human resource practitioners, industrial and organ-
isational psychologists and career psychologists can then identify and develop inter-
ventions and strategies that could assist in developing individuals’ career agility and
career embeddedness in order to enhance their career adaptability.
Theoretical Framework
Career Agility
In popular media, the construct of career agility has emerged as a significant con-
struct to assess individuals’ adaptive readiness or willingness to adapt and proac-
tively respond to change (Konstant, 2020; UBC, 2020). Konstant (2020) explains an
agile career as a self-reflective, incremental career path directed by individuals’
response to change, their evolving roles and their desire to enhance creativity,
growth and happiness in their careers.
Career agility, in a career development and work context, refers to the adaptive
readiness or willingness to adapt and proactively respond to changes that influence
one’s future career well-being and satisfaction (Konstant, 2020; UBC, 2020). Owing
to Industry 4.0, career agility is deemed as a facet that should be taken note of
(Andersen, 2020; Konstant, 2020). New occupations, new industries and fundamen-
tally new ways of work because of technological innovation go hand in hand with
Industry 4.0 (Hirschi, 2018). Popular media contend that career agility is built on
the synchronisation of resources and personal strengths crucial for career success. A
diverse network of professional relationships frequently helps individuals form
meaningful new career pathways in the uncertain, ever-changing contexts that they
find themselves in (Andersen, 2020; Konstant, 2020).
Coetzee et al. (2020) distinguishes three facets of career agility (i.e. technologi-
cal adaptivity, agile learning and career navigation) that describe individuals’ adap-
tive readiness for proactive career self-management in the technologically driven
digital era. These three facets are derived from an inclusive review of the research
literature on career adaptive behaviours (which informed the development of the
career agility scale) and a preliminary exploratory factor analysis on a South African
pilot study (Coetzee et al., 2020). These three facets are explained in Table 13.1:
232 N. Ferreira
Table 13.1 Facets of career agility

Facet Explanation
Technological Denotes a sense of optimism and positive affective state towards accelerated
adaptivity technological developments and the possibility of new and exciting job and
career opportunities
Agile learning Agile learning concerns employees’ willingness to set career goals and
manage their achievement
Career navigation Career navigation refers to individuals’ inclination to adapt to change and
uncertainty in their job and career environment
Technological Adaptivity
Technological adaptivity refers to the belief that evolving technologically optimises

one’s job roles, creativity, growth and happiness. Individuals are usually enthusias-
tic about job roles that evolve with changing technological conditions as they offer
more growth opportunities. Employees who display high levels of technological
adaptivity consider it important to enhance their knowledge and skills so that they
are able to take advantage of new job opportunities brought about by technological
developments. Technologically adapted individuals are self-assured when they pro-
mote their unique values and skill sets across digital networks (Coetzee et al., 2020).
Agile Learning
Individuals who show high levels of agile learning usually feel alive and energetic.
They are keen to acquire new skills in order to improve their careers and ensure their
job success (Coetzee et al., 2020).
Career Navigation
Individuals showing high levels of career navigation are eager to explore new career
opportunities and take advantage of changes in their job and career environment.
They show high levels of flexibility and are willing to adapt to change (Coetzee
et al., 2020). Career navigation is seen as an important mindset to ensure that indi-
viduals are informed of changes and opportunities that might arise in the career
space (Andersen, 2020). Career navigation raises environmental awareness, which
helps individuals accept and apply changes to their own careers and jobs with
confidence.
The three facets of career agility signify a positive affective state among indi-
viduals, and they also function as internal adaptivity indicators of employees’ readi-
ness or preparedness in the event of a technological change. Investment in learning
is viewed as an important part of career self-management. Agile learning assists
individuals in obtaining knowledge that fast-tracks their career development. A
mindset that includes agile learning results in individuals seizing opportunities that
enhance, influence and make full use of their knowledge and skills (Andersen, 2020;
Konstant, 2020).
According to the career construction theory, adaptivity fosters the development
and activation of adaptability resources that enable the adaptation process (Perera &
McIlveen, 2017; Savickas, 2013). Individuals have the ability to broaden their
mindsets, which has the indirect and long-term adaptive benefit of building up
enduring psychosocial resources for adaptation purposes (Frederickson, 2004). It is
theorised that the facets of career agility function as motivational energisers of
adaptivity, promoting the building of personal resources needed to achieve
career goals.
The broaden-and-build theory (Frederickson, 2004) posits that experiences of
positive emotions prompt engagement with the environment and the intrinsic moti-
vational drive to partake in activities that may often be adaptive for the individual in
an evolutionary sense. The positive affective state embedded in adaptive readiness
provides the offset to willingly exhibit the adaptive bias to explore novel objects,
people or situations (Frederickson, 2004).
Research shows that individuals with high adaptability profiles demonstrate high
levels of adaptivity, that is, flexibility, willingness and readiness to change (Hirschi,
2019). Popular media argue that the positive affective states inherent to career agil-
ity enhance individuals’ career fitness and motivation to succeed (Andersen, 2020).
They further suggest that the capacity for career agility increases motivation, confi-
dence and resilience. Individuals with high levels of career agility seem more con-
fident in their career decision-making. They are eager to develop career action plans
and adopt new perspectives on the job search process. Moreover, they are able to
identify a wide range of professional options and possibilities that they are keen to
pursue (Konstant, 2020; UBC, 2020). It, therefore, stands to reason that the disposi-
tional flexibility and positivity inherent to the three facets of career agility may
function as formative adaptive readiness contributors to the process of adaptation by
activating the drive to use career adaptability resources.
Career Embeddedness
Career embeddedness (i.e. the deep-seated situatedness of a career in an organisa-

tion) and affective commitment (i.e. an individual’s emotional attachment to and
identification with the organisation) have come under scrutiny because of changing
work conditions (Akkermans et al., 2020; Cho, 2020; Ferreira & Coetzee, 2020;
Meyer & Allen, 1991; Zhu et al., 2021). The pandemic has revived individuals’
career agency and self-regulation to reach their career goals. Owing to the uncer-
tainty of the changing job markets, employees appear to be more committed to their
careers than to the companies for which they work (Restubog et al., 2020). Since
organisations can no longer offer long-term job security and employment (Restubog
et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2021), individuals have to take control of their careers and
234 N. Ferreira
meet their own career needs. This influences their affective commitment towards
their organisation. In times of rapid change, organisations need workers who are
psychologically attached and committed to their work for optimal sustainable
organisational performance and survival (Coetzee & Bester, 2021; Sungu
et al., 2019).
The recent construct of career embeddedness has implied that career identity is
deeply rooted in the organisation because of a web of career-supportive organisa-
tional practices and relational networks and a satisfactory fit between personal
career values, on the one hand, and organisational culture and values, on the other
(Ferreira & Coetzee, 2020). Career embeddedness has evolved from the tenets of
the person–environment (P–E) fit theory and research (Guan et al., 2021; Jiang &
Jiang, 2015; Van Vianen, 2018). The P–E fit theory (Guan et al., 2021; Van Vianen,
2018) suggests that individuals’ careers take shape at the intersection of their own
psychological career needs and the social environment (e.g. organisation), which
provides career and work opportunities. Their talents and capabilities add to the
performance and sustainability of their organisation (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
The embedded or disembedded nature of an individual’s career is largely dependent
on the presence (or absence) of a system of supportive practices and relations that
facilitate (or thwart) the psychological fulfilment of his or her career development
needs and the expression of his or her personal career values (Coetzee & Bester,
2021). As it is a fairly recent construct of Ferreira and Coetzee (2020), no research
has yet been conducted on career embeddedness and people’s affective commitment
to their organisation.
Drawing from the work of Coetzee and Bester (2021) and Vondracek et al.
(2014), we argue that the psychological fulfilment of their basic career development
needs, including the expression of career values in the P–E interaction, facilitates
individuals’ sense of career embeddedness and thus their affective commitment
towards the organisation.
Ferreira and Coetzee (2020) differentiate between the two dimensions of the
psychological career identity needs underpinning the construct of career embedded-
ness: (1) career development fit and (2) career values fit. Table 13.2 explains what
these two dimensions refer to.
Table 13.2 Facets of career embeddedness

Facet Explanation
Career Relates to the psychological need for making career progress and having other
development fit career options and promotional opportunities in the organisation
Career values fit Involves the need for relationship networks and organisational conditions that
support one’s career growth, upskilling and continuous learning for enhanced
marketability and employability
Career Development Fit
Drawing from the P–E fit theory (Guan et al., 2021), the career development fit facet
of career embeddedness relates to individuals’ psychological need for D–A fit (i.e.
the need for upskilling and continuous learning opportunities) and N–S fit (i.e. pro-
motional opportunities and career development-supportive relations and condi-
tions). These two dimensions of the complementary P–E fit involve individuals’
evaluation of the quality of the social exchange between themselves and the organ-
isation. Organisational career development support conditions, such as promotional
and continuous learning opportunities and career-supportive networks of relations,
enhance career certainty, work performance, career satisfaction and affective com-
mitment (Coetzee & Bester, 2021).
Career Values Fit
Career values fit relates to the perceived compatibility between personal career
identity needs and career values, on the one hand, and organisational culture and
values, on the other. Drawing from Guan et al.’s (2021) P–E fit theory, the career
values fit facet of career embeddedness relates to the supplementary fit dimension
of the P–E fit, according to which career development needs and career values play
a fundamental role in the career identity management process. Career development
needs and career values serve as relatively stable goals that direct individuals
towards their goals and satisfy their needs in a societal context (Sampaio et al.,
2021). According to Super (1990), life and career satisfaction depend on the degree
to which individuals find an outlet for their abilities, needs, values, interests and
career self-concepts. Career values are generally expressed by individuals to guide
their career choices and define their subjective career success (Abessolo et al., 2021).
Proponents of the P–E fit theory (Guan et al., 2021; Savickas, 2013; Van Vianen,
2018) also argue that a perceived fit between personal values and environmental
characteristics fosters psychological need fulfilment and well-being. Intrinsic career
values have been associated with job and career satisfaction (Abessolo et al., 2021;
Hall et al., 2018). Perceived fit also engenders greater levels of satisfaction, commit-
ment and engagement (Ackerman & Kanfer, 2020; Vantilborgh et al., 2013).
Career Adaptability
Career adaptability is the ability to deal with change and various demands in the
workplace. Career adaptability is crucial for employees’ effectiveness in the work-
place and career well-being (Collie et al., 2018; Martin et al., 2019). Savickas
(2013) evaluates career development in the framework of the career construction
236 N. Ferreira
theory. According to this theory, career development integrates employees’ personal

needs with their social expectations and ability to adapt to the working environment
(Savickas, 2013).
Scholars define career adaptability as the skill to “constructively regulate psycho-
behavioural functions in response to new, changing, and/or uncertain circumstances,
conditions and situations” (Martin et al., 2019). Kirdok and Bolukbaşi (2018)
describe career adaptability as the skill to make forecasts about one’s future and
develop the capability to deal with possible challenges in the most effective manner.
Career adaptability is an inner construct that employees use to accomplish their
expected career tasks. It also helps employees manage their career development
tasks, workplace transitions and disturbances. According to Savickas (2013),
employees can adapt more easily in their career if they are able to anticipate chal-
lenges and find suitable solutions to deal with them. To date, career adaptability has
been widely explored as a specific resource for career choice and development
among employees (Hirschi, 2009; Wilkins et al., 2018).
The career well-being of employees can be enhanced by developing their career
adaptability. Researchers have found that career adaptability can help employees be
better prepared for work distress, career development tasks and changes throughout
their lives (Brown & Lent, 2013; Coetzee & Harry, 2015). Zikic and Klehe (2006)
maintain that planning, exploration and making the right decisions form a part of
career adaptability. According to McArdle et al. (2007) and Skorikov (2007), a
boundless career mindset, career confidence and sensible career decisions are an
integral part of career adaptability. Employees should take more interest in their
career prospects and exercise better control over their occupational future. They
should be more curious about imminent career opportunities and more confident in
the pursuit of their goals (Cabras & Mondo, 2018; Ginevre et al., 2018).
Career adaptability relies on the four psychological resources explained in
Table 13.3 (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).
Table 13.3 Facets of career adaptability

Facet Explanation
Concern Planning, expectations and mindfulness regarding one’s future
Control Taking the full responsibility of constructing one’s career by taking decisive,
assertive and conscientious action
Curiosity Taking the initiative by learning about the world of work, which leads to
information-seeking behaviour, openness to new experiences, inquisitive
exploration, and reflection about the fit between the self and the world of work
Confidence Serious engagement in designing one’s occupational future and executing one’s
plans (Coetzee & Stoltz, 2015; Kirdok & Bolukbaşi, 2018; Savickas & Porfeli,
2012; Savickas, 2013)
Duffy (2010) views career adaptability as an indispensable resource for complet-

ing various career tasks and adapting to employment changes. These four dimen-
sions (4 Cs) signify general adaptability resources and approaches that individuals
use to construct their careers and cope with developmental tasks as well as work
changes and disturbances (Luke et al., 2016).
According to Ferreira and Mujajati (2017), the four psychosocial resources (con-
cern, control, curiosity and confidence) are essential for employees who want to
remain employable. Developing an employee’s career adaptability profile directly
affects his or her career well-being.
As the concepts of career agility and career embeddedness are both novel con-
structs, they have been tested empirically only recently (Coetzee et al., 2020,
Ferreira et al., in press).
The primary research aim of this chapter is to empirically establish whether sig-
nificant relationships exist between individuals’ career agility, career embeddedness
and career adaptability in the new normal. The secondary aim of this chapter is to
assess the predictive validity of career adaptability in terms of individuals’ career
agility and career embeddedness.
Methods
Participants
The participants (N = 290) were adults occupying managerial (71%) and staff (29%)
positions. They were employed in predominantly the financial and human resources
service industry and were from South Africa (70%), the rest of Africa (15%) and
Europe (15%). No less than 40% of the participants had a tenure of 1–5 years and
60% had a tenure of more than 5 years. Some were in the exploration phase
(25–30 years: 23%) and others in the establishment/maintenance phase of their
careers (> 31–65 years: 74%). The mean age of the sample was 38.58 years (stan-
dard deviation (SD) = 9.34). Altogether, 54% were male and 46% were female of
either Black (African, Indian/Asian, Coloured = 63%) or White (37%) ethnic origin.
Measuring Instruments
The respondents had to complete a questionnaire consisting of a biographical sec-

tion, a career agility scale (Coetzee et al., 2020), a career embeddedness scale (CES)
(Ferreira & Coetzee, 2020) and a career adaptability scale (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).
238 N. Ferreira
Career Adaptability
The well-established career adaptability scale of Savickas and Porfeli (2012) was
applied to measure the respondents’ overall career adaptability and career concerns
(six items, e.g. “Thinking about what my future will be like”); career control (six
items, e.g. “Keeping up to date with the latest developments in my occupational
field”); career curiosity (six items, e.g. “Becoming curious about new opportuni-
ties”) and career confidence (five items, e.g. “Working up to my ability”). The
respondents rated each item on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly dis-
agree; 7 = strongly agree). The career adaptability scale has proven construct valid-
ity and internal consistency reliability (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).
Career Agility
The career agility scale developed by Coetzee et al. (2020) was used to measure the
following three constructs of career agility: technological adaptivity (seven items,
e.g. “I search for job roles that evolve with changing technological conditions
because they offer opportunities for growth and creativity”); agile learning (five
items, e.g. “I continually search for opportunities to learn new skills that will
improve my career and job success”) and career navigation (six items, e.g. “I am
able to navigate and adapt to change and uncertainty in my job and career environ-
ment”). The respondents rated each item on a seven-point Likert-type scale
(1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). Preliminary research indicated construct
validity and high internal consistency reliability (α = 0.90) on the career agility
scale. The internal consistency reliability for the subscales ranged between 0.73 and
0.89 (Coetzee et al., 2020).
Career Embeddedness
The career embeddedness scale (CES) developed by Ferreira and Coetzee (2020)
measures two dimensions of career embeddedness: career development fit (nine
items, e.g. “My career needs are supported by people in the organisation”) and
career values fit (five items, e.g. “My career values are compatible with my current
organisation”). The 14 items are rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly
disagree; 7 = strongly agree). A preliminary exploratory factor analysis by Ferreira
and Coetzee (2020) identified the two-factor structure and high internal consistency
reliability of the CES.
Procedure and Data Analysis
The professional LinkedIn online social media platform was used to collect data.
Participants received an invitation to the electronic link to the LimeSurvey 2020
version of the questionnaire via the LinkedIn platform. Responses were captured on
an Excel spreadsheet and converted into an SPSS file for data analysis.
Consideration of Ethics
Ethical clearance and permission to conduct the research were obtained from the
management of the University of South Africa (ethics certificate reference: ERC
Ref#: 2020_ CEMS/IOP_014). Confidentiality and the privacy and anonymity of all
the participants were guaranteed, and participation was voluntary. The participants
consented to the use of the group-based data for research purposes.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations and multiple regression analysis were

performed using SAS/STAT® software version 9.4M5© (2017). Tolerance (less
than 0.20) and the variance inflation factor (VIF exceeding 4.0) were utilised to
assess any concerns about multicollinearity. Results were interpreted at the 95%
confidence level interval (Coetzee et al., 2020).
Results
Table 13.4 shows that the internal composite consistency reliability coefficients for
all the constructs were high (≥ 0.75–≤ 0.93). The correlations between the three
career agility constructs, the two career embeddedness constructs and the four
career adaptability constructs were all positive and significant (r ≥ 0.18 to r ≤ 0.95;
p = 0.0001; small-to-large practical effect).
Table 13.5 shows that the three analysis of variance (ANOVA) models were all
practically significant: model 1 (technological adaptivity): F = 10.43; p = 0.0001;
R2 = 0.11 (small practical effect); model 2 (agile learning): F = 18.83; p = 0.0001;
R2 = 0.20 (small practical effect) and model 3 (career navigation): F = 13.45;
p = 0.0001; R2 = 0.15 (small practical effect). The tolerance values for all the models
were greater than 0.30 and the VIF values were lower than 0.26, which shows that
multicollinearity was not a threat to the findings.
240
Table 13.4 Descriptive statistics, internal consistency reliability and bivariate corrections
Mean SD α CR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 Career agility 5.87 0.79 0.79 0.64 –
2 Technological adaptiveness 5.85 0.92 0.76 0.65** –
3 Agile learning 5.92 0.97 0.85 0.79** 0.61** –
4 Navigation 5.84 0.96 0.82 0.68** 0.57** 0.66** –
5 Career embeddedness 4.88 1.39 0.91 0.94 0.65** 0.25** 0.32** 0.22** –
6 Career needs support 4.71 1.39 0.93 0.67** 0.28** 0.35** 0.26** 0.95** –
7 Career fit 5.06 1.51 0.82 0.56** 0.20** 0.26** 0.15** 0.95** 81** –
8 Career adaptability 5.85 0.57 0.82 0.88 0.54** 0.38** 0.45** 0.46** 0.28** 0.30** 0.24** –
9 Concern 3.95 0.74 0.78 0.48** 0.31** 0.44** 0.30** 0.29** 0.20** 0.26** 0.81** –
10 Control 3.93 0.72 0.82 0.39** 0.24** 0.28** 0.35** 0.26** 0.21** 0.25** 0.83** 0.60** –
11 Curiosity 3.95 0.69 0.83 0.45** 0.33** 0.40** 0.42** 0.20** 0.19** 0.20** 0.81** 0.57** 0.53** –
12 Confidence 4.18 0.67 0.75 0.42** 0.35** 0.34** 0.36** 0.22** 0.18** 0.21** 0.81** 0.50** 0.50** 0.53** –
Note: N = 290; *** p = 0.0001. SD: standard deviation; α: Cronbach’s alpha coefficient; CR: composite reliability
N. Ferreira
Table 13.5 Results of multiple regression analysis (career agility)

Variable β SE t p Model info
Adjusted
Unstandardised Standardised Fp R2
Technological – – – – 10.43*** 0.11
adaptivity
Career concern 0.18 0.14 0.09 1.98 0.05*
Career control −0.01 −0.01 0.09 −0.11 0.92
Career curiosity 0.21 0.16 0.10 2.10 0.04*
Career 0.18 0.13 0.10 1.87 0.06
confidence
Agile learning – – – – 18.83*** 0.20
Career concern 0.40 0.31 0.09 4.47 0.00***
Career control −0.05 −0.04 0.09 −0.59 0.55
Career curiosity 0.26 0.19 0.10 2.57 0.01**
Career 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.87 0.38
confidence
Career – – – – 13.45*** 0.15
navigation
Career concern 0.18 0.13 0.09 1.96 0.05*
Career control 0.13 0.10 0.09 1.45 0.15
Career curiosity 0.20 0.14 0.11 1.88 0.06
Career 0.16 0.11 0.10 1.60 0.11
confidence
Career agility – – – – 20.98*** 0.22
Career concern 0.25 0.24 0.07 3.48 0.001***
Career control 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.32 0.75
Career curiosity 0.23 0.20 0.08 2.69 0.01**
Career 0.14 0.12 0.08 1.80 0.07
confidence
Note: N = 290; *** p ≤ 0.0001; **p ≤ 0.01; * p ≤ 0.05. β = standardised estimate; SE = stan-
dard error
As shown in Table 13.5, career concern was a statistically significant and positive

predictor of technological adaptivity (β = 0.14; p < 0.05), agile learning (β = 0.31;
p < 0.000) and career navigation (β = 0.13; p < 0.05). Career curiosity also posi-
tively predicted the overall technological adaptivity (β = 0.19; p < 0.05), agile learn-
ing (β = 0.19; p < 0.01) and overall career agility (β = 0.20; p < 0.01).
Table 13.3 shows that the three the ANOVA models were all practically signifi-
cant: model 1 (career needs support): F = 8.53; p = 0.0001; R2 = 0.09 (small practi-
cal effect); model 2 (career fit): F = 6.00; p = 0.0001; R2 = 0.07 (small practical
effect) and model 3 (overall career embeddedness): F = 7.79; p = 0.0001; R2 = 0.10
(small practical effect). The tolerance values for all the models were greater than
0.30 and the VIF values were lower than 0.26, which shows that multicollinearity
was not a threat to the findings.
242 N. Ferreira
Table 13.6 Results of multiple regression analysis (career embeddedness)

Variable β SE t p Model info
Adjusted
Unstandardised Standardised Fp R2
Career needs – – – – 8.53*** 0.09
support
Career concern 0.38 0.21 0.14 2.82 0.01**
Career control 0.37 0.19 0.14 2.67 0.01**
Career curiosity −0.06 −0.03 0.16 −0.36 0.72
Career confidence −0.04 −0.00 0.15 −0.03 0.98
Career fit – – – – 6.00*** 0.07
Career concern 0.33 0.16 0.15 2.20 0.03*
Career control 0.26 0.12 0.15 1.69 0.10
Career curiosity 0.01 0.00 0.17 0.04 0.97
Career confidence 0.10 0.05 0.17 0.61 0.55
Career – – – – 7.80*** 0.10
embeddedness
Career concern 0.36 0.19 0.14 0.2.61 0.01**
Career control 0.31 0.16 0.14 2.26 0.03
Career curiosity −0.02 −0.01 0.16 −0.15 0.88
Career confidence 0.05 0.02 0.15 0.32 0.75
Note: N = 290; *** p ≤ 0.0001; **p ≤ 0.01; * p ≤ 0.05. β = standardised estimate; SE = stan-
dard error
As shown in Table 13.6, career concern was a statistically significant and positive

predictor of career needs support (β = 0.21; p < 0.01), career fit (β = 0.16; p < 0.01)
and overall career embeddedness (β = 0.19; p < 0.01). Career control was a statisti-
cally significant and positive predictor of career needs support (β = 0.19; p = 0.01).
The results provided partial supportive evidence for the research hypothesis H1:
Scores on states of career adaptability predict scores on facets of career agility and
career embeddedness.
Discussion
Increasing changes in the current work environment, especially considering the

changes brought about by Industry 4.0, give rise to numerous opportunities for
career counselling practices in the workplace. More and more, employees have to
familiarise themselves with new industries and occupations because of the increas-
ing speed at which the workplace is changing. The latest trends in the workplace
and recently introduced occupations have created new employment opportunities
and career prospects. Career counselling practices can play an active role in helping
employees make sense of these changes. They can also assist them in obtaining,
evaluating and applying the new career information in their own career decision-
making and career planning. Moreover, career counselling practitioners can help
employees develop skills to cope with the constant changes in their current work
environment through ongoing education and learning.
Career practitioners can also use these workplace changes to generate better inte-
grated online and technologically assisted career interventions into their assess-
ments and include researchers as evaluators of the effectiveness of such approaches.
Considering the changes in the workplace, because of Industry 4.0, digital career
support practices could be in the form of online self-assessments, online career
information and video-based online career counselling. This approach might include
the adaptive assessment of an employee’s career concerns guided by custom-made,
computerised interview questions and assessments followed by personalised recom-
mendations for activities to support self-directed career management and career
well-being.
Positive workplace friendships and good relationships between employees may
improve employees’ career well-being. A study by Urbanaviciute et al. (In Press)
shows that employees with well-developed adaptability skills are more likely to
increase their life satisfaction, reduce their stress levels and improve their overall
well-being.
Developing career adaptability may cause employees to be more proactive in
addressing their workplace challenges and managing challenging situations.
Organisations should raise employees’ awareness of self-regulatory career behav-
iours such as career adaptability and organisational commitment. Some career
counselling assessments and interventions are according to the career construction
framework developed by Savickas (2013). These include individual-level interven-
tions within organisations to foster career adaptability among employees
(Urbanaviciute et al., In Press). The enhancement of employees’ career adaptability
may assist them in establishing agency in a work context broader than their work
environment. Career adaptability development may be beneficial to employees’
career and general well-being. Career practitioners should focus on employees’
readiness to cope with unpredictable changes provoked by unsteady work condi-
tions. Interventions that include the design and application of programmes to pro-
mote career adaptability resources (concern and curiosity) can be used by career
practitioners within organisations. Career adaptability assessment can also serve as
a screening tool. The presence of career adaptability resources indicates crucial
strengths that individuals can bring into play as they develop throughout their
careers. In terms of career adaptability interventions, the importance lies in the
design, implementation and evaluation of such interventions owing to the chal-
lenges experienced in the current workplace, specifically in the Industry 4.0 context.
Career adaptability is required for post-career choice work adjustment and may
be of importance to industrial and organisational psychologists, human resource
practitioners and managers. It may be beneficial to practitioners and managers to
nurture career adaptability resources and recognise certain work experiences foster-
ing career adaptability resources and responses.
244 N. Ferreira
Finally, because of the coping and self-regulatory behaviours associated with it

(Savickas, 2013), career adaptability applies to employees’ stress handling and cop-
ing mechanisms. This suggests the added advantage that adaptability resources may
predict employees’ career agility and embeddedness, a sought-after outcome in
organisational life. Assuming that career adaptability can be learned through inter-
personal and social processes, Garcia et al. (In Press) contend that career adaptabil-
ity can be transmitted to the younger generation.
Implications for Organisational Practice
The goal of this chapter is to assist employees and managers seeking to cultivate
personal career adaptability attributes in order to enhance individuals’ career agility
and embeddedness. The following are the key strategies for organisations to con-
sider when they design career adaptability interventions.
• The sub-facets of career adaptability (concern, control, curiosity and confidence),
career agility (technological adaptivity, agile learning and career navigation) and
career embeddedness (career development fit and career values fit) should be
taken into due consideration.
• A revision of the role of the manager and the industrial psychologist as career
counsellors is needed to understand the self-regulatory career behaviour and the
different skills forming a part of it. Only a full understanding of what career
adaptability, career agility and career embeddedness entail will ensure that the
manager and the career counsellor guide employees successfully in their career
choices and enhance their overall adaptability.
• Employees should reflect on feedback regarding their self-regulatory career
behaviour (career adaptability, career agility and career embeddedness) at an
interpersonal level.
• Human resource practitioners, managers and career counsellors should facilitate
the development of employees’ career adaptability, career agility and career
embeddedness to enhance their adaptability in the new world of work.
Managers, human resource practitioners and industrial psychologists should
have a clearer understanding of the different facets of self-regulatory career behav-
iours when they evaluate employees’ adaptive behaviour. A better understanding
could considerably boost the career well-being of employees. Future research could
focus on defining and raising awareness of career well-being and shed light on how
career well-being might be influenced by employees’ career adaptability, career
agility and career embeddedness.
Research studies on career adaptability, career agility and career embeddedness
are required to highlight the impact of these abilities on employees’ well-being and
contemporary careers. Further studies will add value to career development, career
well-being and other HR management (HRM) practices. If they have greater
knowledge at their disposal, then employees will be able to identify and develop the
necessary adaptability skills to improve their agility and embeddedness. They will
be able to not only adapt to the new world of work but also contribute towards con-
temporary career research. It is hoped that the insights of this chapter will stimulate
research on the attributes influencing employees’ career well-being in the context of
the new world of work.
Chapter Summary
This chapter has contributed to research on the relatively new constructs of career
agility and career embeddedness. The findings have shown that career adaptability
attributes, such as career concern and career curiosity, predict the overall career
agility and career embeddedness of employees. The research on the antecedents of
career adaptability and the findings could inform human resources and career devel-
opment practices. Although the findings of the empirical study could be strength-
ened with replication and exploration, hopes are entertained that this chapter and
results may inspire researchers and practitioners to consider the measurement of
employees’ career agility and career embeddedness as important adaptability attri-
butes in the new world of work.
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Nadia Ferreira is a professor of human resource management at the Department of Human

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ally on the themes of human resource management, retention and career well-being. Ferreira has
presented numerous academic papers at national and international conferences.
Chapter 14
Managing Human Resources in the New
Normal: How Are Small Business
Owner-Managers Responding?
Willie Tafadzwa Chinyamurindi
Introduction
In 2019, the world experienced the novel coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) with
devastating consequences (McKibbin & Fernando, 2020; World Health Organization,
2020). In 2020 alone, more than 20 million deaths were estimated in collated global
figures (Walker et al., 2020). Within organizations, budget cuts were also attributed
to the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic (Tafeni & Mngomezulu, 2020). The
COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the existing socioeconomic challenges
(Mazarire, 2020; van der Merwe, 2020). In the developed world, the impact of the
pandemic has also been noted to be enduring and affecting society and the world of
business (Anker, 2021). The pandemic has led to a limit in terms of how businesses
operate, including even the closure of some businesses (Zacher & Rudolph, 2020).
The pandemic has also been noted to affect aspects of the workspace. Due to limita-
tions around gathering, the physical workspace is being replaced by online work
modes (Brynjolfsson et al., 2020). Firms may need to rethink and realign human
resource management (HRM) practices to align with this new working mode
(Caligiuri et al., 2020). This has led to calls for organizations to adapt swiftly and
charter responses to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (Collings et al., 2019).
Ogunlela and Tengeh (2020) bemoan the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic,
especially within the small business sector, leading to closure for some. Furthermore,
also affected by the COVID-19 pandemic are employees in such businesses, not
only in how they are managed (Bapuji et al., 2020) but also in their mental well-
being (Rachidi, 2020). This could serve as a difficult path to post-recovery in the
new normal (Handfield et al., 2020; Trautrims et al., 2020). Small businesses may
also need to be responsive because of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. This
W. T. Chinyamurindi (*)
Department of Business Management, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
e-mail: wchinyamurindi@ufh.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_14
250 W. T. Chinyamurindi
responsiveness is needed given the dynamics of social change actuated by the pan-
demic, especially for small businesses (Anshari et al., 2020). A pre-pandemic con-
cern had been the challenges faced by small businesses related to financial and
human resource management (Pal et al., 2014). As a post-pandemic strategy, there
is a need to prioritize small business development (Eggers, 2020). In so doing, the
desire is to pay attention to the aspects related to the management of not just the
finances but also the human resources of small businesses (Kuckertz et al., 2020).
In addressing the presented challenges posed by the pandemic, two possible
strategies are proposed by Ngcaweni (2020). The first is to strive for prevention,
especially considering the general population. The second strategy focuses on post-
recovery to stabilize and grow national economies (Baur, 2020). This also calls for
a change in how organizations are run and in the aspects of resource allocation and
utilization (Makumbe, 2020). Ultimately, the aim is to improve business confidence
(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2020). In so doing,
attention needs to be given to post-COVID-19 recovery efforts to be studied in situ
(Cho, 2020), considering the micro–macro processes and happenings (Roosen
et al., 2020; Magezi & Manzanga, 2020). In response to the pandemic, a noted
effort, especially amongst South African firms, is diversification (Bauw, 2020).
Furthermore, calls exist to understand the role of managerial and leadership
capabilities in driving all this (Atiku et al., 2020). Furthermore, how human resource
management (HRM) practices respond to the challenges of the COVID-19 pan-
demic is an issue of continued inquiry (Gigauri, 2020). Ultimately, such gaps prof-
fer an understanding of the post-recovery efforts and responses of human behavior
(Pillay & Barnes, 2020) and those of organizations to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Furthermore, calls and apparent gaps exist within the literature. Notably, there is a
need for comparative studies that are sector-influenced responses to the challenges
of the COVID-19 pandemic (Hudecheck et al., 2020). This is deemed a valuable
point of organizational learning, especially given the unpredictable nature of the
world’s challenges due to the pandemic (Raju & van Niekerk, 2020). An essential
capability warranting further attention to the ideals of post-recovery efforts is con-
cerned with the role of technology. This has been an acknowledgment pre-COVID-19
(Telukdarie et al., 2018) and needs further attention in the current and post-
COVID-19 scenarios (Hu et al., 2021). Calls exist within the literature for more
nuanced case examples of how businesses respond to the COVID-19 crisis through
their strategic decisions and actions (Margherita & Heikkila, 2021).
Chapter Objective
This chapter seeks to offer theoretical and empirical insights and proffer practitioner
ramifications considering the proposed topic under study. This fits within calls,
especially in both developing and developed countries, for seeking ways to improve
how micro-level capabilities can contribute to the performance of enterprises and
the management of the same (Duarte, 2017; El Haddad et al., 2018). Furthermore,
14 Managing Human Resources in the New Normal: How Are Small Business… 251
this chapter adds a unique dimension and context in response to the COVID-19
pandemic. In essence, considering the theoretical, empirical, and practitioner audi-
ence as advocated in the literature (Zhang & Merchant, 2020), this chapter seeks to
explain the how and why aspects of the issues under focus. This chapter can be a
sound basis for pushing frontiers in studies responsive to contextual happenings,
such as the COVID-19 pandemic, through its findings and implications. This quest
has become essential, especially given the acknowledgment of small businesses
having the potential to leverage the success of the presence of human capital (Light
& Dana, 2020; Dana et al., 2019).
COVID-19 and the Small Business Sector
Small businesses are acknowledged as necessary for growth and employment cre-
ation. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, small businesses face serious chal-
lenges, even closure (Markovic et al., 2021). Two strategies are deemed key in
response to this, a) efforts of prevention and b) actions encouraging post-recovery
building. Calls exist within the academic and practitioner press for fine case exam-
ples of prevention–response actions to the COVID-19 pandemic (Katare et al.,
2021). Answering such calls has become an essential precursor to targeted interven-
tions that aid in efforts to build resilient, inclusive, and sustainable societies. In
essence, this can be done through an appraisal of critical vulnerabilities that small
businesses face and ongoing efforts (and best practices) post-recovery from the
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings from the study can potentially
help policy-makers in assisting small business development, despite the devastation
caused by the pandemic. Such a quest can be in line with international calls for stud-
ies of this kind to inform the work of policy-makers. For instance, Harel (2022)
suggests the generation of evidence-informed practice in understanding the impact
of the pandemic and developing interventions from this.
Research Question and Purpose
The research seeks to answer the following question:

How does a sample of small business owner-managers respond to the challenges of
the COVID-19 pandemic considering the human resource function of the entity?
Based on this proposed research question, the following research objective is
proposed:
To explore how a sample of small business owner-managers respond to the challenges of
the COVID-19 pandemic, considering the human resource function of the entity.
Literature Review
Theoretical Lens
The proposed study borrows from a couple of theoretical postulations concerning

the theoretical literature. First, borrowing from the human capital theory, the focus
is on developing resources (particularly human resources) within enterprises to gain
a competitive advantage (Bag & Gupta, 2019). The role of managers and leaders has
become critical in attaining a competitive advantage (Hoffmann & Rusch, 2017)
and in driving internal capabilities for organizational success (Barreto et al., 2017).
Essentially, such a role can be a critical success factor in business outcomes (Shen
& Liu, 2003).
Second, given quests for improving competitive advantage (Evans, 2019), the
focus is also on the idea of dynamic capabilities. Calls exist within the literature to
understand how such dynamic capabilities not only feature and relate to COVID-19
but also relate to firm operation and performance (Rapaccini et al., 2020). This also
emphasizes the resource-based view (Barney, 1991) and seeks to link resources and
capabilities to firm performance.
The third aspect is concerned with issues related to organizational learning. Van
Hoek (2020) argues that given the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need to under-
stand how decision-making capabilities develop in such a context. A launch pad
could utilize an organization (and its actors) to understand all this. This can be a
helpful platform for understanding organizational learning, especially considering
the COVID-19 pandemic context (Lee et al., 2020). The role of managerial and
leadership influence has become a different area of inquiry (Auer, 2021), especially
in driving capabilities that foster learning. This could be an essential response amid
the tragedy imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic (Raju & van Niekerk, 2020). The
current crisis created by the COVID-19 pandemic offers the opportunity to respond
as the basis for crisis management (Margherita & Heikkila, 2021) and through the
post-crisis work of learning and revision (Coombs, 2015).
Empirical Literature
This research makes some fundamental assumptions guided by the literature and the
issue under study concerning the empirical literature. The dynamic business envi-
ronment and the accompanying changes have called for an organizational response
(Abubakar et al., 2019). Capabilities play an essential role in allowing for this
response while possibly positioning success for the organization (Eren &
Ciçeklioğlu, 2020). Therefore, a set of interlinked capabilities can assist an organi-
zation in navigating a period of difficulty. These include a) technology (Pederzini,
2019); b) organizational processes (Pahos & Galanaki, 2019); and c) business func-
tion activities (Chinyamurindi et al., 2021a). This may mean that South African
entrepreneurs need training and education regarding responsive business models to

the pandemic (Von Maltitz & Van der Lingen, 2022).
Another critical capability includes the human resource component
(Chinyamurindi et al., 2021a, b). Calls exist for continued efforts in ascertaining the
role of dynamic capabilities such as the human resource component as a response to
the COVID-19 crisis from the organization’s vantage (Anker, 2021). Even consider-
ing Teece (2007), the argument here is seeking to understand how dynamic capabili-
ties are affected by the pandemic and the ensuing response, a view also supported
by others (Garrido et al., 2019). The premise is that business models still accrue
value while expanding on new market opportunities, albeit with uncertainty
(Nambisan et al., 2019).
A period of crisis can be used to be innovative. This places importance on also
understanding the types of capabilities that can be generated in response to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Organizations can use external stakeholders as potential plat-
forms through which new forms of work arrangements can be developed (Markovic
et al., 2021). This has led some to see the need for a spirit of collaboration in
response to the COVID-19 pandemic (Maciel & Fischer, 2020). However, such col-
laborative efforts may need to be balanced (Crick & Crick, 2020). This has led to
calls for organizations to be more responsive, including agile, to the challenges
posed by the COVID-19 pandemic (Mundra & Mishra, 2021). All this places impor-
tance on dynamic capability development (Kump et al., 2019).
Some argue that technology plays an essential role in managing the challenges
created by the COVID-19 pandemic in the world of work (Semke & Tiberius, 2020).
This has emphasized the need to pay attention to technological acumen and compe-
tencies, especially within organizations (Abbady et al., 2019). Potentially benefit-
ting from this are employees. Links can be made, therefore, to business continuity
despite the disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (Margherita & Heikkila,
2021). In essence, through such responses, organizations are encouraging the
enhancement and creation of new capabilities to manage the challenges stemming
from the pandemic (Glyptis et al., 2021).
In South Africa, the pandemic is likely to worsen the skills challenge that was
present pre-pandemic (Ngwenya et al., 2020). Some in the South African context
even predict a notable increase in cyberattacks, given the reliance on technology for
business (Chigada & Madzinga, 2021). Due to the pandemic, certain professionals
will need to have new professional roles stemming from the challenges posed by the
pandemic and the desire to adapt to the new normal (Chinyamurindi et al., 2021a,
b). Firms may also need to propose and implement safety precautions within the
workplace (Atiku et al., 2020). This also entails ensuring that HRM activities are in
line with such precautions. In summary, as some South African researchers advo-
cate, capabilities will have to be formed to assist firm-specific activities affected by
the pandemic (Weber, 2021).
Research Method
An interpretivist philosophy relying on the qualitative research approach and semi-

structured interviews were used to answer the research question. In previous
research studies, in seeking to understand the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
within organizational studies research, such a philosophy and approach were uti-
lized (Koekemoer et al., 2021; de Klerk et al., 2021; Chinyamurindi et al., 2021a, b).
The philosophy and approach assist in understanding the aspects related to the com-
plexity that affects the lived experience (Chinyamurindi, 2020). This provides a
platform for research to understand social experience (Chinyamurindi, 2016) and
the ensuing actions to such experience (Bryman et al., 2018; Delport et al., 2018).
The set of guiding questions for the interviews was split into three. First, the
questions sought to establish more about the entrepreneurs and their businesses.
This first round of questions helped put the participants at ease. The second round
of questions generally sought to understand how the COVID-19 pandemic has
affected the running of a small business, including aspects related to the manage-
ment of people within the firm. Finally, based on the challenges stemming from the
COVID-19 pandemic, the small business owners were asked to respond to the inter-
ventions incorporated.
Sampling and Research Participants
A non-probability sampling approach was used, relying on a purposive sampling

technique because the participants were deemed as “information-rich” and illumi-
native, that is, they would offer practical manifestations of the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on the small business context in South Africa (Cohen et al.,
2018; Rule & John, 2017). The aim was to narrowly focus only on small business
owner-managers’ experiences in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. This
experience included small business responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. A total
of 25 small business owner-managers were selected using a convenience sampling
technique over a data collection period that lasted 8 months. Table 14.1 shows the
demographic characteristics of the participants in the study.
The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to select the partici-
pants: (1) a participant had to be operating a small business running for a minimum
period of 5 years and fully registered and (2) a participant had to be classified at
either two levels, the owner of the small business or a manager within the small
business. Enforcing these criteria allows for control over who took part in the study.
Furthermore, this also assisted in making sure that participants with the requisite
skills and experience were part of the study.
Table 14.1 Demographic characteristics of the participants

Participant Gender and race Years of small business operation Sector
1 Female (B) 8 Construction
2 Male (I) 11 Retail services
3 Female (B) 15 Agriculture
6 Female (C) 14 Construction
7 Male (C) 6 Construction
8 Female (B) 12 Information technology
9 Male (B) 11 Agriculture
11 Male (W) 7 Retail services
12 Male (B) 8 Construction
15 Male (W) 6 Agriculture
17 White (W) 9 Construction
19 Female (W) 10 Retail services
22 Female (C) 6 Construction
23 Female (B) 9 Retail services
Note: W, White; B, Black; C, Colored; I, Indian
Data Collection and Data Recording
The guiding research question and objective made it possible to use a qualitative
research approach, especially given the complexity that the COVID-19 pandemic
has created. Furthermore, the small business context also became a context of inter-
est given the challenges experienced stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic. In
achieving all this, semi-structured interviews were utilized for small business
owner-managers. Members were recruited to online bulletin boards where informa-
tion about the research was advertised. Upon agreeing to take part, the potential
participant would make contact with the researcher. An online interview was then
arranged with the participant using either the Microsoft (MS) Teams or the Zoom
application. The interviews were then video-recorded with permission. Each inter-
view lasted between 40 and 55 minutes.
Strategies to Ensure Data Integrity
There is a need to ensure data quality and reporting. The researcher paid attention to
many strategies. First, all interviews were conducted and recorded over the MS
Teams and Zoom platforms in terms of credibility. This allowed for a platform for
interviewing while respecting social distancing rules around COVID-19 and enabled
the recording (conducted with permission) of each interview. This also allowed easy
reference concerning accessing the data later for data analysis. Second, given that
the study was conducted at the height of the pandemic, the participants preferred
this online mode of meeting. This was in line with respecting the COVID-19 proto-
cols. Third, after the data had been collected through the video interviews, transcrip-
tions were made and sent back to the participants to correct anything if the need
existed. This process allowed for participant checking of the data and corrections
made based on this. Fourth, data were collected over 8 months, allowing data col-
lection, including transcriptions, to be carried out without pressure. The 8-month
period also captured the small business owner-managers’ experiences with the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Data Analysis
An interpretivist approach was adopted for data analysis in this study. A qualitative
thematic analysis approach was utilized. Over the 8 months of data collection, the
interviews were transcribed soon after each interview. The transcripts were then
entered into the QSR NVivo 9 data analysis and management software (Reuben &
Bobat, 2014). The software was used to code each of the transcripts’ paragraphs
into themes and sub-themes. The coding was carried out using the participants’ own
words wherever possible. However, the researcher relied on the software not only to
develop the themes but also as a complementary method to develop themes. A the-
matic analysis was conducted to analyze the qualitative data by identifying and
examining common patterns within the data (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). For analyz-
ing the data through thematic analysis, six steps advocated in the literature (Braun
et al., 2019) were utilized as shown in Table 14.2.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical guidance was adhered to as part of the study. First, ethical clearance was
applied for before the research took place at the participating university. Second,
and related to the first point, attention was given to the guidance of the Helsinki
Declaration of 1972, which stipulates that when research is being conducted, and
the participants include humans or animals, the researcher has to get a clearance
Table 14.2 Phases of thematic analysis

Phase Description
1. Familiarizing oneself with Actively reading and re-reading data to obtain an overall
data understanding
2. General initial codes Noting the essential aspects of data
3. Searching for themes Identifying codes and forming codes into themes
4. Reviewing themes Relating the themes to codes and the entire data set
5. Defining and naming Producing clear definitions and names for themes
themes
6. Producing the report Final analysis of themes relating to the initial research question
Source: Braun et al. (2019: 119)
from the ethics committee (Parsa-Parsi, 2017). The researcher complied with the
regulations stipulated that include informed consent, right of participation, and con-
fidentiality and anonymity of the research participants. Third, the researcher sought
to avoid prejudice and ensure that all the participants enjoyed equal rights and par-
ticipation in this critical project. Pseudonyms were used to avoid identifying the
participating individuals and their small businesses.
Findings
Based on the thematic analysis conducted, two main findings emerged as themes.
First, small business owner-managers prefer to adopt innovative ways of managing
their workforce in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Given these ways of man-
aging, small business owner-managers sought ways to put in place measures that
improve cash flow and ensure the management of their employees. Second, as a
theme, focus was also given to the continued use of support mechanisms to assist
employees in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. These mechanisms as sub-
themes center on prioritizing mental health and providing in-house counseling ser-
vices. These findings and illustrating quotes are presented next.
I nnovative Ways of Managing as a Response

to the COVID-19 Pandemic
Innovative ways of managing a response to the COVID-19 pandemic were imple-

mented. These innovative ways of managing appear to stem from two main
challenges.
The first consisted of challenges of cash flow. The participating small business
owner-managers flagged difficulty in maintaining a smooth cash flow within their
enterprises. This difficulty appears to stem from the restrictions that they faced
through the various stages of lockdown. One participant expressed this viewpoint:
The varying stages of lockdown posed the same cashflow challenges with differing levels
of impact. A common feature was that we struggled in paying our employees. In some
cases, we delayed payments, but we opted for employees not to come to work in the worst-
case scenario. We have a small workforce here, but the impact was huge. (Participant 12,
male, construction sector)
Supporting participant 12, a participant in the agricultural sector also bemoaned the
cash flow challenges. In their reflection, working from home had devastating impli-
cations for the sector.
When the announcement came that everyone should work from home – it did not make
sense for our workers and us. We wanted to follow the rules, but also, the rules posed some
limitations. So we lost a lot of potential earnings from our produce. We also struggled to
pay salaries, and strangely, the no work no pay policy crept in. (Participant 3, female, agri-
culture sector)
The second challenge centered on the lack of contingency preparation for the pan-
demic. With regard to the COVID-19 pandemic, many small businesses appeared to
have had no financial and social preparations to face the challenge before them. One
participant expressed this viewpoint:
A precursor to the management interventions we adopted focuses on the context we operate
in. As a small business, we do not plan for contingencies that stem from a pandemic. So we
had nothing and were caught unaware. Our response was going to be reactionary.
(Participant 16, female, construction sector)
One participant also echoed the same concerns about a lack of preparedness.
Generally stating, pre-pandemic, most of the small business sector was already fac-
ing challenges of an economic nature. The pandemic merely exacerbated the
challenge.
Remember pre-pandemic, we were witnessing some small businesses closing due to the
economic challenges in the country. You can only imagine when the pandemic hit us and
what this meant. Responses had to be considerate also the pre-pandemic state of the small
business context. (Participant 1, female, construction sector)
Bearing in mind the presented challenges, Table 14.3 presents a range of innovative

ways used in the small business context to manage the workforce.
The second set of findings directly focuses on the need for continued support
mechanisms to assist employees in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. These
mechanisms prioritize mental health and provide in-house counseling services at
the core. Management response to the COVID-19 pandemic needs to be cognizant
of these priority needs. Such interventions are presented next.
Table 14.3 Management response to the COVID-19 pandemic

Management response Illustrating quotes
Work rotation amongst “We asked our workers to take a rotation – some working on
employees – employees rotating some days and others working on another day. We cut back on
and taking shifts individual salaries but at least ensured that everyone’s job was
secure.”(Participant 20)
Salary cuts amongst “Salary cuts were by far not popular amongst our employees.
employees – employees were This allowed for us not to fire any of our employees.”
taking salary cuts (Participant 25)
Incentivize employees seeking “Given that retail is seeking to recover, our approach was to
new opportunities for business reward those employees, especially in sales, in seeking new
expansion in response to the opportunities.” (Participant 5)
pandemic
Use of technology-based “We are mostly service-oriented, so we could allow our
work – incorporating employees to be on their devices at home. This allowed them
technologies to allow for to work and for us to find ways to manage them remotely. We
cross-functional working online got some work done importantly.” (Participant 8)
rioritizing Employee Mental Health and Providing In-House

P
Counseling Services
At the core of supporting management responses, as illustrated by the participating

small business owner-managers, is focus on developing employee mental health.
One participant framed this as the “core” of a range of techniques that may be in
place within the organization.
We began to realize that at the core should be focussing on the development of our employ-
ees. In the case of the pandemic, due to the cuts experienced (including the uncertainty),
this must take a huge mental health toll on employees. We never had a focus on mental
health support services. The pandemic reality made sure we prioritize this. (Participant 13,
male, construction sector)
Supporting participant 13, a participant in the construction sector also supported the
need for employee-centered interventions. The challenge is often that small busi-
nesses have a small budget base. This does not take away the enormous responsibil-
ity of taking care of employees.
Our budget base is lean. This means we can only do so much with what we have. The focus
should be on making sure we use the little we have to get the most. We have requested those
experienced in matters of psych-social support to even come to our firm to speak to our
employees. This helps cushion and address somewhat the levels of uncertainty created from
the pandemic. (Participant 25, female, construction sector)
Until the start of the pandemic and the devastation caused by it, one firm had no
policy centered on employee well-being and support.
Based on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, we focused on understanding ways of
supporting our employees. Most of the farmworkers have little or no education. So we
started using the employee representatives to convey a message that support was available.
This was also actuated by implementing a policy that supported what we were trying to
achieve. (Participant 9, male, agriculture sector)
Discussion
This study sought to explore how a sample of small business owner-managers

respond to the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic, considering the human
resource function of the entity. The findings illustrate innovative ways of managing
their workforce in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the findings
also highlight the importance of continued support mechanisms to assist employees
in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. These mechanisms center on prioritizing
mental health and providing in-house counseling services. The findings appear in
the backdrop of the broader challenge and devastation caused by the COVID-19
pandemic (Walker et al., 2020). As argued in the literature, common to the findings
is the response to the pandemic (Tafeni & Mngomezulu, 2020). At the core, the
responses by the participating firms appear woven within the sociocultural milieu
(Mazarire, 2020) in responding to the challenge (van der Merwe, 2020). The find-
ings of this study appear to argue for the need to be employee-centered. This
becomes important as employees play an essential role in realizing business and
social goals (Anker, 2021).
Unlike previous findings, none of the participating firms considered closure
(Ogunlela & Tengeh, 2020). The findings show support through responsive manage-
ment attributes to the COVID-19 pandemic (Bapuji et al., 2020). The study’s find-
ings focus on some management strategies used to keep the small business in place,
albeit under adversity. This also brought into focus the importance of mental well-
being-focused interventions. A finding from this study is similar to that of previous
research (Rachidi, 2020). The focus should be on the continued development of
managerial and leadership capabilities to assist small business owner-managers
(Atiku et al., 2020).
Implications
Based on the findings of the study, some implications can be drawn. There is a need
to provide support services to small business owners on two fronts. There is a need
for small businesses to reinvent themselves through offering their services continu-
ously. Given the findings, this could include seeking more ways of collaborative
working to leverage costs. For instance, seeking ways of working together appears
to make more sense given the challenges that the small business sector faces.
Furthermore, management responses need to be contextual and employee-
centered. It was commendable that the small business owner-managers from the
participating firms preferred not to let their employees go and instead sought ways
to retain them. Here, some support can be provided by assisting small businesses in
developing competencies in the management of their employees. Institutions of
higher learning can intervene by creating a platform using which small business
owner-managers can be trained on issues that affect the operation of their busi-
nesses. This could include seeking development opportunities that assist small busi-
nesses across the board.
Here, an added angle could also be ensuring that the small business owner-
managers are exposed to a vast repertoire of techniques that promote employee
well-being. An added implication could be the need for continued small business
support in terms of financial support. This was something that the COVID-19 pan-
demic revealed. Despite its economic importance, the small business sector remains
a sector needing financial support. It is envisaged that such support when in place
will also assist the management aspect, especially the human resources in the firm.
Limitations of this Study
This study has some limitations. First, caution should be exercised when interpret-
ing this study’s findings. The sample used in this study is not representative of the
sample of small business firms operating in the Eastern Cape province of South
Africa. This study mostly surveyed the views of small businesses in the construction
and agriculture sectors. These are predominantly the most popular trade sectors in
the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Future research could improve on sam-
pling issues. Second, this study relied on the use of online interviews. A challenge
experienced here centered on connectivity issues as some of the interviews had to
be re-recorded. Furthermore, the researcher had to put in extra effort to gain trust
from the participants. This comes about due to some guided concerns with online
interactions. Finally, given the nature of qualitative data and their objectivity, cau-
tion should be exercised when interpreting the findings of this research.
Future Research
Suggestions for future research can be made. First, this study explored management
responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. These views were explored from the angle
of an owner-manager. Future research could pay equal attention to the experiences
of these management responses from the lens of an employee. Interestingly, given
the second finding, where the focus is on paying attention to psycho-social support
measures, there is a need to understand employee experiences. The second area of
research could be to evaluate the management responses to the COVID-19 pan-
demic and the efficacy of the range of psycho-social interventions being incorpo-
rated even in a comparative manner. Finally, future research could also focus on
post-COVID-19 strategies with small businesses. This could be in understanding
the aspects of compliance (or a lack of it) to issues happening in the South African
context.
Conclusion
This study thus makes an essential contribution to an important topic that deserves
further interrogation, especially in the small business context. The platform pre-
sented by this study enables further inquiry into the issues prevalent in the small
business context, despite the recognized importance of the sector. This study pro-
vides a window of opportunity to understand how small businesses adjust to the
new normal.
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Willie Chinyamurindi is a National Research Foundation (NRF) Rated Researcher

(Y2) working at the University of Fort Hare as a professor in the Department of
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Part III
Impact of the New Normal on Individuals
with Special Needs

(Chaps. 14–17)
Overview
The chapters by Chinyamurindi (Chap. 14), Mpofu et al. (Chap. 15), Mamboleo and
Rumrill (Chap. 16) and Mpofu et al. (Chap. 17) specifically look at the unique needs
and requirements of individuals with special needs (such as autism, multiple sclero-
sis and disabilities) and how the new normal working context impact on their ability
to function and perform within the reformed working space.
Chapter 15
Context of Digitalized Employment
for Older Adults with Autism Spectrum
Disorder in the New Normal
Elias Mpofu, Michał T. Tomczak, Nathan Hutson, Lucy Gafford,

and Rongfang Zhan
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic is a public health catastrophe and has overstretched the
capabilities of work organizations and employees alike. Its management in work
settings remains a major challenge, including the physical sharing of materials and
spaces while minimizing work disruption. There is evidence to suggest that older
adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are 2.5 times more likely to die from
COVID-19 compared to neurotypical peers because of the underlying chronic
E. Mpofu (*)
Rehabilitation and Health Services, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
School of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
School of Human and Community Development, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, South Africa
e-mail: Elias.Mpofu@unt.edu
M. T. Tomczak
Faculty of Management and Economics, and Digital Technologies Center, Gdańsk University
of Technology, Gdańsk, Poland
e-mail: Michal.Tomczak@zie.pg.edu.pl
N. Hutson
Public Service, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
e-mail: Nathan.Hutson@unt.edu
L. Gafford
Workplace Inclusion and Sustainable Employment, University of North Texas,
Denton, TX, USA
e-mail: Lucy.Gafford@unt.edu
R. Zhan
Rehabilitation and Health Services, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
e-mail: RongfangZhan@my.unt.edu

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_15
270 E. Mpofu et al.
medical conditions that include obesity and gastrointestinal, respiratory, and cardio-
vascular conditions in that population (Onder et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021). The
fact that new COVID-19 variants continue to evolve poses a present and ongoing
danger to people with high vulnerability like older adults with ASD as the new work
normal also continues to evolve under the impetus of both remote work technolo-
gies and residual economic impacts from COVID-19. The new work equilibrium
following the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to be one in which jobs are more tran-
sient due to the uncertainties of economic recovery. The fact that present jobs and
those of the future are implemented with digital technology means that digital tech-
nology has become a context of labor rather than a means of labor (Allen et al.,
2021; Wang et al., 2021).
ASD is a lifelong social and communicational developmental disorder that is
currently diagnosed to affect 1 out of 54 children and is characterized by difficulties
in planning and sequencing tasks, reciprocal relationship formation, and affect dys-
regulation in the presence of perseverative or repetitive behaviors (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). The population of American older adults with ASD
is estimated to reach 770,000 by the year 2030 (Buescher et al., 2014). Although the
disorder is mostly diagnosed in childhood, older adults (over 50 years of age) with
ASD are increasingly belatedly identified (Brugha et al., 2011; Lewis, 2016) in
middle age or afterward (Bishop & Seltzer, 2012; Hull et al., 2017; Morrison et al.,
2019). The population of adults with ASD is heterogeneous by phenotype or trait
dispositions and socio-demographics, important considerations for developing
interventions aimed at mitigating their risk of work exclusion, social isolation, and
loneliness following a digital work transition. The superimposition of age-related
deterioration in specific brain systems and ASD-related loss of adaptive work skills
could theoretically result in greater work impairments than expected as a result of
age-related decline alone. Additionally, the advent of COVID-19 has reduced the
quality of support services for people with ASD due to the rapid, unplanned transi-
tion to remote service systems (Cassidy et al., 2020; den Houting, 2020; Pellicano
& Stears, 2020).
In this chapter, we examine mainstreaming remote working for older adults with
ASD and telecommuting solutions that redefine the nature of work and the tools for
it. We consider telecommuting as the future of the work world and how technology-
based work demands would impact the work well-being of older adults with
ASD. Moreover, we examine different work and job redesign tools, which might be
necessary to enable successful remote working for older adults with ASD. In doing
so, we examine the possible solutions for telecommuting mainstreaming with assis-
tive technology options vs low-cost solutions based on generally available technol-
ogy and approaches with high prospects for enhancing the work well-being of older
adults with ASD.
15 Context of Digitalized Employment for Older Adults with Autism Spectrum… 271
Older Adults with ASD Employment Participation
People with ASD who lost their jobs due to the COVID-19 pandemic or transitioned
to remote working experienced greater mental health distress compared to those
who retained their employment (Goldfarb et al., 2021). The new normal workplace
needs to be grounded in understanding the work participation predispositions of
older adults with ASD, the prospects for mainstreaming digital work in the face of
the digital divide impacting that population, and what tools employers are presently
using or would use to bridge that divide. Moreover, for older adults with COVID-19-
related job loss, attempting to rejoin the labor market may require that they do their
work on digital platforms for which they lack familiarity (Newbutt et al., 2020).
Work Participation Orientations with ASD
Older adults lost employment due to COVID-19 more than any population segment
(AARP Public Policy Institute 2021, see Fig. 15.1 below) and are less likely to be
rehired compared to the younger age cohorts. Pre-COVID-19, adults with ASD
were three to four times less likely to be employed than were other working-age
adults who do not have a disability (Hedley et al., 2016; Taylor & Seltzer, 2011).
Historically, they have also experienced high rates of unemployment and underem-
ployment in relation to adults with other disabilities (Ohl et al., 2017), in addition to
ageism experiences within the employment cycle, leading to premature work termi-
nation (Hinshaw & Stier, 2008; Johnson & Joshi, 2014; Priscott & Allen, 2021).
Moreover, older adults have an increased likelihood of a diagnosis if they have a
46.5
50 weeks
40
32.4
30 25.8
23.4
20.1
20
8.7
10
3.4
0
16-19 years 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-55 55-64 65-plus
Older Workers have been unemployed for longer. Note: June 2021 data are not seasonally adjusted.
SOURCES: AARP Public Policy Institute
Fig. 15.1 Median length of unemployment by age group. Older workers have been unemployed
for longer
272 E. Mpofu et al.
more severe presentation and cognitive impairments, which leads to a lower partici-
pation rate in highly skilled professions when compared to younger cohorts. As
such, relatively few are employed in the knowledge economy such as database
administration and design, information technology (IT) system administration, soft-
ware development, computer system and web administration, or software testing.
Although some older adults with ASD are employed in Internet or online jobs, the
vast majority are employed in practical economy as restaurant employees, in hospi-
tality services, personal care services, as health aides, handymen, retail clerks, et
cetera (Bernick & Holden, 2018). The practical economy was the most severely
affected by COVID-19, resulting in high job losses. Under the new normal, many
practical economy jobs may not return due to company closures or may be signifi-
cantly reconfigured requiring fewer employees and/or markedly different skill sets.
Historically, older adults with ASD are likely to hold part-time employment, in a
large part from a history of work exclusion (Bernick & Holden, 2018), and this
trend would be more prevalent in the new normal economy post-COVID-19. For
instance, The US-based Spark for Autism study, which surveyed 600 adults with
ASD in March–April 2020 at the outbreak of COVID-19, reported more than 93%
of older adults with ASD to be extremely negatively impacted by COVID-19 miti-
gation mandates, for which they lacked preparation (Chung & Chung, 2020). Most
older adults with ASD report a preference to retain employment at some level to
build their retirement resources and for overall life fulfillment (Bernick & Holden,
2018). Work retention would be particularly important to older adults with ASD as
they may be financially worse off than their age peers with a history of unemploy-
ment or underemployment (Maddox & Gaus, 2019) and their employer-provided
benefits may erode quicker, limiting their quality of life due to recurrent expenses
(e.g., residential, transportation, recreation or leisure pursuits, and access to pay for
services) that often exceed their government benefit roll outs (Perkins &
Berkman, 2012).
People with ASD use digital technologies more than do other disability groups
other than those with attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) (Johansson
et al., 2020). However, among older adults with ASD, age cohort effects may influ-
ence predispositions to use digital technologies for work participation so that
younger-older adults (50–64 years) would be more adept at using digital technolo-
gies than middle-older adults (65–80 years) or older-older adults (81 years and
above) (Duplaga, 2017).
People with ASD flourish in their social worlds matched to their particular socio-
cognitive style and experience dysfunction in mismatched relations to their engage-
ment needs, means, and preferences (Brownlow et al., 2015). About 56–76% of
adults with ASD employed are with facility-based work settings (and likely working
with others with ASD), rather than competitive employment on the open labor mar-
ket. Adults with ASD were happier with others with ASD, suggesting implicit
mutual understanding, often lacking when interacting with neurotypical others
(Davis & Crompton, 2021). Older adults with ASD may have irretrievably lost some
of the workplace relationship capital that they had accrued over the years due to
COVID-19 disruptions or job losses. The new normal with the vaccine roll outs is
uncertain, due to the high vulnerability of older adults toward “breakthrough infec-
tions” of the evolving COVID-19 variants (Chen, 2021). Mainstreaming remote
working, not just as a tool for work but in the context of work might be a serviceable
solution.
Mainstreaming Remote Working for Older Adults with ASD
Digitalization of the context of work, as in virtual work worlds rather than just the
tools (Parker et al., 2017), would be stressful to older adults with ASD with digital
divide exclusion. The digital divide exclusion distress would degrade the mental and
physical health of older adults with ASD (e.g., cardiovascular fitness, immune fit-
ness), through disruption of recuperative behaviors (e.g., sleep and leisure) and
compromise health behaviors (leading to poor self-care, sedentary behavior, sub-
stance abuse, or poor diet) (Segrin & Domschke, 2011).
These are the bio-behavioral risk factors for contracting COVID-19, particularly
in older adults with ASD with chronic inflammation, which would be compounded
by work participation stressors in the absence of digital work support interventions
(and understanding that not all work roles have an easy conversion to digital plat-
forms). The underlying ASD sub-spectra diversities by race/ethnicity, gender, and
social class in older adults with ASD suggest that a one-size-fits-all approach to
mainstreaming remote working would not be appropriate. Although use of digital
technologies by older adults with ASD is a must in the COVID-19 era (Ameis et al.,
2020), digital technology use is more prevalent among relatively young older adults
(<65 years) who are more educated, have higher annual incomes, are healthier, and
are more active members of their communities (Koo et al., 2018; Mostaghel, 2016).
However, this picture is rapidly changing with more than 90% of older adults in the
United States reporting use of a digital device (Auxier & Anderson, 2021). Thus,
while new normal remote work options for older adults are just emerging, they are
occurring in the context of rapid digital technology use adoption across age cohorts.
With the novel COVID-19 pandemic, people in general have little sense of how
to manage their historical and present workplace relationships, and these difficulties
would be compounded for older adults with ASD, a disorder that is associated with
a lower rate of work participation (Goldfarb et al., 2021). A defining quality of ASD
is the uncertainty of otherwise self-evident capabilities (what the person can do)
translating into performances (what the person does) (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013), which compounds across age cohorts from younger-old adults
(55–70 years) through middle-old to older-old adults (71 years and older).
Teleworking considerations will influence work participation outcomes differently
across the digital divide between younger-old adults (55–70 years) and older-old
adults (71 years and older) regarding how to digitalize job tasks and retaining or
enhancing the productivity of older adults. Older adults may have a strong history
of physical workplace presence identity culture, and, those older adults with ASD,
who are uncomfortable with use of digital technology adoption, would be at a high
274 E. Mpofu et al.
risk of work exclusion. However, many older adults would use digital technology
resources for their relationship sustenance and augmentation with training support
and ongoing support (Neves et al., 2018; Wilson, 2018).
igital Teleworking and the New Normal Work Demands:

D
Normalizing the Use of Technology for People and Jobs
A growing number of global companies have enacted neurodiversity initiatives

related to hiring, retention, diversity, and inclusion including SAP, EY, HP, Dell,
Microsoft, Ford, Deloitte, IBM, Pepsi, Procter & Gamble, Fujitsu, and many more.
Bearing in mind the achievements to date in this area, it is worth continuing efforts
and working on solutions aimed at involving older adults with ASD in the work
process. This can first be achieved by the use of digital technology, enabling neuro-
divergent populations to benefit from the opportunities created by teleworking.
The term “telecommuting” was coined in the 1970s, and, since then, the debate
has been taken up by both scholars and practitioners (Allen et al., 2015); the impor-
tance of this form of work has grown significantly in the last few years, due to the
rapid development of digital technology, which exerts a more powerful effect on the
labor environment than in the past (Parker et al., 2017). Nowadays, digital technol-
ogy is shaping the architecture of the workplace, providing new technological pos-
sibilities for performing and organizing work (Parker et al., 2017; Tomczak, 2021).
It is influencing organizations, work structures, employees’ competencies, identity
development, and patterns of relating (Colbert et al., 2016). The popularization of
such phenomena as wired work, work in the cloud, virtual teams, or home office
would not be possible without digital technology. Recently, the impact of new tech-
nology on work and employment has been further strengthened due to the COVID-19
pandemic crisis (Hodder, 2020).
Telecommuting: The New Face of Work
Telecommuting, as with working from home, provides flexibility (Bloom et al.,
2015; Dockery & Bawa, 2014) and autonomy (Gajendran et al., 2015). Moreover,
telecommuting can lead to an increase in job performance (Golden & Gajendran,
2019) and work satisfaction (Bloom et al., 2015). Despite the significant benefits of
this form of work, we should also be aware of certain risks. These include greater
difficulty in maintaining work–non-work balance, determining the boundaries
between the spheres of professional work and leisure (Allen et al., 2021; Gisin
et al., 2016), and increasing social distancing (Bartel et al., 2012; Ebrahimi et al.,
2021). By being aware of the pros and cons of telecommuting, it is worth to skill-
fully use the advantages of this form of work and simultaneously reduce the risks.
ork and Job Redesign Tools for Remote Working: Retaining or

W
Enhancing Productivity
Appropriate digital work participation tools could be a significant support for indi-
viduals with ASD (Mpofu et al., 2021). For instance, digital working may contribute
to enhancing independence and workplace accessibility for people with ASD
(Waisman-Nitzan et al., 2021) as well as increasing their work well-being (Szulc
et al., 2021) and their productivity (Mpofu et al., 2019). Over the past decade, many
workplaces have adopted digital devices as a primary medium for work participa-
tion (Khalifa et al., 2020; McDonald & Machalicek, 2013; Tomczak, 2021; Wali &
Sanfilippo, 2019; Walsh et al., 2017). The digital solutions to work participation
(e.g., Internet communicators, electronic planners, smartphones, tablets, head-
phones, or sports watches and wristbands) appear ripe for adaptation to the context
of remote work. For instance, digital assistive devices (DADs) as well as personal
digital assistants (PDAs) are readily customizable to the work participation needs of
individuals with ASD (Mpofu et al., 2021). The adaptation on digital work tools,
familiar to people with autism, for use in remote work has advantages such as a
lower probability of rejection by the users and lower-cost innovations from their
greater availability.
Work Communication and Control Futures
An important issue in the context of remote working, especially in the case of peo-
ple with ASD, is to ensure effective communication between employees (Tomczak
et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021). Effective communication is a pre-condition of
proper work organization, clear division of tasks, and work progress control. On the
one hand, working in isolation may be beneficial for some people with ASD by
limiting intense interpersonal contact and external stimuli, which are highly burden-
some for them. However, teleworking is not conducive to efficient communication,
which is challenging for this group of individuals anyway. To counteract this, it is
worth implementing various electronic-mediated forms of communication, such as
emails, online communicators, chats, chatbots, discussion forums, or online plat-
forms limiting direct communication, which may be a source of stress for individu-
als with ASD. While communicating, it is worth using concise and precise messages
and providing clear instructions. In the case of older adults with more severe ASD,
a possible solution may also be text-to-speech and speech-to-text applications sup-
porting the intelligibility of messages.
276 E. Mpofu et al.
Productivity Enhancers
Employees with ASD may also have impaired executive functions (Bernick &
Holden, 2018), which can reduce their ability to work independently remotely, thus
affecting their productivity. Job progress monitoring, time management, and task
prioritization applications as well as time structuring tools such as electronic calen-
dars, reminders, or alerts could provide a solution (Bernick & Holden, 2018; Hislop
& Axtell, 2011). The organization of work in a digitally enabled environment would
increase productivity with facilitation by digital tools of work progression and real-
time prompts from another employee, manager, or job trainer, if necessary (Golden
& Gajendran, 2019; Ravid et al., 2020). These solutions can be implemented both
on personal computers (PCs) and mobile devices (smartphones or tablets).
Design of Smart Work for the Office and Home
Going further, it is also possible to optimize the work environment and, in the case
of telecommuting, redesigning a home by turning it into a “smart home” (Bloom
et al., 2015; Chan et al., 2008; Mustajab et al., 2020; Stefanov et al., 2004). The
basis of such actions should be the reduction of distractors that make it more diffi-
cult to perform daily work tasks. Working from one’s own home would be an advan-
tage for older adults with ASD, in that they may already know how to minimize the
sensory sensitiveness of their home work space. For instance, they may already be
using digital tools at home such as headphones with an active noise-canceling sys-
tem, silent computer keyboards that eliminate clicking to reduce sound stimuli,
blackout covers on monitors to make it less irritating to the sense of sight, or a pro-
filed computer mouse. The advantage of their remote working from home by tap-
ping into digital solutions that they are accustomed to is that older adults would
require less time to transition to remote working, thus minimizing disruption to their
productivity. Moreover, older adults could utilize a variety of low-cost, off-the-shelf
digital devices (e.g., skin resistance, pulse, and temperature monitors) to self-
monitor their stress levels to take corrective action (e.g., a tailored relaxation proce-
dure or activity) and to reduce stress (Tomczak et al., 2018, 2020).
The fact that older adults with ASD could self-elect the remote home office work
tools using tracking technologies would minimize the risks of work ethics viola-
tions from imposing work wellness devices on employees (see also Moore & Piwek,
2017). This is not to minimize the work distractions that may come with the home
work office, which would impact work productivity (Park & Jex, 2011). We per-
ceive the home office work routine adherence challenges to be surmountable, with
a good understanding of own home situation demands and how to mitigate them for
sustainable work productivity (see also Sturges, 2008).
ifferences in Employee and Job Task Characteristics

D
for Teleworking
The process of digitizing the contemporary work environment is irreversible in the

new normal, understanding that older adults are “digital immigrants” (Prensky,
2001) since they were born and grew up before the era of digitization of the world
of work. However, they may also be successful working remotely from their predis-
position to work with less need for social company and to thrive on tasks that require
attention to detail (Armstrong, 2010; Baron-Cohen et al., 1999) and comfort with
digitally mediated recurrent work tasks (Tomczak, 2021).
I mplications for Sustainable Employment Participation

of Older Adults with ASD
The pandemic’s reorientation toward a digital work environment may be a blessing

in disguise for older adult workers on the autism spectrum. Although individuals
with ASD often score highly on technical abilities and have, on paper, all the skills
necessary to thrive in the professional world, they are often disadvantaged by the
less-tangible elements of professional life (Zeldovich, 2020). There are several
putative reasons for this disconnect, yet one plausible rationale is that older adult
individuals with ASD miss out on tacit knowledge transfer that occurs during infor-
mal work-related interactions. As such, while they may start their work careers rela-
tively advantaged, they can also stagnate professionally as these missed opportunities
accumulate and compound.
Tacit Knowledge Support
In some ways, neurotypical workers who were forced to telework over the past year
may now better understand how important tacit knowledge transfer is to their pro-
fessional development and may thereby better understand the disadvantage that
workers with ASD face in a neurotypical work environment (see also Case
Illustration 15.1 below). While workers who converted to digital platforms for for-
mer in-person jobs may have initially perceived no significant change in profes-
sional development, over time they report that the lack of informal knowledge
transfer and networking opportunities grew increasingly problematic (Maurer,
2020). This is the same type of disadvantage that workers with ASD already faced
prior to the pandemic, regardless of work setting. As noted by Gal, “(employees
with ASD) often do not take part in social aspects of the workplace, and when they
do, they feel and are seen as different and odd, leading to further isolation and
278 E. Mpofu et al.
alienation. Success in many workplaces tacitly requires social skills that are consid-
erably beyond the official skills required for the job” (Gal et al., 2015).
When all workers are forced to interact exclusively by means of formal digital
communication, workers with ASD may for once find themselves on roughly equal
footing with their neurotypical peers. Forced daily social interactions in a typical
work setting can constitute a significant cognitive burden on older adult employees
with ASD (Bernick & Holden, 2018). Although some employers are better than oth-
ers, it is a reasonable assumption that the average employer cannot fully appreciate
individuals with ASD’s different communication styles (Chapman, 2019), and, thus,
individuals with ASD must generally overperform in technical areas to be competi-
tive for the same jobs as their neurotypical peers (Bernick & Holden, 2018). Temple
Grandin notes “a person with Asperger’s syndrome or ASD has to compensate for
poor social skills by making themselves so good in a specialized field that people
will be willing to “buy” their skill even though social skills are poor” (Grandin, 1999).
Case Illustration 15.1: Tacit Knowledge

Britni Miles is the president of the Texas APSE (Association of People
Supporting Employment First) whose mission is to advance employment and
self-sufficiency for all people with disabilities. One of her chief responsibili-
ties has been job training and transition for individuals with ASD. “People
with ASD have been asking for this type of accommodation (virtual work) for
years” – she noted, adding that a virtual option finally makes sense now for
employers of employees with ASD “since it is already working for everyone
else,” i.e., the neurotypical population (Miles, “personal communication”,
2021). She also noted that the benefit of virtual work would also extend to
others with social phobias and social anxieties and not just the ASD popula-
tion. Before the pandemic, workers with ASD would have to “prove them-
selves” to employers in person before being given permission to work from
home. The pandemic has changed that thinking by lowering the bar that work-
ers have to clear to be given this permission. Nevertheless, the unspoken rules
of the new work culture have also proven challenging. ASD clients have
expressed anxiety at turning on their Zoom camera for work calls and have
stood out unfavorably with supervisors when they are the only ones not on
camera. This becomes particularly problematic when individuals have chosen
not to disclose their disability to their employers.
Ms. Miles has recently worked with a large corporate partner, creating
well-paid internships for ASD workers that were customized. When the pan-
demic hit, the firm shifted to a virtual internship that was based around data
verification. Onboarding and job coaching were all done virtually, which was
initially highly difficult. In response, her organization instituted more one-on-
one contact with the recruiter and job coach, noting that the employer needed
more guidance under the virtual environment.
Tooling for Work Ease
While ASD individuals struggle with both in-person and virtual conversation, styl-
ized forms such as email, which can be tailored and revised before being sent, are
easier to manage. Also potentially helpful are tools such as Grammarly, which can
detect not only language that is grammatically incorrect but also language that is
oddly structured or rude. For example, these types of tools can detect language that
is overly formal or impolite, which a worker with ASD may not automatically detect
in their own speech (Moore & Piwek, 2017). In fact, the standard email and text
language culture, in which messages are typically more to the point, tends to better
approximate individuals with ASD-preferred communication styles when compared
to oral communication, which tends to feature more drawn-out small talk and lay-
ered speech (Kolmar, 2021).
This is not to say that a transition to virtual work will be a panacea for individuals
with ASD. Whereas individuals with ASD shy away from in-person interaction,
there is also evidence that when individuals with ASD avoid social interactions for
extended periods, their already limited social skills begin to atrophy (Faso, “per-
sonal communication”, 2019). Furthermore, given that individuals with ASD shy
away from regular social interactions outside of formalized settings, losing access
to workplace interactions can be particularly problematic. They will not, in other
words, typically seek out compensatory social time.
Career Stage Effects
Additionally, the degree to which individuals with autism will be impacted by a lack
of in-person workplace interaction will vary depending on their career stage (see
also Case Illustration 15.2 below). It is clearly more difficult to begin a job remotely,
thereby missing out on orientation to a unique work culture (Markman, 2021). A
workplace identity is important to sustainable career development (Tietze &
Musson, 2010). Workplace identity development is often facilitated by other
employees through formal and informal work role socialization to acquire the group
work culture.
As previously noted, older adult workers have also been disproportionately
impacted by the shift to online work. In the same manner that starting workers feel
the need to “be seen,” older workers, again, often feel that their best opportunity to
stay relevant is to come to the office regularly. This also helps older workers stay up
to pace with business processes and technological changes, whereas they may oth-
erwise be a step behind. Older adult workers who are empty nesters may also rely
on workplace socialization to a greater extent (Allen et al., 2021). Furthermore,
older adult workers with ASD, like older adult workers in general, are not digital
natives, making new normal remote working a steep learning curve, even for those
predisposed.
280 E. Mpofu et al.
If employers use the pandemic experience to make a permanent transition to

digital work, then the net impact on workers with ASD is likely to be a mixed bag.
Like all workers, younger employees with ASD will have certain tools that will aid
their transition over older workers, yet for entry-level employees, a lack of in-person
orientation during the formative years could be detrimental.
Case Illustration 15.2: Career Pathing

We interviewed Dr. James Williams, the chief operating officer (COO) of a
firm that provides training and coaching services for early career workers with
ASD. Dr. Williams was diagnosed with Asperger’s (now called high-
functioning autism) at the age of 12. In his personal case, the loss of personal
interaction has been a net negative, yet many of his clients have been happy to
dispense with unwanted personal interaction. He notes, however, that even
some workers with ASD who were enthusiastic about their move to online
work have encountered difficult transitions. For example, remote work
requires more self-discipline and concentration. While acknowledging the
ability of many ASD adults to intensely focus on the task at hand, many also
have comorbid ADD or ADHD diagnoses. Dr. Williams speculated that older
adults may have an easier time tuning out these types of distractions when
compared to early career workers.
Social Facilitation Effects
A recent article from Harvard Business Review has noted that one benefit of a group
working environment is “goal contagion” by which individuals working toward a
common purpose in a shared space are motivated implicitly by the actions of their
colleagues (Golden & Gajendran, 2019; Markman, 2021; Wang et al., 2021) (see
also Case Illustration 15.3 below) This is, in a sense, a form of positive social peer
pressure. Individuals with ASD, by nature, are less subjected to peer pressure gener-
ally. This can be a positive thing, as it makes them less likely to embrace tangential
pursuits for the purpose of fitting in. It can also mean that individuals with ASD do
not get “clued in” to shared pursuits and might be perceived by their co-workers as
undermining team efforts (Lomas, 2018).
As a counterfactual, employees with ASD have often been praised for their con-
sequent ability to avoid “groupthink” and offer out-of-the-box solutions that do not
occur to neurotypical colleagues (Zeldovich, 2020). Employees with ASD are often
less concerned about speaking truth to power, which can be both a blessing and a
curse depending on the circumstance (Bernick & Holden, 2018). It is unclear
whether these types of counterfactual judgments would be less likely to occur when
employees shift to a virtual environment.
The lack of perceived shared goals throughout the pandemic has been problem-
atic for workers of all types. Without regular feedback, it is more difficult for work-
ers to know whether they are measuring up vis-à-vis their fellow employees (Bartel
et al., 2012). Some employees may falsely assume that their bosses are pleased with
their progress, whereas others may falsely believe that they are falling behind
their peers.
In one sense, the pandemic has empowered “Facebook experts,” those who strive
to present a stylized and perfect version of their personal lives to similarly stage-
manage their professional careers. Remote workers may cultivate accolades and
overblown metrics of achievement to present themselves to their remote supervisors
as professionally ascendant. Individuals with ASD, by contrast, are rarely skilled at
or focused on this type of self-advocacy. In terms of actual work performed, they
may be thriving given the lack of burdensome social interactions, yet extended
unabridged social isolation would be harmful to their well-being in the long term
(van Tilburg et al., 2020).
Many neurotypical workers who cavalierly believed that they did not need social
interaction with co-workers have experienced feelings of loneliness and inadequacy
as what was assumed to be a temporary shutdown turned into more than a year of
separateness. Although employees with ASD may seem to require less social inter-
action than neurotypical colleagues (Silberman, 2019), they nonetheless seek mean-
ingful social interactions at the workplace, even if perhaps differently (Bernick &
Holden, 2018). The risk of social loneliness is higher with ASD, and remote work-
ing may harm meaningful work interactions (Mazurek, 2014).
Case Illustration 15.3: Social Facilitation

Three expert interviews were conducted to further elucidate this topic. Dr.
Daniel Faso has worked extensively with adults with ASD and is currently the
chief executive officer (CEO) of Across the Spectrum consulting. Dr. Faso
notes that the digital transition for ASD will be beneficial in the short term but
potentially problematic for career growth over time. “Permanent work from
home will impact long term viability in the workplace. You are not dealing
with the dynamics that you otherwise would (in an in-person setting)” (Faso,
“personal communication”, 2021).
Dr. Faso also spoke about the relative importance of lost workplace social
interactions, noting two countervailing facts. The first is that workplace inter-
actions constitute a substantial share of ASD individuals’ total socialization.
On the other hand, “The reality is that the work environment for ASD indi-
viduals very rarely generated their core social network.” Rather, individuals
with ASD attached more value to social interactions with self-selected indi-
viduals who shared their specialized interests. For this reason, in cases where
workers with ASD are passionate about their work, they will likely greatly
benefit from in-person social interactions with their co-workers. If they find
their work necessary but tedious, then forced social interactions with co-
workers are likely to only add to their tedium. Dr. Faso’s final recommenda-
tion was to ratchet up tele-mental health resources in line with increased
virtual work.
282 E. Mpofu et al.
Issues for Research and Other Forms of Scholarship
COVID-19 has created dire risks of work exclusion for older adults with ASD, in
the absence of technology-based support to redefine the nature of work, and the
means to participate meaningfully in employment. On the one hand, people with
ASD would adhere to social-behavioral norm expectations, and they do so with less
compulsion to subtle social pressures on them compared to neurotypical others
(Silberman, 2019), which would make it easier to manage workplace transitions
from the new normal. On the other hand, many people with ASD are at a grave risk
of social exclusion from COVID-19 stay-at-home or lockdown mitigation proto-
cols, which are designed for and by neurotypical individuals and lack disability
inclusivity. Telecommuting might be a solution for older adults with ASD, the ben-
efits of which are yet to be documented for wider implementation adoption.
Telecommuting has been evolving since the 1970s, motivated by myriad factors
including environmental interests, workforce demand issues, and advances in tech-
nology (Allen et al., 2015). The 2019 pandemic is the newest motivating factor for
expanded telecommuting adoption for the general workforce. Yet, caution must be
exercised by employers in implementing new remote work technologies and strate-
gies with older adults with ASD, customizing to suit individual needs (Ameis et al.,
2020). Furthermore, many older adults with ASD may not have self-identified prior
to the pandemic, not having received a formal diagnosis or choosing not to disclose
their neurodiversity. In practical terms, the fact that there may be a large number of
older adults with ASD, who do not have tailored digital tool accommodations,
would require employers in the new normal to adopt universally designed remote
work platforms for the inclusive work participation of those who are
neurodivergent.
The lag in digital technology literacy by older adults may impact their work par-
ticipation while transitioning to remote working or a combination of remote work-
ing with physical work office attendance. Moreover, a “one-size-fits all” approach
to new normal work participation would be less likely to work as older adults with
ASD would be diverse with regard to age cohort (younger-older, middle-older),
ASD symptom severity spread (low, high), employment context (e.g., facility-based
versus competitive employment, technology economy, Internet economy, or practi-
cal/hands-on economy), and employment status (fulltime, part-time, casual, volun-
teer). Research- and practice-led evidence is needed on the types of remote and
in-person work mix options that would best support older adults with ASD in their
diversity. Similarly, research is needed on work communication and socialization
tools for older adults with ASD for their work role well-being and continued pro-
ductivity in the new normal. Much will depend on new normal employers adopting
inclusive work practices that normalize the digital office for those older adults who
can work from home for sustained productivity (Sull et al., 2020).
Conclusion
One of the vulnerable groups of employees who can become beneficiaries of remote
work popularization are adults with ASD. Due to a fundamentally distinct approach
to socialization, a wholescale move to remote work is likely to have a substantially
different impact on this population. Given the hard-fought gains in mainstream
acceptance of workers with ASD in recent years within a traditional work environ-
ment, it has become imperative that this transition does not undermine those gains.
The need to provide telecommuting employment support for this group is important
because older adults with ASD are at an elevated risk of unemployment, which
would escalate under the new normal economy uncertainties. Ultimately, telecom-
muting and digital technologies have expanded the workforce and created new ways
for older adults with ASD to gain, retain, or augment their work participation, with
increased opportunities for taking up contingent and flexible forms of work or addi-
tional part-time work transitioning into retirement.
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Elias Mpofu, PhD., is a professor of health services research at the University of

North Texas, an honorary professor of clinical and rehabilitation sciences at the
University of Sydney, and a visiting professor of human and community develop-
ment at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. His research focus is on
the design, implementation, and evaluation of services and tools aimed at optimiz-
ing the full community inclusion of people with disabilities and other
vulnerabilities.
Michał T. Tomczak, PhD., is an assistant professor of human resources manage-

ment at the Gdańsk University of Technology, Faculty of Management and
Economics, Poland. His research interests focus on technology-based and non-
technological solutions for the inclusion and well-being of employees with neurodi-
versity within the digitized workplace and also on employees’ competencies. He is
the head of HR Manager and Local Self-Government Management postgraduate
programs.
Nathan Hutson, PhD., is an assistant professor of urban policy and planning at the
University of North Texas’ College of Health and Public Service. He is a former
consultant for the World Bank and Cambridge Systematics. His current research
focuses on transportation accessibility and virtual substitutions for transportation
with a focus on distinctions by age cohort, disability, location, and industry.
Lucy Gafford, MS, CRC, is the director of UNT WISE, a training and consultancy
program housed in the College of Health and Public Service at UNT. She has also
been serving as an adjunct professor at the Department of Rehabilitation and Health
Services for the past decade. Lucy works with businesses to improve diversity ini-
tiatives in relation to hiring people with disabilities and serves on the advisory com-
mittee for UNT’s neurodiversity initiative to improve post-secondary outcomes for
neurodivergent students.
Rongfang Zhan, MS, is a doctoral student in aging and health sciences in the
Department of Rehabilitation and Health Services Research at the University of
North Texas. Rongfang Zhan completed her master’s degree in data analytics at the
University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA. Her areas of research interests include
relationship resourcing of older adults for using digital tools and applying the World
Health Organizations International Classification of Function, Health, and Disability
in successful aging studies.
Chapter 16
Working with Individuals with Multiple
Sclerosis During the New Normal
George Mamboleo and Stuart Rumrill
Introduction
The abrupt and prolonged COVID-19 pandemic has significantly shaken up the way
we communicate, view our health, and work. Functional limitations and barriers to
societal participation that individuals with MS face across many levels have been
well-documented (Antao et al., 2013; Julian et al., 2008; Jennum et al., 2012;
Simmons et al., 2010). The pandemic has only helped exacerbate these limitations
as well as has facilitated the emergence of new, even more complex ones. Fortunately,
rehabilitation and related professionals and the clients they serve are resilient, adap-
tive, skilled, and resourceful and are capable of overcoming these limitations. This
chapter provides strategies and information to help these professionals and their
clients navigate this new normal that the pandemic has allotted in areas such as
remote employment and service delivery and altered workspaces to enable safe
working conditions.
Multiple Sclerosis Etiology and Symptoms
There are 2.8 million people worldwide living with multiple sclerosis (MS), and its
prevalence has increased in every region of the world since 2013 (National Multiple
Sclerosis Society (NMSS), 2000; Walton et al., 2020). Nearly one million of them
G. Mamboleo (*)
West Virginia University, School of Counseling and Well-being, Morgantown, WV, USA
e-mail: George.Mamboleo@mail.wvu.edu
S. Rumrill
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign’s Illinois Center, Champaign, IL, USA
e-mail: rumrill@wisc.edu

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_16
292 G. Mamboleo and S. Rumrill
are living in the United States (NMSS, 2019; Wallin et al., 2019). The collective
incidence rate across 75 countries that have reported data is 2.1 per 100,000 persons
per year of newly diagnosed patients. Females are twice more likely to live with MS
than are males (Walton et al., 2020). MS tends to take a variable and unpredictable
course, and symptoms may include weakness, visual loss, bowel and bladder incon-
tinence, fatigue, cognitive impairment, and mood disorders (Lakin et al., 2021).
Individuals with MS appear to have a high incidence of many psychiatric symptoms
and disorders (Chwastiak & Ehde, 2007).
The cause of MS is largely unknown; however, many factors have been proposed
to play a role in the disease etiology including autoimmunity (Weiner, 2004), eth-
nicity (Langer-Gould et al., 2013), geographic factors (Ebers, 2008; Simpson Jr
et al., 2011), and genetic susceptibility (Sawcer et al., 2011).
MS is typically diagnosed between 20 and 40 years of age, and a long duration
of the disease results in significant individual, family, and societal costs (Chwastiak
& Ehde, 2007; Goldenberg, 2012) as well as reductions in quality of life and work
productivity (Chwastiak & Ehde, 2007; Walton et al., 2020).
Employment and Accommodations for Individuals with MS
Individuals with MS experience one of the highest rates of unemployment among

people with chronic and severe illnesses (Doogan & Playford, 2014). Loss of
employment brings detrimental consequences to individuals with MS and their fam-
ilies related to negative economic and psychosocial outcomes and low health-care
utilization (Julian et al., 2008; McCabe & De Judicibus, 2003). MS can cause many
symptoms that have an impact on an individual’s activities and contributions in the
workplace, including fatigue, reduced mobility, mood changes, visual problems,
and bladder or bowel difficulties (Burks et al., 2009).
Individuals with MS face many challenges related to acquiring and maintaining
employment (Antao et al., 2013) with many reporting either unemployment or
underemployment compared to the general population (Julian et al., 2008; Jennum
et al., 2012; Simmons et al., 2010). It is important that individuals with MS maintain
meaningful employment with few MS-related interruptions (Vijayasingham &
Mairami, 2018). This is because employment provides economic resources such as
income, access to health insurance, a sense of personal and professional identity and
fulfillment, and community participation and interactions. Employment also pro-
vides life structure, and social interaction and is associated with improved quality of
life and a higher sense of self-esteem apart from being a source of financial security
(Waddell & Burton, 2006). Long-term employment has been found to be associated
with better quality of life and disease management among individuals with MS
(Ernstsson et al., 2016; Playford, 2016).
Workplace accommodations may alleviate some challenges related to work par-
ticipation that people with disabilities face in job entry, retention, and development
(Baldridge & Veiga, 2006; Hartnett et al., 2011; Hendricks et al., 2005). Specifically,
16 Working with Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis During the New Normal 293
work accommodations positively impact the ability of individuals with MS to obtain

and maintain employment (Doogan & Playford, 2014; Leslie et al., 2015). A work
accommodation refers to any adjustment to a job or work environment meant to
assist a person with a disability to apply for a job, perform job tasks, and enjoy equal
access and benefits of employment commensurate to their counterparts without dis-
abilities (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.). Specific types of
accommodations for employees with MS are flexible work schedules and hours,
cool work environments, sedentary work, easy access to exits and restrooms, and
adapted equipment among others (Dyck & Jongbloed, 2000; Gordon et al., 1994;
Job Accommodation Network n.d.).
Despite the importance of workplace accommodations as an integral part of suc-
cessful employment of individuals with MS, the request rates for these accommoda-
tions continue to be low (Leslie et al., 2015). For example, Leslie et al. (2015) found
that only about 26% of participants with MS had requested an on-the-job
accommodation.
I ndividuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) During

the COVID-19 Pandemic
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the virus respon-

sible for the novel coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19; Yadaw et al., 2020),
which has resulted in the death of more than six million people around the world
(World Health Organization, 2022). COVID-19 infection can quickly change from
asymptomatic to progressive, resulting in low survival rates (Eastin & Eastin, 2020;
Richardson, et al., 2020). Multiple sclerosis (MS) itself is not a risk factor for con-
tracting severe COVID (Rosenblum, 2020). However, MS patients are at a higher
risk for poor COVID-19 outcomes in comparison to the general population (Louapre
et al., 2020). Moreover, some disease-modifying medications may interfere with the
ability of the immune system to respond to an infection, making MS patients more
susceptible to the disease (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020;
Chiaravalloti et al., 2021; World Health Organization, 2020; Zanghì et al., 2020).
Furthermore, cardiovascular disease and hypertension are significantly associated
with the risk of contracting COVID-19 (Goyal et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020), yet
patients with MS are at an increased risk for these risk factors when compared to the
general population (Palladino et al., 2020; Saroufim et al., 2018). The reason for this
is most likely due to the high rates of disabilities due to less healthy lifestyles of
individuals with MS who tend to be more susceptible to smoking, obesity, and
reduced physical activity (Marrie et al., 2009). Prior to COVID-19, individuals with
MS had higher rates of anxiety and depression than did the general population,
which made them even more susceptible to mental distress related to COVID-19
(Zanghì et al., 2020), and, indeed, in comparison to the general population, indi-
viduals with MS have had higher rates of depression, worse sleep quality, and
fatigue during the pandemic (Alnajashi & Jabbad, 2020). Further still, individuals
with MS are reported to be vulnerable to the economic hardships caused by
COVID-19 interruptions to essential services such as health care (Vogel et al., 2020).
Regarding employment, individuals with MS have lost employment due to
COVID-19 (Bishop & Rumrill, 2021). In a study conducted among Americans liv-
ing with MS during the pandemic, 20% of participants who were previously
employed lost employment due to the pandemic and 40% reported other work
changes. Among these workers with MS, those who were the most affected had
lower levels of education, were African American, or of Spanish origin. Most of
those workers indicated that the pandemic had affected their financial situation,
with over half (53.6%) indicating that the pandemic had affected their ability to
access health care related to their MS diagnosis (Bishop & Rumrill, 2021).
trategies to Help Facilitate and Promote New Directions

S
for Serving Those with MS
Legal protections such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) continued to
serve individuals with disabilities and clarify those protections during the pandemic.
For example, ADA-covered employers have been asking their employees if they are
experiencing symptoms of COVID-19 such as fever, chills, cough, shortness of
breath, or sore throat. Employers are obligated to maintain all information about
employee illness confidential as medical records in compliance with the ADA
(U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2021). The following specific
strategies may be helpful for rehabilitation and related professionals and practitio-
ners as we navigate the COVID-19 pandemic by anticipating new surprises and
challenges accompanying the ever-changing, evolving, and elusive “normal.”
Virtual/Remote Employment and Service Delivery Experiences
Prior to the pandemic, a study in the United States found that the unemployment
rate among individuals with MS was up to 80% and that it especially affected those
in the early stages of the disease (Strober, 2020). As reported earlier, the pandemic
exacerbated unemployment, especially for individuals with disabilities, and approx-
imately 20% of workers who were previously employed reported losing employ-
ment as a result of the pandemic (Bishop & Rumrill, 2021).
Because of the vulnerabilities that individuals with MS have due to COVID-19
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020; Chiaravalloti et al., 2021; World
Health Organization, 2020; Zanghì et al., 2020), they may feel unsafe engaging in
work that involves interaction with others. Furthermore, like other people with dis-
abilities, the pandemic may make it difficult for people with disabilities to engage
in necessary COVID-19 mitigation practices such as social distancing, wearing a
mask, and enhanced hand washing and sanitization. Furthermore, because public
transition has been restricted in many cities, it might be difficult for people with
disabilities to travel to work because they are more likely to rely on public transpor-
tation (National Governors Association, 2021).
People with disabilities have been disproportionately impacted by the pandemic,
especially regarding employment and layoffs, as they are more likely to lose their
jobs than are the non-disabled (Bishop & Rumrill, 2021; Nerlich et al., 2021; Schall
et al., 2021; Sheppard Jones et al., 2021; Strauser et al., 2021). Prior to the COVID-19
pandemic, approximately 6–7% of people worked from home (Coate, 2021). The
pandemic has changed the work of many employees (Galliker et al., 2020) as work-
ing from home became the “new normal” for many workers. At the height of the
pandemic, approximately 25–40% worked from home full time, and with social
distancing restrictions being relaxed and businesses returning to a pre-pandemic
“in-person,” many have chosen to stay remote for convenience, comfortability,
safety, and cost both for employers and employees (e.g., money spent on gasoline
and transportation; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020; Savić, 2020), due the changing
nature of work accelerated by the pandemic.
Virtual communication platforms, such as Zoom, Google Meet, and Microsoft
Teams, have been some of the primary modes of communication during the pan-
demic (Peper et al., 2021). They have also served as a source of stress, frustration,
and a constant reminder of social isolation and the fact that we cannot meet in per-
son. Phrases and phenomenon such as “Zoom fatigue” were uttered among many
exhausted workers (Nesher Shoshan & Wehrt, 2022), and virtual social activities
and work breaks like “water cooler meetings” (which were often met with mixed
feelings) were testaments to the frustration and exhaustion of remote work and com-
munication and evidence of the desire and persistence to still hold intimate human
interactions despite the barriers.
emoving the Barriers to Remote Employment

R
and Service Delivery
However, there is something vital that is lost in virtual communication; the “human
touch” is lost, and certain nonverbal cues are more readily hidden or missed.
Therefore, much communication and collaboration may be hindered if the issues
revolving around remote service provision are not explored and addressed.
The barriers to remote rehabilitation service provision that are relevant to those
with MS include overreliance or unfamiliarity or discomfort with technology, indus-
try shutdowns and reductions that disproportionately impact those with disabilities,
the impact of returning to face-to-face work on mental health, transportation issues,
long-term health effects of COVID-19, and macro and micro economic issues post-
COVID-19 (Leslie, 2020).
Although technology is easily adopted, not everyone can access it because many
people do not have reliable Internet access. If this is the case for a client with MS,
when in-person meetings with the counselor are not an option and free public facili-
ties with reliable Internet (such as libraries) are closed, then it would be extremely
difficult to communicate with counselors and prospective employers via telephone.
With Internet access being a necessity for job seekers during COVID-19, clients and
their counselors should get about acquiring such access as a top priority before
beginning service provision. Assistance in finding providers, contemplating service
packages and budgeting, or assistance in borrowing equipment from local libraries
and taking the utmost advantage of limited open-for-operation hours are not the
typical responsibilities and duties of rehabilitation professionals, but, as the pan-
demic has shown us, things are rapidly changing, and we must be flexible and keep
our long-term goals in mind and consider engaging in such supports and services.
In cases where Internet access is not a barrier, there may still be constraints in
Internet use or in the use of technology. Sending an email, Googling job leads, or
filling out forms and assessments may come as second nature to those without a
disability, but, for many individuals with MS, there may be significant cognitive and
motor challenges (e.g., knowing how to conduct a search and navigate websites and
typing on a keyboard/moving a mouse/cursor). Assisting those with MS in using
(their) computers and/or laptops would be imperative. Perhaps, time can be set aside
during in-person meetings for training and instruction, and rehabilitation/human
resource professionals can offer information and resources in the form of step-by-
step instructions to help clients navigate and use their computers. Regarding the
mobility barriers, with many rehabilitation professionals being well-versed in reha-
bilitation technology and assistive technology, one of our suggestions is that they
can help their clients explore and obtain devices such as ergonomic keyboards and
other equipment and find and install computer software or “apps” such as voice-to-
text programs.
Rehabilitation and human resource professionals may wish to conduct assess-
ments with their clients as they either prepare them for employment or want to
gauge their satisfaction/functioning at a current position. Historically done face to
face and via paper and pencil, many assessments now, due to the digital age and the
pandemic, are conducted electronically. Some assessments may even be sent as
links via email where clients are asked to complete them in their own time.
Rehabilitation and human resource professionals may want to consider conducting
these assessments “live” with clients in the COVID-19 era, whether it be over the
phone, via Zoom, or in person. Doing so has two primary benefits. One, it increases
human contact and engagement, as we know that many people during COVID-19
have struggled with feelings of loneliness and isolation. Two, it provides the reha-
bilitation counselor with more context while administering and interpreting the
assessment and its results. Conducting the assessment live allows the counselor to
see firsthand certain nonverbal cues and behaviors that may yield important infor-
mation such as the client’s tone of voice, posture, and body movement (e.g., arms
are crossed, fidgety, looking away) and the speed at which they respond to items and
how they articulate their responses. Say for example, a counselor wants to get a
sense of a client’s job satisfaction at a new position and they send them an instru-
ment via email. Perhaps, the new job has been quite stressful and “unsatisfying” for
the client, but, for the sake of social desirability, or in wanting to “be polite,” they
indicate all positive responses and claim that they are satisfied. The counselor will
then receive the results and conclude that all is well. Had this assessment been con-
ducted “live,” then the counselor could have picked up on any incongruencies in the
client’s responses (e.g., “you said that your employer is kind and understanding for
the most part, but you later mentioned that she has been denying your requests for
breaks and can be intimidating and rude at times”).
Mental health is another concern for clients with MS, and this may be especially
so during and after the pandemic. Co-occurring depression is common in individu-
als with MS, with approximately 50% experiencing major depressive disorder
(MDD) in their lifetime (Hind et al., 2014). Relatedly, lifetime anxiety prevalence
in those with MS is approximately 37% (Kidd et al., 2017). A study by Costabile
et al. (2020) found that compared to controls, individuals with MS had significantly
higher rates of depression but not anxiety during the pandemic. This and other men-
tal health stressors following the pandemic and its effects should be taken into con-
sideration by professionals, particularly in the areas of emphasizing self-care in
clients (perhaps to a greater degree than was done prior to the pandemic) and in
being prepared to secure the necessary referrals if clients wish to receive mental
health and/or counseling services.
Redesigning Workspaces for Safe Working Conditions
A recent study has found that individuals with disabilities are currently more likely
to be working primarily from home; only 34% are in occupations with high poten-
tial for home-based work, compared to 40% of workers without disabilities (Schur
et al., 2020). The increased awareness of workplace safety offers opportunities for
more inclusive workspaces and openness to implement accommodations. Due to
COVID-19, many workplaces were forced to modify the way they operate to pro-
mote safety and alleviate the spread of the virus. These changes provided an oppor-
tunity for employers to become more open to providing more valuable
accommodations beyond what disability laws provide for (National Governors
Association, 2021). As indicated earlier, accommodations help equalize opportuni-
ties for people with disabilities including those with MS.
In redesigning workspaces for safe working conditions, job accommodations
come to mind for many professionals. Owing to legislation such as Title I of the
ADA in the United States, most employers are required to provide reasonable
accommodations to their employees with disabilities when requested. The US Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which enforces and regulates Title
I of the ADA and investigates claims of workplace discrimination, offers several
categories of reasonable accommodations that employers and their workers may
wish to implement. These categories include domains such as modifying work
schedules, providing new technology or equipment, and, indeed, redesigning the

workspace: restructuring of the existing facilities and change in work location.
Individuals with MS work in several different work settings, as they are typically
older and more educated than are other disability groups (Krause et al., 2018;
Roessler et al., 2015; Walton et al., 2020). There appears to be scarce literature
examining the exact types of jobs/settings those with MS work in, but, since MS
onset typically occurs at an age when someone is likely already working and has
established their career (age 20–50; National Multiple Sclerosis Society (NMSS),
2021), it is reasonable to expect that they are employed in a wide variety of jobs as
is the general population. However, once someone has acquired MS, they may wish
to change positions to a job that is more cognitively and physically flexible and less
demanding than the position they had before their MS onset.
Individuals with MS may require modifications or adjustments at their worksite
due to their functional limitations and the compounded effects of physical and cog-
nitive/emotional challenges posed by the pandemic. One of the ways to identify the
challenges being faced and subsequent accommodation solutions is by use of an
instrument called the Work Experience Survey (WES; Roessler et al., 1995). The
WES is a convenient, cost-effective tool, which allows for a semi-structured inter-
view with employees to assess (a) their disability and background information, (b)
the physical accessibility of their specific worksite, (c) their capacity to perform
essential job functions, (d) any barriers to their longer-term career development
goals, and (e) their overall job satisfaction. Apart from working with employees for
specific accommodations needs, many employers have been forced to abandon the
conventional perspective on where, when, and how work is performed and are
implementing flexible policies and practices to get the job done. As we have reported
elsewhere, more workers than ever before are functioning in remote and virtual
ways and are using new technologies and resources outside of what they have been
used prior to the pandemic. Employers should reimagine their work and the role of
offices in creating safe, productive, and enjoyable jobs and lives for employees
including those with MS. The pandemic has forced the adoption of new ways of
working, and these can be seen in three broad categories: (a) limiting the risk of
exposure to COVID-19 (such as provision of protective equipment like masks and
gloves if needed to do their jobs and offering automatic door openers, hands-free/
foot pull door openers, touchless tools, touchless faucets, touchless waste); (b)
addressing physical distancing needs (such as allowing employees to work fully
remote, hybrid remote, or on site); and (c) addressing communication needs (such
as allowing employees to use remote methods such as phone, text, real-time chat,
video, and email) to complete their job tasks (Job Accommodation Network, 2020).
Teleworking/work-from-home options may be the best choices for facilitating
safe working conditions, especially so for those with MS. Considering
physical/COVID-19 safety, these options would virtually be 100% effective.
However, in cases where this may not be an option, or it may cause undue hardship
on the organization or place excess stress and isolation on the employee, there are
other options for enhancing safety at the physical worksite. Such options may vary
depending on the nature of work and the layout of the facility, but some general
recommendations to help prevent the spread of COVID-19 include the following:
Wearing a mask in public spaces, keeping a safe distance (at least 6 feet from
others who do not live with you), avoiding crowds and poorly ventilated spaces,
getting a COVID-19 vaccine when it is available, cleaning hands often either with
soap and water for 20 seconds or a hand sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol,
avoiding close contact with people who are sick, covering cough or sneeze with a
tissue, and throwing the tissue in the trash, among others (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2022).
Accommodations should be determined on a case-by-case basis, and the out-
come should benefit both the employer and the employee. If safety is a concern and
modifying the working environment is required, then developing and implementing
an accommodation plan – perhaps with the help of a survey/instrument such as the
WES – would be the first order of business.
I nsights into New Accommodation Requirements/Strategies

in the New Normal
As mentioned, most employers are required to provide reasonable accommodations

to their workers with disabilities. “Most” includes all employers, with a few excep-
tions, namely, small businesses with less than 15 employees, the federal government
(as they are already mandated by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973), Native American
Tribes, and tax-exempt private membership clubs. “Reasonable” implies that the
accommodation does not pose undue hardship on an organization nor is it unduly
costly, extensive, or disruptive. Of course, this is all determined on a case-by-case
basis, and there is no set dollar amount or time of installation that is universally
designated as “undue hardship” or “unreasonable.” A $750 piece of equipment to
accommodate a worker with a spinal cord injury may not be a problem or heavy
burden for a large organization with more than 500 workers, but it may be so for a
small local restaurant with 15–20 employees. If this is the case, then there are still
other options. The employer would still be required to accommodate the worker, but
they would not be required to implement that accommodation. There is certainly
almost always a solution, one that benefits and “works” for both the employee and
the employer. Again, this is a task that can be accomplished with the help of col-
laborative in-depth discussions and instruments such as the WES and supplemental
resources such as the Job Accommodation Network.
What is reasonable/unreasonable or undue hardship/fair is often difficult to
determine and can be met with disagreement. This is especially difficult to navigate
in the “new normal” that the pandemic has allotted. For instance, working remotely
may be an excellent accommodation option for workers with MS to help them navi-
gate their physical and cognitive barriers, along with keeping them safe from poten-
tial COVID exposure. However, many businesses are still operating remotely and
have many employees already working from home. These businesses may still have
physical facilities open to the public, and, while many customers may not patronize
such facilities during a pandemic, several still do, and employers need workers sta-
tioned on site to process their needs and requests. Suppose a worker with a disability
has been recently hired, and they request the accommodation of working from
home. Before the pandemic, this may not have been a problem or it would have been
“reasonable.” However, now, since several employees are already working from
home and the employer desperately needs a worker physically on site, this request
now poses undue hardship on the organization. What is the solution?
Presumably, many solutions do exist, and the option that benefits both the
employer and the employee must be explored and decided upon by both parties of
interest. Rehabilitation professionals can also help with these discussions. It may be
helpful to first revisit the functional limitations the employee has experienced/antic-
ipates experiencing that has prompted the specific request. Why does the employee
want to work from home? Is it a mobility issue, transportation, or physical safety?
Once this area is identified, then other accommodation options that address that
functional limitation (say, in this case, it is a mobility issue) can be considered.
Another avenue could involve the employer prioritizing the needs of the worker
with MS and appreciating that, in many ways, they are disproportionately impacted
by the pandemic and consider asking some of the employees working remotely to
make transitions, at least part time, to on-site work. Perhaps, several of these
employees would be readily willing to do so, and this would enable the worker with
MS, at least part of the time, to have that work-from-home option available and their
accommodation request honored. Confidentiality should be maintained by the
employer, and at no point should they disclose the disability status of the new
worker with MS.
Suggestions and Future Directions
In summary, COVID-19 has both made more visible and heightened the present
barriers and challenges, along with introducing newer obstacles. Barriers and prob-
lems such as remote work and loss of jobs have negatively impacted virtually all
workers in one form or the other, particularly those with disabilities as we saw them
being most likely to be laid off first, along with greater vulnerability to and conse-
quences following COVID-19 exposure and contraction. Rehabilitation profession-
als were faced with both unprecedented challenges and opportunities; they were
both in high demand, and the ways in which they provided these high-demand ser-
vices required deep innovation and flexibility. This chapter has discussed the bene-
fits and drawbacks of realms such as virtual meetings in the COVID-19 era and
beyond (e.g., loss of in-person “human touch,” lack of nonverbal cues, technology
difficulties). To accommodate these challenges, rehabilitation professionals can
spend more time with clients and follow-up more frequently and carefully, taking
deliberate steps to clarify any ambiguities, misperceptions, or knowledge gaps,
meet in person when feasible, provide technology training, assist in providing and
securing resources, and keep in mind mental health considerations and contemplate
the role that these may have in service delivery and trajectory.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we discussed accommodations as viable for any and all workers try-
ing to “make it” during this pandemic. We also discussed accommodation options
that involved redesigning/modifying working conditions and environments. Specific
legislature exists and varies by countries, but, to contextualize this discussion, we
referred to the Americans with Disabilities Act. Employees (with disabilities) work
in a wide variety of settings, and accommodations may look different and vary on a
case-by-case basis, especially during the pandemic, but, nevertheless, there exist
many tools and resources to identify specific on-the-job barriers (e.g., the Work
Experience Survey) and subsequent accommodation options/solutions (e.g., the Job
Accommodation Network). Being knowledgeable of the legislature, the work
environment(s), clients’ disability and lived experiences, and accommodation pro-
cesses and options is the critical role and function of rehabilitation professionals,
and being competent and well-versed in these areas is imperative for navigating the
present pandemic and adjusting to/carving out the “new normal.”
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George Mamboleo PhD, CRC, is an associate professor of the Clinical Rehabilitation and
Mental Health Counseling program in the College of Applied Human Science at West Virginia
University, USA. He holds a PhD in rehabilitation counselor education and a master’s degree in
rehabilitation counseling. His bachelor’s degree is in Sociology and Linguistics (Kiswahili lan-
guage option). His research interests are attitudes toward individuals with disability, aging and
disability, accommodations/access issues for individuals with disabilities, and the intersection
between chronic disabilities and employment outcomes for individuals with disabilities. He is a
Certified Rehabilitation Counselor (CRC).
Stuart Rumrill PhD, CRC, is a post-doctoral research associate at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign’s Illinois Center for Transition and Work, and a Certified Rehabilitation
Counselor. His research interests include employment and psychosocial aspects for people living
with multiple sclerosis (MS) and traumatic brain injury (TBI), postsecondary experiences and
outcomes for transition-aged youth with disabilities, and working-age adults with substance use
disorders.
Chapter 17
Human Resource Considerations
for Supporting Employees
with Neurological Disorders: Multiple
Sclerosis and Spinal Cord Injury
Ngonidzashe Mpofu, Muna Bhattarai, and Sasha D. Smith
Introduction
Employee Organizational Commitment
Employees spend about a third of their lives at work, meaning that organizations’
long-term effectiveness and productivity levels rely upon their investment in
employee organizational commitment (International Labour Organization, 2019;
Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Government, 2019). Human resource (HR)
teams play a major role in the retention of those employees in the workplace. Simply
stated, HR departments are responsible for managing the deliberate recruitment and
retention of employees or workplace talent. Employee retention is defined as the
effort by a company or organization to maintain a working environment that sup-
ports the current staff in remaining with the business by addressing the needs of the
employees during their career life cycles within an organization and, in so doing,
enhancing employee job satisfaction while reducing the costs related to hiring and
training new staff (Business Dictionary, 2019; Cambridge Dictionary, 2019). It
refers to either an individual keeping a job or a region keeping the same number of
N. Mpofu (*)
Department of Counseling, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID, USA
e-mail: ngonidzashempofu@isu.edu
M. Bhattarai
College of Nursing, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
e-mail: mbhattarai@tamu.edu
S. D. Smith
Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Madison, WI, USA
e-mail: sdanderson7@wisc.edu

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_17
308 N. Mpofu et al.
employees in a place, and human resource teams are the lynchpin in employee
retention (Mpofu, 2021).
Employee organizational commitment is a multidimensional construct that looks
at the interactions of three dimensions, namely, affective commitment, continuance
commitment, and normative commitment (Wilkinson, 2021; Williams, 2004;
Yousef, 2017). Affective and continuance commitment may carry some personal
initiative regarding the costs and benefits of remaining with the current employer,
whereas normative commitment is almost entirely determined by external, societal
influences of remaining with the current employer (Wilkinson, 2021; Williams,
2004; Yousef, 2017). This dimension of organizational commitment is the most
prone to cultural influences and, with affective commitment, are the two strongest
indicators of actual employee turnover intent (Kang & Liu, 2018; Wang et al.,
2020). Employer and HR policies and practices play a major role in determining
whether affective, continuance, or normative commitment is experienced by
employees. This chapter discusses the potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
on people with neurological disorders (NDs), specifically multiple sclerosis (MS)
and spinal cord injury (SCI), and the considerations that HR teams should make in
providing continuous support to those employees toward increased organizational
commitment and retention.
Brief Background of Neurological Disorders: Multiple

A
Sclerosis and Spinal Cord Injury
Neurological disorders are diseases that affect the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) such as the brain, spinal cord, cranial and
peripheral nerves, autonomic nervous system, and neuromuscular junction (Murray
et al., 2012; World Health Organization (WHO), 2016). SCI and MS are common
chronic neurological disorders that cause disability (Krause et al., 2017;
U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2021). Approximately 296,000 individuals in
the United States (US) live with SCI (National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center
(NSCISC), 2021). SCI resulting from injury or disease to the spinal cord often
causes many neurological symptoms, including paralysis of the voluntary muscle,
and is often accompanied by chronic pain (Ducharme & Parashar, 2015; Huang
et al., 2019; NSCISC, 2021; United Spinal Association, 2020). Similarly, MS is an
autoimmune disease of the CNS that has affected nearly 2.3 million people world-
wide and also fits under the heading of neurological disorders as it is a disorder that
affects the brain and nerves throughout the human body (Goldenberg, 2012; Krause
et al., 2017; Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services; National
Multiple Sclerosis Society (NMSS), n.d.). Symptoms of MS may vary from person
to person, ranging from numbness of the limbs, muscle weakness to paralysis, and
neuritis or loss of vision, with the most common presentation of MS being experi-
ences of symptom attacks followed by periods of partial or total remission for a few
months. Many people with MS (pwMS) experience difficulty walking as the disease
17 Human Resource Considerations for Supporting Employees with Neurological… 309
progresses and may require assistance for mobility (LaRocca, 2011). HR teams’
awareness and education on the presentation and possible experiences of SCI and
MS by employees may contribute to the creation and development of health-
informed company policies and procedures, leading to workplace environments
conducive to the continuous development and retention of employees with NDs
(ewNDs) in the post-COVID-19 workplace.
Impact of COVID-19 on Employees with SCI and MS
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the health and work life of pwMS and peo-
ple with SCI (pwSCI) (National Governor Association (NGA), n.d.). Unemployment
among these groups was already relatively high compared to that of the general
population even before the pandemic (Kobelt et al., 2017; Post et al., 2020). Social
distancing, inaccessibility of outpatients’ services, and disruption in public trans-
portation have profoundly impacted these individuals’ lives and added new unem-
ployment (Adams et al., 2021). Individuals with SCI and MS were also at an
increased risk of contracting COVID-19 and its related morbidity and mortality due
to their immunocompromised status (WHO, 2020).
With the new normal and reopening of workplaces, the return-to-work strategies
employed by HR teams must include biopsychological impact considerations of the
pandemic, including physical symptoms common to ewNDs and mental health
issues, such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress exacerbated during the
COVID-19 pandemic, as these may affect the transition to in-person work experi-
ences among this population (Motolese et al., 2020). Due to the COVID-19 pan-
demic, many individuals with disabilities, including pwMS and pwSCI, lost their
jobs, started working from home, or reduced work hours (Brooks, 2020). Because it
is nearly impossible for many people with neurological disabilities to follow all
preventive measures and maintain social distancing, they tend to worry about con-
tracting the virus (Bhattarai et al., 2022; Hearn et al., 2021); in turn, they fear return-
ing to work (Vogel et al., 2020). An HR team’s consideration of the direct impact of
COVID-19 pandemic-related issues such as reductions in working hours and social
isolation, as mandated by government responses to the pandemic, and how these
issues may have negatively impacted both the physical and mental health of ewNDs
would necessarily need to be addressed as part of an ewND’s transition-back-to-
work plan (Motolese et al., 2020; Vogel et al., 2020).
310 N. Mpofu et al.
uman Resource Considerations: Neurological Disorders

H
in the Workplace
Employers and HR teams create workplace environments that contribute toward

employees’ perspectives of their resulting job satisfaction, the quality of interper-
sonal relationships developed with their co-workers, accessibility, achievability of
career progression or promotion pathways, and work engagement (Mpofu, 2021;
Mpofu et al., 2019). An employee’s organizational commitment can be impacted by
their physical health and the availability of health-care services provided by the
workplace as managed by HR teams. In general, poor health can contribute to the
development of compounding physical conditions. So, a workplace culture that con-
siders the accommodations needed by ewNDs may mitigate the impact of physical
and mental health symptoms experienced by those employees as they participate in
the workplace. Physical symptoms such as muscle weakness or loss of mobility,
pain, fatigue, numbness, loss of coordination associated with either SCI or MS, and
the emotional or mental health toll of these symptom experiences can often contrib-
ute to a wide range of workplace active participation limitations by ewNDs
(Canadian Mental Health Association, 2019; Doogan & Playford, 2014; European
Patients’ Academy, 2015; ILO, 2019; Krause et al., 2017; Lidal et al., 2007;
NMSS, n.d.).
Human Resource Teams and Workplace Culture
In this chapter, workplace culture refers to the presence (or the absence) of employer
policies, procedures, and practices around disability inclusion management. It
attempts to minimize the impact of a preexisting disability and chronic illness on
work task outcomes as well as acquiring work-related injuries or health conditions
as a result of the experience of current employment conditions (Hunt, 2009). For
example, in the current move of COVID-19 from a pandemic to an endemic status
(South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, 2022), as
employees re-engage with in-person work, HR teams are going to be confronted
with the need to implement technology-based, work-related interventions for
pwNDs. HR teams could introduce technology that addresses the physical and
social environmental barriers and access issues that may exist within the workplace,
including those barriers or access issues due to the impact of COVID-19 restrictions
during the gradual transition back to the in-person work format (Mpofu, 2021;
Mpofu et al., 2019). Increased turnover intent by ewNDs may be exacerbated by HR
teams not capably meeting the in-person, virtual, or hybrid accommodations during
this transition.
Health promotion initiatives, policies, and programs that are adopted and imple-
mented by HR teams during the in-person transition to work need to be both com-
prehensive and coordinated for proper implementation (Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 2010; Lieberman, 2019). HR teams should consider evaluating how
certain required work tasks are performed by ewNDs. These job-related tasks
require varying degrees of continuous physical and psychological efforts by persons
with either SCI or MS and are based on the individualized experiences of symp-
toms. For example, work that requires long-term standing or physical labor may not
be appropriate for both pwMS and pwSCI. It would also be unsafe for ewNDs to
operate machinery during an active experience of symptoms.
Modifications to job tasks should reflect the type of work industry that ewNDs
are participating in and those unique physical and mental health demands that come
along with that industry. Without integrating appropriate job modifications, HR
teams risk workers experiencing increased work-related stress and strain, leading to
burnout based on those job-related activities. Job-related stress and burnout are the
result of either ill-prepared or ill-managed workplace environments by HR teams
and senior-level management (Akabri et al., 2017; Karasek, 1979; Karasek &
Theorell, 1990; Mpofu, 2021). Sometimes they are a result of a workplace having
health-related policies and procedures in place that are not actively implemented or
monitored by HR teams and frontline managers. Poor management of workplace
job-related accommodations could affect the organizational commitment and reten-
tion of employees with MS (ewMS) and/or SCI (ewSCI), leading to low return-to-
work post-COVID-19 and resulting in poor workplace community reintegration and
a decreased quality of life (QoL) (Bhattarai et al., 2021; Mpofu, 2021; Post et al.,
2020; Roessler et al., 2015).
ase Study: SCI Potential Presentation Within the Workplace

C
and Human Resource Considerations
Symptoms of SCI can profoundly negatively affect both an individual’s personal

and work life (Craig et al., 2017; Krause et al., 2017). Since pwSCI experience
issues with their bladder and bowel movements, they require an accessible toilet and
catheter. Not all workplaces, specifically those in lower- and middle-income coun-
tries, have accessible buildings, including restrooms. Mobility issues and lack of
reliable transportation to the workplace are barriers to returning to work (Johnson &
Krause, n.d.; Lidal et al., 2007). Inability to drive or access public transportation is
a significant problem for many individuals who do not have the opportunity for
remote work (Adams et al., 2021). Many pwSCI with paraplegia or quadriplegia
cannot walk; therefore, physically demanding work that requires walking and stand-
ing are not manageable for these individuals. PwSCI often require assistive devices
or assistance for mobility and self-care activities. Physical and emotional difficul-
ties, such as pain, incontinence, anxiety, and depression, diminish their ability to
work or participate in activities. In addition, negative attitudes of employers and
co-workers toward the visible disability also impact pwSCI’s ability to work (Lidal
et al., 2007; World Health Organization, 2013).
312 N. Mpofu et al.
Case Study 1 Mrs. Rama is a 31-year-old woman who has recently sustained an
SCI in a bus accident in Nepal. Before the injury, she worked as a cashier in a store
where she had to stand for 8 hours. She has a 3-year-old son. She was hospitalized
for a month for the treatment of her SCI, and now she has to attend the rehabilitation
program regularly. She has also experienced depressive symptoms after the unex-
pected paralysis of her lower limbs due to the injury. She starts feeling like a burden
to her family and wants to return to work. She needs a wheelchair for mobility, and
she frequently experiences pain, fatigue, and bladder and bowel incontinence. She
has to use an intermittent catheter to drain her urine. The store where she worked
does not have wheelchair-accessible ramps and restrooms. She talks with her
employer, but the employer is reluctant to rehire her because of her disability and
undue hardship in accommodation. She also has difficulty taking care of her toddler
as her husband works 10 hours a day. She plans to seek the services of a vocational
rehabilitation (VR) center to find an appropriate job.
ase Study: MS Potential Presentation Within the Workplace

C
and Human Resource Considerations
For pwMS, impaired cognition, fatigue, muscle weakness, and work stress are the
most prominent barriers in the workplace (Doogan & Playford, 2014; Krause et al.,
2017). Fatigue, abnormal sensations, and loss of balance result in a negative impact
on performing their work. Difficulty in mobility, such as walking, climbing up and
down stairs, and long-standing problems, limit their ability to perform physically
demanding works (e.g., nursing, gardening, stocking, construction, cooking;
LaRocca, 2011). Physical and cognitive difficulties such as fatigue, pain, limited
mobility, poor dexterity due to muscle incoordination, and urinary problem impact
their ability to work and negatively affect socialization in the workplace. Another
significant reason for low job retention among this group is that employers tend to
focus on pwMS’ limitations rather than emphasizing their work skills. The demands
of the job and the physical environment of the workplace also play vital roles in
return to work and retention (Doogan & Playford, 2014).
Case Study 2 Darnell is a 39-year-old man who works as a lecturer at a university
in the United States. He lives by himself with his dog. He was diagnosed with pro-
gressive MS 2 years ago. He had trouble walking and standing for long hours; there-
fore, his department allowed him to teach online courses. He has been teaching
synchronous online classes since his diagnosis. However, he started having a vision
problem and slurred speech for a month. He is experiencing difficulty preparing his
class materials and working on the computer. He is feeling depressed and hesitates
to ask the university for additional accommodation. He does not think that he would
be able to teach with his limitations. One of his colleagues suggests that he seek
services from the disability service center at the university.
uman Resource Teams’ Potential Employee Retention

H
Strategies Post-COVID-19
Employee organizational commitment and retention are impacted by employees’

perceptions of their job satisfaction and work engagement resulting from their per-
ceptions of whether they believe that their company’s leadership places value on
them (Mpofu, 2021). HR teams play a significant role in reducing employees’ intent
to leave and the resulting turnover rates that are based on organizational culture and
climate issues. If job satisfaction refers to employees’ feelings of contentment with
their work tasks, then work engagement refers to the motivation that makes an
employee put forth the effort in performing work-related tasks, whether intrinsic or
extrinsic, both reflecting the employer’ organizational culture and climate (de Luca,
2020; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Schaufeli, 2017; Toolbox for HR, 2020). The degree of
ease in accessing HR teams in order to request both physical and mental health-
related accommodations that would make work tasks more achievable and progress
manageable could provide a positive protective barrier to ewNDs’ intent to leave
(Michie, 2002; Mpofu, 2021).
Disease management considerations for ewNDs mean that return to work is com-
paratively more challenging for employees with either MS or SCI than for those
without these conditions (Brooks, 2020; Hearn et al., 2021; Maroto et al., 2021;
Post et al., 2020). HR teams should be aware that symptom management and main-
taining functioning in the workplace during work hours through medication, mental
health treatment, and other rehabilitative and self-care accommodations would be
vital for their ewNDs (Chertcoff et al., 2021; Goldenberg, 2012; Vogel et al., 2020).
The reopening of workplaces may find some ewNDs feeling reluctant to return to
work due to COVID-related health concerns and the effects of previous health-
related isolation mandates (Brooks, 2020; Koziarska et al., 2018). An organization’s
HR team can address the previous issues of a lack of resources experienced by
ewNDs in order to meet their health support needs that may have been further
impacted by the pandemic compared to pre-pandemic conditions through modified
work tasks, the integration of disability assistive technology, and improving work-
place social supports by encouraging health-conscious employee interactions
(Adams et al., 2021; Hearn et al., 2021; Mpofu, 2021). Structured return-to-work
plans are essential for this already health- and employment-vulnerable group post-
COVID-19 pandemic (Bhattarai et al., 2022; Hearn et al., 2021).
HR teams must focus on maintaining a physically and mentally safe workplace
environment and transition-to-work services that acknowledge a need for the grad-
ual movement of ewNDs from a COVID-19 lockdown work environment to an in-
person work environment, using reasonable employee health-focused
accommodation services toward their full reintegration and re-engagement with the
in-person workplace. Earlier pages of this chapter include case studies for HR teams
regarding potential transition considerations for employees with either SCI or MS
to fully integrated in-person work as HR teams match ewND’s health-related capa-
bilities, including the impact of the pandemic on those capabilities, with the required
314 N. Mpofu et al.
work tasks. Addressing transition-to-work challenges through the person-

environment fit approach may facilitate positive return-to-work sentiments experi-
enced by ewNDs and witnessed by HR teams through the resulting productivity
behaviors and reduced intent to leave or loss of talent (Dawis and Lofquist 1984;
Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Mpofu, 2021).
MS and SCI Return-to-Work Accommodations
Research has indicated that employees with SCI and MS reported higher life satis-
faction and quality of life (QoL) compared to those who were unemployed, enabling
the conscious efforts by HR teams to support ewNDs’ return to work through the
implementation of reasonable workplace accommodations (Bhattarai et al., 2021;
Krause et al., 2017; Pack et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2008; Yamout et al., 2013). The
types and degrees of accommodations required to be evaluated by HR teams are as
diverse as employees’ degree of physical and mental health limitations caused by
MS and SCI and their positive impact on their resulting job performance.
uman Resource Teams’ Physical Limitation-Related

H
Accommodation Considerations
It is important that HR teams remember the progressive quality of ND conditions,

such as in the case of MS and the person’s mobility reducing over time. During the
past 2 years of COVID-19 lockdowns, ewNDs may have experienced gradual
decreases in mobility compared to the last time that HR teams provided in-person
accommodations pre-pandemic. Acquiring updated health status information of
ewNDs post-pandemic may support HR teams as they plan for the transition to in-
person work by ewNDs who may have experienced reduced mobility and are now
using wheelchairs, for example, to access the physical workplace (Doogan &
Playford, 2014; Roessler et al., 2015). Encounters with workplace physical barriers
impacting accessibility, such as the presence of stairs at the main entrance or an
inconveniently located elevator, may prevent ewNDs from successfully returning
entirely to in-person work (Bhattarai et al., 2022; Post et al., 2020; Roessler
et al., 2015).
Introducing hybrid work schedules, integrating both in-person and virtual work
attendance, may support people with SCI and MS by eliminating issues of fatigue,
body weakness, pain, and impaired mobility to a few days in a week as they possi-
bly interfere with employee work duties (Ducharme & Parashar, 2015; Job
Accommodation Network (JAN), n.d.). Therefore, physical and virtual accommo-
dations such as accessible worksites and workstations and off-site company data-
base and meeting access are essential for resolving physical work- and
condition-related limitations experienced by ewNDs. In-person work attendance

also requires HR plans for flexible scheduling that includes providing time for
employees with MS or SCI to rest by taking more frequent mini-breaks built into
their daily work schedules as vital to dealing with fatigue (Motolese et al., 2020).
Creative HR teams might address issues of mobility regarding the commute to work
by ewNDs by introducing structured weekly ridesharing or carpooling services to
support the transportation assistance needs of pwMS or pwSCI during the days they
do attend the workplace. This structured approach by HR teams could also recon-
nect ewNDs with their work colleagues, post-pandemic, thereby encouraging job
satisfaction by reintegrating pwMS or pwSCI with the social supports provided by
working for their current employer that they may have lost due to the COVID-19
pandemic lockdowns. Social support fostered through carpooling to work may
reduce mental health issues related to stress and health-related anxiety, encouraging
a more interactive and, therefore, productive workplace as experienced by ewNDs
returning to in-person work (Doogan & Playford, 2014; Job Accommodation
Network (JAN), n.d.).
HR teams can play a crucial role in the recreation and development of workplace
social support as protective factors of post-COVID-19 transition to work strain.
Having a supportive work environment can alleviate COVID-19-related factors
such as fear, anxiety, and loneliness, which may have an impact on job performance
across all employees to varying degrees as they transition back to the in-person
workplace. Because ewND needs may change with MS- and SCI-related disease
progression, the accommodation needs of those employees should be monitored
and reviewed periodically for sustained and progressive effectiveness. Doing so
may impact the ewNDs’ overall organizational commitment or general desire to
return to the workplace post-COVID-19 lockdowns (Mpofu, 2021; Ryan et al.,
2019; Van der Doef & Maes, 1999; Vassos et al., 2019).
Self-Evaluation of Human Resource Teams
Self-evaluating questions that HR teams should ask themselves regarding the work-
place support of pwMS or pwSCI include the following:
1. Is the HR team aware of not only the personal characteristics of the MS and SCI
conditions experienced by their specific employees prior to the pandemic but
also the personal characteristics of their employees as the disease and disease-
related mental health factors have advanced or exacerbated during the COVID-19
pandemic?
2. Is the HR team aware of the physical access barriers posed by the work environ-
ment as they plan on a transition back to in-person work post-COVID-19
pandemic?
316 N. Mpofu et al.
3. Can the HR team review and redesign health-related company policies and pro-
cedures to better reflect the unique nature of post-COVID-19 work environments
and conditions?
4. Is there a need to create a structure of monitoring and evaluating the implemen-
tation and effectiveness of transition-to-work services, as guided by the reviewed
health-related workplace policies and procedures, including the request and ful-
fillment of workplace physical and mental health accommodation needs
of ewNDs?
HR teams should consistently monitor and evaluate the policies, procedures, and
intervention strategies of their employers or organizations to make sure that they
remain effective in supporting the needs of people with disabilities (PWDs), espe-
cially those related to the successful transition back to in-person workplace toward
positive work adaptation and adjustment by PWDs post-COVID-19 pandemic
(Mpofu, 2021; Mpofu et al., 2015, 2019). Efforts for disability inclusion by HR
teams through HR staff and ewND co-worker education and training programs
could become a potential indicator of projected employee success in rebonding with
their in-person environment (Mpofu, 2021; Mpofu et al., 2019).
Using technology as a connecting medium from the fully online or virtual work-
place environment to the in-person workplace would support the integration of
employees with MS and SCI through HR creation of flexible schedules that include
both physical and virtual workplace attendance throughout the workweek. Using
this approach, HR teams operationally take the perspective that the organization’s
employees are consumers of HR services instead of merely being workers moni-
tored for their completion of work-related tasks. Employees’ attitudinal and behav-
ioral health outcomes then become the indicators of effective HR-produced
biopsychological workspaces (Doyle, 2019; Karasek, 1979; Schaufeli, 2017). Those
HR teams that take the employees-as-consumers approach are choosing to view the
retention of employees as no longer a function of whether or not employees are
remaining with or leaving the organization in their numbers but rather are viewing
their role as HR teams facilitating the sort of workplace environment that produces
an affective desire within employees to wish to remain loyal to their current
employer (Mpofu, 2021). This would be true whether employees are with or with-
out disabilities or any other chronic condition that may occur over the course of an
employee’s career life cycle. An employee-as-consumers approach results in the
retention of company talent and the subsequent employee motivation toward inno-
vation growth and development as a result of feeling committed to that company
and its continued success post-COVID-19 pandemic (Castro, 2018; Chen, 2008;
Lee, 2017; Mpofu, 2021; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Organizational policies and procedures that guide sustainable return-to-work
strategies and practices during and after the COVID-19 pandemic would be a much
more meaningful evaluation metric of an HR team’s ability to produce and maintain
organizational commitment among the company’s employees, whether with or
without disabilities (Doyle, 2019; Mpofu et al., 2015; Iwanaga et al., 2018; Scheible
& Bastos, 2013). Such indicators could influence the desirability of returning to a
job based on the employees’ experiences of their work environment and their sup-
port transition back to work following the COVID-19 reopening stage. An HR
team’s ability to be flexible and adaptable to the workplace accommodation needs
of their ewNDs, such as MS and SCI, including matching work tasks and rest peri-
ods based on ewNDs’ physical and mental needs, may impact ewNDs’ organiza-
tional commitment (Mpofu, 2021; Mpofu et al., 2019).
rofessional Implications for Human Resource Teams

P
Post-COVID-19 Lockdowns
The biological realities of the presence of neurological disabilities require that HR

teams take into consideration the functional limitations posed by the disabling con-
ditions and then adequately review and provide solution-focused strategies that
address environmental and social barriers as a result of the progressive nature or
exacerbation of the symptoms of these conditions (Mpofu, 2021; Mpofu et al.,
2019). The retention of employees with disabilities requires a multimodal approach
by HR teams in order for ewNDs to be successful in transitioning back to in-person
work post-COVID-19 lockdowns, following the potential health impacts of the
COVID-19 pandemic on ewNDs.
The creation of flexible and adaptable work environments by HR teams contrib-
utes to what is known as an organization’s culture and climate around the retention
of employees with and without disabilities during the COVID-19 stages of compa-
nies reopening (Burke et al., 2013; Chiavenato, 1990; Scheible & Bastos, 2013).
Workplace social supports can act as protective barriers to the stress and strain of
returning to work by pwMS or pwSCI. The successful implementation of workplace
social support strategies by HR teams could affect the degree to which ewNDs per-
ceive that their well-being is valued by the broader organization (Eisenberger et al.,
2002; Ford et al., 2007; Kossek et al., 2011).
In addition to the stigma of having a disability condition, it is also not uncommon
for pwNDs who contracted COVID-19 to experience discrimination (Bhattarai
et al., 2022; Marini et al., 2018). Therefore, awareness of employment policies and
practices regarding both the physical and social supports of ewNDs should be con-
sidered as important by HR teams toward fostering a positive transition to in-person
work. HR teams will find that they have the balancing role of monitoring and evalu-
ating the relevant and beneficial workplace accommodations for ewMS or ewSCI,
while simultaneously not constituting undue financial hardship to the company’s
finances (Mpofu, 2021; Mpofu et al., 2015; U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission, 2002).
318 N. Mpofu et al.
Conclusion
The ability and willingness of HR teams to accommodate the workplace transition

needs of employees with progressive disabling conditions, such as MS and SCI,
have an effect on ewNDs’ work performance, perceptions of being valued by their
employer, and the resulting retention of ewNDs. Looking at employees as consum-
ers of HR services, whether with or without a disability, can foster the development
of the type of affective commitment that makes employees want to stay with their
current employer and commit to the successful transition of their company into a
post-COVID-19 workplace environment (Burke et al., 2013; Chiavenato, 1990;
Mercurio, 2015; Mpofu, 2021; Schaufeli, 2017). Gradual and stage-designed return-
to-work strategies by HR teams progressively bring ewNDs successfully back to
in-person work. Return-to-work strategies allow ewNDs’ physical and mental
health needs to be addressed via the flexibility of HR teams to support the transition
from working from home to reconnecting with the in-person, post-COVID-19 pan-
demic work environment (Rueda-Garrido et al., 2020).
HR teams should note that desirable behaviors by HR staff include those that
foster employee affective commitment through the HR team’s ability to recognize
and modify their responses to the most current health-focused needs of their employ-
ees, not only in the short term following the COVID-19 pandemic but also in the
long term over an employee’s career life cycle with the company for both employ-
ees with and without disabilities. HR teams would do well to acknowledge the nec-
essary transitioning flexibility required by ewNDs as workplaces continue to reopen
in a post-COVID-19 context. Opportunities for reviewing company policies and
procedures could be in the areas of an employee’s health coverage provisions, short-
and long-term disability care or health benefits, offering employee assistance pro-
grams that support resolving work-life difficulties potentially affecting work
performance, such as addressing the commute accommodation needs of ewNDs in
support of in-person work attendance, and reviewing time-related workplace accom-
modation policies and procedures to ensure the efficient and expedite assessment of
the needs of ewNDs and the implementation of those services, resulting in ewNDs’
organizational commitment and retention (Center for Excellence in Universal
Design, 2020; Iwanaga et al., 2018; Mpofu, 2021; Mpofu et al., 2015; Society for
Human Resource Management, 2021).
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Ngonidzashe Mpofu , PhD, CCMHC, CRC, NCC, earned her PhD in rehabilita-
tion counselor education and supervision from the University of Wisconsin –
Madison and her MEd in the dual emphases of clinical rehabilitation and clinical
mental health in school and communities from the Pennsylvania State University –
University Park. She is an assistant professor at the Idaho State University (ISU)
within the Department of Counseling and is the program coordinator for the empha-
sis of clinical rehabilitation counseling. As a director of the Global Health &
Wellbeing Institute at ISU, Dr. Mpofu’s primary line of research focuses on work-
place well-being, sustainable community health practices, and quality of life across
the lifespan of diverse populations and in various settings around the globe. Her
secondary line of research focuses on work-related substance (ab)use and the result-
ing mental health issues, disabilities, and chronic conditions that impact career and
lifestyle well-being. She has won research awards, including the Best Dissertation
of the Year 2021 awarded by the National Council of Rehabilitation Educators and
a Top 10 Alumni Researcher in the 10-year history of the Global Health Institute at
the University of Wisconsin – Madison. She is the author and co-author of several
book chapters and peer-reviewed articles in leading titles within the fields of reha-
bilitation counseling, mental and community health, human resources, and indus-
trial and organizational psychology. Dr. Mpofu is a workplace well-being consultant,
creating and facilitating measurable organizational operation plans aimed at the
recruitment and retention of senior-level and frontline managers, community team
leaders, and staff and staff support workers, through employee career skills develop-
ment and training.
Muna Bhattarai , PhD, RN, is an assistant professor in the College of Nursing at

Texas A&M University, USA. She completed her PhD in rehabilitation counselor
education from the University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA. She has experience
teaching nursing students and rehabilitation psychology students. She had served as
a registered nurse for five and a half years in Nepal. She has published more than 12
peer-reviewed journal articles, contributed to 4 book chapters, and presented
research at 9 national and international conferences. Her research interests revolve
around the mental health and well-being of individuals with physical disabilities.
She received an outstanding master’s degree thesis award in social science from
Prince of Songkla University, Thailand. She also received the best paper award at
the Fourth National Summit of Health and Population Scientists in Nepal and the
best poster presentation award at the 2017 International Nursing Conference in
Thailand.
324 N. Mpofu et al.
Sasha D. Anderson, MS, is a third-year PhD student in the Department of

Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education at the University of Wisconsin –
Madison. Her research focuses on inclusion, advocacy, transition-age youths and
young adults with disabilities, and intersecting identities. In 2014, she received the
Most Outstanding Graduate Student Award after receiving her master’s degree in
rehabilitation counseling from Emporia State University. In 2018, she served at her
alma mater, the University of Bahamas – where she received her bachelor’s degree
in psychology, as its first disabilities and compliance officer and chaired its Students
with Disabilities Advisory Board. In 2019, she received the Graduate Training
Program Award to study leadership in transition for youths and young adults with
disabilities at UW – Madison. In response to the limited resources and support
available for people with disabilities in her native country, the Bahamas, she entered
the field of rehabilitation counseling and counselor education. She has since orga-
nized initiatives directed at building students with disabilities’ self-efficacy, self-
determination, and self-advocacy and also created safe environments for these
individuals centered on self-expression. She has also coordinated and facilitated
seminars educating professionals on disability rights, advocacy, inclusion, and
accommodations in Nassau, Bahamas.
Part IV
Integration and Conclusion

(Chaps. 14–17)
Overview
The chapter by Ferreira et al. (Chap. 18) brings together overarching issues for
future research and organisational practices at this particular stage in reflecting
key contributions and recommendations for managing human resources within the
326 Integration and Conclusion
new normal working context. The core themes that emerged in each chapter are
presented as a synopsis for readers to consult when working through this
book volume.
Chapter 18
Reflection on the Impact of the New
Normal on the Management of Human
Resources
Nadia Ferreira and Ingrid L. Potgieter
Introduction
The contributions of the various segments within this book present a coherent, cre-
ative and innovative narrative of the effective management of human resources in
the new normal working context. The global economy and organisations were dis-
rupted by the coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic, and human resources
(HR) have been at the heart of it. With organisations now coming to grips with these
changes and on the point of recovery, the role of HR is becoming even more signifi-
cant. When thinking about the future impact and the role of HR post-COVID-19, a
lot of questions and uncertainties come to mind. The pandemic and its integral influ-
ence on organisations have emphasised the need for adaptability, flexibility, coping
and resilience in the new world of work. It has further fast-tracked the shift towards
an innovative, digital economy and heightened the importance of HR and how
human resources need to be managed in the new normal working context. HR had
to adapt to the changing environments within organisations and had to find new
approaches in order to work more efficiently. HR are required to identify and set
new priorities in line with the new world of work. It seems like the focus has now
shifted even more towards strategic issues (which include employee well-being,
digitalisation of processes, enhancement of the corporate culture and sustainable
talent management). Organisations and managers are required to engage more with
employees and, furthermore, need to implement sound digital processes that not
only support remote work in order to accommodate flexibility but also at the same
time keep the organisational strategic goals in mind.
N. Ferreira (*) · I. L. Potgieter

e-mail: ferren@unisa.ac.za; visseil@unisa.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1_18
328 N. Ferreira and I. L. Potgieter
This chapter adds value by summarising the core themes and issues identified to
effectively manage human resources as well as recommendations on addressing the
management of the different aspects of human resources in the new world of work
context.
Issues for Research
In general, the chapter contributions provide evidence-based practical implications

supported by empirical research. However, the way human resources are managed
in the new normal context remains an important area of inquiry, and more research
is needed to fully understand the impact on human resources and how the roles of
the human resource practitioner and manager have changed. The various chapters
present measures, interventions and frameworks that were mostly developed from
theoretical reviews of the research literature. Table 18.1 provides a summary of the
recommendations and specific examples proposed to effectively manage human
resources in the new normal context.
Table 18.1 Critical issues for effective management of human resources in the new world of work
Contributing
Recommendations Specific examples chapter
Critical issues in understanding the dynamics of strategic human resource management
1 Reinventing strategic Clearly identify the challenges posed by Chapter 2
human resources the new normal (Schultz)
Development of new policies, procedures,
practices and strategies to fit the new
normal context
Identify and develop certain competencies
in Society for Human Resource
Management (SHRM) professionals
2 Management on Take charge through leadership Chapter 3
unplanned change Adapt to the business strategy (Olckers and
Implement new HR policies and systems Koekemoer)
Redesign organisational structures and jobs
Recognise the value of increased Well-
being interventions
3 Recognising the changing Recognise and design for the consumer Chapter 4
nature of people practices More investment in social media (Veldsman and
Build internal talent portals to improve the van der Merwe)
visibility of internal opportunities
Implement asynchronous interview
methods
More awareness regarding career
decision-making
Form deeper connections with the team,
line manager and organisation by means of
a digital platform
Enhance engagement and empowerment
practices
(continued)
18 Reflection on the Impact of the New Normal on the Management of Human… 329
Contributing
4 HR management (HRM) Change the ways of communication Chapter 5
communicational practices Change expectations and challenges (Szeluga-
towards managers’ activity Romanska and
Modzelewska)
5 Managing virtual work Strategic alignment is required to manageChapter 6
virtual work (Oosthuizen)
Create guidelines and codes of conduct for
online processes
Equip HR managers in the effective use of
modern technological equipment
Adopt fourth industrial revolution (4IR)
technologies
Increased automation
Digitalisation
Strengthen virtualisation systems
6 Managing remuneration Identify and implement new remuneration Chapter 7 (Bussin)
strategies approaches
Build a performance-based reward model
Address fair pay for gig workers
Build trust among employees
Shift from rigid to more agile approaches
Reconsider remuneration practices and Chapter 8
adjust them to the new normal as result of (Bezuidenhout)
the COVID pandemic
Consider a flexible hybrid model to allow
quickly and cost-effectively transform the
requirements of the new world of work
Redesign positions within the organisation
HR policies to be developed in accordance
with the needs that arise
Motivation and equity should be taken into
account when re-evaluating and adjusting
incentive plans
Critical issues in understanding the impact of the new normal on the psychology of employees
7 Managing employee Positive mindfulness interventions Chapter 9
Well-being in the new More support to be offered to employees (Bezuidenhout)
normal context Implement learning and development
interventions
Introduce positive psychology interventions
(continued)
Contributing
Implement Well-being interventions Chapter 10 (Du
assisting in managing remote workers Plessis)
Develop supportive and caring
organisational culture initiatives that are in
support of digital transformation
Take cognisance of virtual job
characteristics
Offer virtual wellness programmes
Provide opportunities for career
development and training
Enhance social support and collaboration
by means of the use of online platforms or
social networking
Develop digital support systems to manage
job crafting
Introduce mindfulness techniques and
practices to assist employees in enhancing
their Well-being to flourish at work
8 Managing career Develop career counselling practices to Chapter 11
Well-being encourage and enable employees to adopt a (Potgieter)
more people-carer orientation
Employers should facilitate social
interventions to allow employees to engage
and form social connections
Take cognisance of different coping and Chapter 13
adjustment orientations of employees (Ferreira)
Revise the role of the HR manager as a
career counsellor
HR practitioners and managers should
facilitate the development of employees’
career adaptability, career agility and career
embeddedness
Enhance the understanding of the different
facets of self-regulatory career behaviour
among employees and managers
9 Developing employees’ Introduce peer support programmes Chapter 12 (Ong
psychological capital Focus on employee strength et al.)
abilities
(continued)
18 Reflection on the Impact of the New Normal on the Management of Human… 331
Contributing
Impact of the new normal on individuals with special needs
10 Managing employee Such programmes should measure the Chapter 15
mental health symptoms of disorders as well as clinical (Mpofu et al.)
treatment required
Redefine the nature of work and the means
to participate meaningfully in employment
Remote working strategies should Chapter 16
accommodate individual needs (especially (Mamboleo and
older employees with autism spectrum Rumrill)
disorder (ASD))
Provide reasonable accommodations to
employees with disabilities
Take into consideration the impact of
virtual meetings and engagements
Redesign workspaces to ensure safe Chapter 17
working conditions (Mpofu et al.)
Identify and mitigate barriers that arise
from remote working that impact service
delivery
Retention of employees with disabilities
needs to follow a multimodal approach
Enhancement of workplace social support
to decrease stress
Create awareness of employment policies
and practices regarding both physical and
social support taking into consideration
neurological disorders
11 Rethinking HR Implement support mechanisms to assist Chapter 14
management: Small employees in their response to the new (Chinyamurindi)
business owner normal
perspective More support is needed by small business
owners
Management responses should be more
contextual and employee-centred
Assistance in the development of the
necessary competencies to manage
employees effectively
Implement techniques that will assist small
business owners in enhancing employee
Well-being
Conclusion
The summary for research and practices that we have presented above is intended to
highlight themes that appear in various forms in the chapters of this volume. Each
chapter concentrates on a unique theme perspective and makes a valuable contribu-
tion to managing human resources in the new normal context, brought about by the
COVID-19 pandemic. We find ourselves at a critical and defining moment in time.
We have the opportunity to redefine our new normal and provide insights into the
labour market to find a balance between technology-driven innovative solutions and
remote working while maintaining a personal and deep connection on individual
and psychological levels as well. We trust that every reader finds this volume
insightful and inspiring and acknowledge the applicability of the chapters and rec-
ommendations made on both organisational and individual levels. We further trust
that this book volume will inspire further research into the field of managing human
resources in the changing world of work that we find ourselves in.
Nadia Ferreira is a professor in human resource management at the Department of Human

Resource Management at UNISA. She is a registered human resource practitioner with the South
African Board for People Practices (SABPP). Nadia Ferreira completed her MCom degree in
human resource management and industrial psychology in 2008 from the University of Pretoria.
She completed her DCom in industrial psychology from UNISA in 2012. She is also the author and
co-author of several published articles in local and international journals. In addition, she has pre-
sented several papers at national and international conferences. Nadia Ferreira is a section editor
for the South African Journal of Industrial and Organisational Psychology.
Ingrid L. Potgieter is a professor in human resource management at the Department of Human

Resource Management at UNISA. She has been a registered industrial psychologist at the Health
Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) since 2009 and is also a registered human resource
practitioner and a member of the South African Board for People Practices (SABPP). She has also
been selected as the vice-chair of the SABPP HR Research and Initiative Committee. Ingrid
Potgieter completed her MCom degree in human resource management and industrial psychology
in 2009 from the University of Pretoria. She completed her DCom in industrial psychology from
UNISA in 2012. She is also the author and co-author of several published articles in local and
international journals. She has presented several papers at national and international conferences.
Ingrid Potgieter is a section editor for the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology and has
edited and co-edited a number of scholarly books published by an international publisher.
Index
A Conservation of Resources (COR) theory,

Agile coping attributes, 194, 195, 155, 156
199, 203–206 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), 2, 3,
Autism, 3, 5, 269, 271, 272, 275, 277, 331 9–11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 25, 31–49, 53–55,
57, 75, 84, 89, 91, 97–102, 107, 108,
110, 115, 116, 118–121, 123, 124,
C 126–128, 131–135, 140, 141, 143, 144,
Career adaptability, 3, 199, 230, 231, 233, 151, 153, 158, 161, 166, 170, 211, 212,
235–240, 242–245, 330 216–217, 221, 222, 229, 249, 251–253,
Career agility, 3, 193–195, 198–206, 256, 269–273, 282, 293–300, 309–311,
229–245, 330 313, 314, 317, 327
Career embeddedness, 3, 229–231, 233–235, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
237–239, 241, 242, 244, 245, 330 pandemic, 2, 3, 17, 32, 46, 48, 53, 55,
Change, 1–4, 10–12, 21, 23, 24, 31–36, 38, 39, 75, 84, 91, 97–99, 102, 108, 110, 134,
42–49, 53–57, 59–61, 69, 76, 78, 80, 143, 144, 165–167, 171, 172, 174–176,
82, 84, 86, 88, 89, 92, 100–102, 180, 184, 193, 214, 219, 221, 249–261,
108–110, 115, 117–120, 122, 123, 125, 269–271, 273, 274, 291, 294, 295, 308,
131–136, 141, 142, 144, 151–153, 159, 309, 315–318, 332
165, 166, 168, 169, 176, 178, 179, 181,
183, 193, 196, 198, 199, 204, 206, 222,
229–238, 242, 243, 250, 252, 277, 279, D
292–294, 297, 298, 315, 327, 329 Digital, 2, 3, 5, 6, 11, 19–23, 39, 48, 53, 55,
Change management, 31, 32 61, 63, 65, 68–70, 90, 92, 98, 100–103,
Cognitive orientations, 193–206 109, 110, 135, 141, 151, 160, 165, 166,
Communication, 2, 3, 11, 22–24, 33–35, 41, 175, 176, 182, 183, 193, 213–215,
42, 45, 48, 49, 58, 70, 76–81, 83–87, 217–219, 221, 229, 231, 232, 243,
89–92, 98, 102–104, 106–111, 118, 270–279, 281–283, 296, 327, 328, 330
122, 125, 136, 141, 167, 171, 172, 176, Digital work, 165, 166, 184, 270, 271, 273,
177, 183, 214, 215, 221, 275, 278, 279, 275, 277, 280
282, 295, 298, 329 Digitization, 277
Compensation, 11, 21, 121, 124, 125 Disabilities, 5, 271, 272, 278, 282, 292–301,
Connectedness, 171–173, 217, 220, 222 308–313, 316–318, 331
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 333
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09803-1
334 Index
E N
Employee experience, 56, 57, 61–66, 69, 180, 261 Neurological disabilities, 309, 317
Employee organizational commitment, New normal, 1–6, 9, 10, 13–16, 19–25, 39,
307–308, 313 97–111, 115–117, 119, 120, 127,
Employee retention, 18, 122, 307, 131–134, 138, 140, 143, 144, 151, 165,
308, 313–314 166, 169, 170, 172, 175, 176, 181, 182,
Evolution of HR, 59 184, 193–195, 197–199, 203–206, 222,
237, 249, 253, 257, 262, 269–283,
291–301, 309, 327–329, 331, 332
F New world of work, 1, 3, 11, 22, 63, 116, 140,
Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), 11, 53, 54, 143, 179, 229, 230, 244, 245, 327–331
69, 100, 135–137, 151, 166, 329
Future of work, 26, 100, 107, 132, 176
O
Older adults, 3, 269–283
H Organisational culture, 2, 12, 45, 56, 76–79,
HR practice design, 61, 63 81, 85, 88, 90, 97, 98, 110, 174, 175,
Human resource, 1–6, 9, 32, 231, 237, 182, 183, 229, 234, 235, 330
243–245, 249–262, 296, 307–318 Owners, 107, 254, 260, 331
Human resource management (HRM), 1–3, 5,
6, 9–12, 14–18, 20–22, 24, 25, 46, 47,
75–92, 103–106, 108–110, 131, 132, P
136, 143, 169, 244, 249, 250, Peer support, 3, 212–223, 330
253, 327–332 PERMA theory, 157, 160, 169, 170
Human resource teams, 308, Planned change, 3, 32, 35, 45, 46, 48, 49
310–311, 313–317 Positive psychology, 3, 153–156, 158, 159,
169, 212, 329
Practices and strategies, 21, 328
I Procedures, 2–4, 9, 10, 13–15, 19–25, 47, 82,
Individual well-being, 159, 166, 169–172, 109, 110, 120, 136, 143, 201, 239, 276,
178, 181–183 309–311, 316, 318, 328
Psychological contract, 53, 55–57, 67, 69,
115, 158
J
Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory, 157
R
Reinventing strategic human resource
K management, 3
Knowledge workers, 54, 165–172, 174, 175, Remote, 1–3, 10, 19, 20, 23, 39, 40, 46, 47,
179, 181, 184 54, 55, 76, 87, 88, 90, 122, 125,
138–141, 156, 165–184, 270, 271,
273–276, 279, 282, 295, 298, 330–332
M Remote employment, 291, 294–297
Managerial roles, 77, 80–86, 90 Remote work, 55, 88, 89, 115, 118, 138, 139,
Managers, 6, 10, 12, 17, 20–25, 37, 43, 46, 59, 165–175, 179–182, 184, 270, 273, 275,
62, 63, 70, 76, 77, 80–90, 92, 98, 99, 280, 282, 283, 295, 300, 311, 327
104, 107–111, 136, 137, 152, 153, 156, Remuneration, 2, 3, 39, 115–128,
158, 170, 212, 218, 243, 244, 252, 254, 131–144, 329
257, 276, 311, 327–330 Remuneration strategies, 3, 121, 131–144, 329
Mental health, 3, 103, 108, 118, 151, 152, 155,
159, 173, 176–178, 183, 211–223,
257–260, 271, 295, 297, 301, 309–311, S
313–316, 318, 331 Small businesses, 249–251, 254, 255,
Multiple Sclerosis (MS), 3, 5, 21, 103, 109, 257–262, 299, 331
255, 256, 291–301, 307–318 Smart work, 276
Index 335
Spinal cord injury (SCI), 299, 307–318 U

Strategic human resource management Unplanned change, 32, 37–42, 44, 46–49, 328
(Strategic HRM), 4, 328
Strategic human resource management
competencies (Strategic HRM V
competencies), 10, 15 Virtual work, 3, 21, 97–111, 175, 177, 273,
Strategic human resource management 278, 279, 281, 314, 329
policies (Strategic HRM
policies), 10, 15
W
Well-being, 2, 3, 12, 38–40, 42, 43, 45, 46, 48,
T 49, 56, 57, 63, 99, 102, 124, 139, 140,
Technologies, 1, 3, 12, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 144, 152–161, 165, 166, 168–178,
33–35, 39–41, 44, 48, 54, 55, 60, 180–182, 184, 193–206, 211, 212, 215,
62–64, 67, 70, 76, 78, 100, 102–110, 216, 218, 231, 235, 236, 244, 245, 249,
119, 135, 136, 152, 165–168, 172–175, 259, 261, 270, 275, 281, 282,
178, 200, 214, 215, 217, 219, 221, 250, 317, 328–330
252, 253, 259, 270, 272–277, 282, 283, Working from home, 10, 21, 40, 47, 99, 102,
295, 296, 298, 300, 301, 310, 313, 118, 120, 138–140, 151, 165, 167,
316, 329 171–173, 258, 274, 276, 295, 300,
Telework, 168–175, 277 309, 318
Theoretical frameworks, 10, 13, 24, 153, Workplace redesigns, 143, 275, 297,
155–158, 169 316, 331

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Ingrid

Managing Human Resources

ISBN 978-3-031-09802-4 ISBN 978-3-031-09803-1 (eBook)

Scholars and practitioners interested in these changes, challenges and opportuni-

Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New Normal on the

Impact of the New Normal on Individuals with Special Needs

Pretoria, South Africa Ingrid L. Potgieter

Part I Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics of Strategic

Part II Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New

Part III Impact of the New Normal on Individuals with Special Needs

Part IV Integration and Conclusion

About the Editors

Ingrid L. Potgieter is Professor of Human Resource Management in the

Nadia Ferreira is Professor of Human Resource Management in the Department

Sasha D. Anderson Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education, University

Elias Mpofu Rehabilitation and Health Services, University of North Texas,

I. L. Potgieter (*) · N. Ferreira

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Managing Human Resources in the New Normal

Some of these practical and theoretical guidelines include reinventing strategic

Outline of the Book Volume

 art I: Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics

Managing Human Resources:

Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Chapters 14-17 Chapter 18

Source: Author’s own work

 art II: Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New

 art III: Impact of the New Normal on Individuals

Part V: Integration and Conclusion

decision-­makers, human resource managers and professionals, wellness counsellors

Hamburg, I. (2019). Implementation of a digital workplace strategy to drive behaviour change

Ingrid L. Potgieter is a Professor in Human Resource Management at the Department of Human

Nadia Ferreira is a Professor in Human Resource Management at the Department of Human

Conceptual Overview of the Book Volume

Part I: Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics of Strategic Human

Part IV: Integration and Conclusion (Chap. 18)

multi-disciplinary perspectives on the changes necessary regarding the management

1. What Is Already Known About the Theme?

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 9

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitates SHRM professionals to make a shift in the

SHRM is defined as an organisational orientation to achieve organisational goals

SHRM Policies, Practices, Procedures and Strategies

Problem Statement and Objectives

Fig. 2.1 Theoretical framework for reinventing SHRM

The objectives of this study were, therefore, threefold:

The researcher employed a qualitative research method, to allow for an in-depth

Following established methods, a systematic literature review within the academic

most notably prestigious journals. As a result, the researcher identified potentially

Table 2.1 Bibliographic information of the articles included in this study

Table 2.2 SHRM challenges in the new normal

strategic HRM, employee well-being strategies and HR analytics should be part of

Implications for Theory and Practice

Suggestions for Future Research

C. Olckers (*) · E. Koekemoer

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 31

Forces Driving Change

External Forces Driving Change

Labour Market Forces

Legal and Political Forces

Laws and regulations developed by a government often compel organisations to

Internal Forces Driving Change

According to Aravopoulou (2016), administrative processes encapsulate communi-

Poor employee performance, high levels of absenteeism, low employee motiva-

Pretoria, South Africa Ingrid L. Potgieter

Part I Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics of Strategic

Part II Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New

Part III Impact of the New Normal on Individuals with Special Needs

Part IV Integration and Conclusion

Managing Human Resources in the New Normal

Outline of the Book Volume

art I: Critical Issues in Understanding the Dynamics

art II: Critical Issues in Understanding the Impact of the New

art III: Impact of the New Normal on Individuals

Part V: Integration and Conclusion

decision-makers, human resource managers and professionals, wellness counsellors

Conceptual Overview of the Book Volume

SHRM Policies, Practices, Procedures and Strategies

Problem Statement and Objectives

Implications for Theory and Practice

Suggestions for Future Research

Forces Driving Change

External Forces Driving Change

Labour Market Forces

Legal and Political Forces

Internal Forces Driving Change

Planned Change Theories

Lewin's Three-Phase Process Model

Hiatt's ADKAR Model

Kotter's Leading Organisation Change Model

Evidence-Based Case Study

escription of the Evidence-Based Case Study on Unplanned

Findings From the Case Studies

Changes That Transpired

heme 1: Participants’ Experiences During

Benefits Associated With the Changes

Theme 2: Organisations’ Response to the Unplanned Changes

Focusing on Business Continuity

Responding Swiftly and Creating a Sense of Urgency

Showing Decisive Leadership

Setting Up Task Teams and Focusing on Resources

Addressing Concerns, Insecurities and Fear

heme 3: Lessons Learned From the Pandemic (and

Identify, Understand and Embrace the Changes

Stay Flexible in Your Response Plan

Nurture a Supportive Culture

Maintain Consultation and Engagement

ow to Deal with Unplanned Change and the New Normal:

Take Charge Through Leadership and Adapt Business Strategy

Implementation of New HR Policies and Systems

Re-Design of Organisational Structures or Jobs

The Value of Increased Well-Being Interventions

Context to the Changing World of Work

he Redefinition of the Employee as a Consumer:

The Impact on the HR Function Positioning in Organisations

dopting an Employee Experience Design Approach Towards

ase Study: Rethinking the Talent Acquisition Approach

Defining the ‘Why’ for the Consumer and the Organisation

Understanding Who We Need to Design for

Designing the ‘What’: Defining the Touchpoints of Engagement

Designing the ‘How’: Interactions and Points of Engagement

Implications for the Future of Work

Problem Statement and Objectives of This Chapter