Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University

South La Union Campus

College Of Education
Agoo, La Union

Educ 102 – Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

I. What are Learning Disabilities?

Learning disabilities may be defined in practical, medical and legal terms. The common theme
in all three definitions is that a learning disability is a disorder in one or more basic
psychological processes that may manifest itself as an imperfect ability in certain areas of
learning, such as reading, written expression, or mathematics.

Practical Definition
The term “learning disabilities”, sometimes referred to as specific learning disabilities, is an
umbrella term that covers a range of neurologically based disorders in learning and various
degrees of severity of such disorders.

These disorders involve difficulty in one or more, but not uniformly in all, basic psychological
processes:
1. input (auditory and visual perception),
2. integration (sequencing, abstraction, and organization),
3. memory (working, short term, and long term memory),
4. output (expressive language), and
5. motor (fine and gross motor).

Learning disabilities vary from individual to individual and may present in a variety of ways.
Learning disabilities may manifest as difficulty:
1. processing information by visual and auditory, means, which may impact upon reading,
spelling, writing, and understanding or using language,
2. prioritizing, organizing, doing mathematics, and following instructions,
3. storing or retrieving information from short or long term memory,
4. using spoken language, and
5. clumsiness or difficulty with handwriting.

Learning disabilities are not emotional disturbances, intellectual disabilities, or sensory

impairments. They are not caused by inadequate parenting or lack of educational opportunity.

Cognitive assessment, including psychoeducational or neuropsychological evaluation, is of

critical importance in diagnosing a learning disability. Learning disabilities may be diagnosed
by qualified school or educational psychologists, by clinical psychologists, and by clinical
neuropsychologists who are trained and experienced in the assessment of learning
disabilities.
Medical Definition
The draft Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V)
contains a section for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, and, within that section, a category for
Specific Learning Disorder. The Neurodevelopmental Disorders Section also contains
categories for Communications Disorders and Motor Disorders. Specific Learning Disorder in
draft DSM-V includes difficulties in reading, written expression, and mathematics.
DSM-IV-TR, which is currently in effect, includes: Reading Disorder, Mathematics Disorder,
Disorder of Written Expression, and Learning Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (NOS).

Legal Definition
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) provides that “specific learning
disability” means “a disorder in 1 or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in
the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.”
Such term “includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.” Such term does not include “a learning
problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual
disabilities, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage.” 20 U.S.C Section 1401 (30).

II. Prevalence
Specific learning disabilities are considered a high-incidence disability. The U.S. Department
of Education reports that there are over 2.8 million students being served for specific learning
disabilities. This number of students is approximately 47.4% of all children receiving special
education services. According to Statistics Canada, of all the children with disabilities in this
country, more than half (59.8%) have a learning disability.

III. Characteristics
Students with learning disabilities are very heterogeneous, meaning that no two students
possess the identical profile of strengths and weaknesses. The concept of learning disabilities
covers an extremely wide range of characteristics. One student may have a deficit in just one
area while another may exhibit deficits in numerous areas, yet both may be labeled as
learning disabled.
Over time, parents, educators, and other professionals have identified a wide variety of
characteristics associated with learning disabilities. These include:
 Academic problems
 Disorders of attention
 Poor motor abilities
 Psychological process deficits and information-processing problems
 Lack of cognitive strategies needed for efficient learning
 Oral language difficulties
 Reading difficulties
 Written language problems
 Mathematical disorders
 Social skill deficits
Not all students will exhibit these characteristics, and many pupils who demonstrate these
same behaviors are successful in the classroom. For students with a learning disability, it is
the quantity, intensity, and duration of these behaviors that lead to problems in school and
elsewhere. It should also be noted that boys are four times more likely to be labeled with a
learning disability than girls. The reason for this has not yet been determined by researchers.

Impact on Learning
Learning disabilities are historically characterized as having a strong impact on psychological
processes, academic achievement, and social/emotional development.

A. Psychological Processes
Psychological processes is a broad term that incorporates the wide range of thinking skills we
use to process and learn information. The five psychological, or cognitive, processes that are
affected by a learning disability are perception, attention, memory, metacognition, and
organization.
1. Perception
Perception is the ability to organize and interpret the information experienced through the
sensory channels, such as visual or auditory input. Perception is important to learning
because it provides us with our first sensory impressions about something we see or hear. A
student relies on his perceptual abilities to recognize, compare, and discriminate information.
An example would be the ability to distinguish the letter "B" from the letter "D" based on the
overall shape, direction of the letter, and its parts. Some children with learning disabilities
reverse letters, words, or whole passages during reading or writing.
2. Attention
Attention is a broad term that refers to the ability to receive and process information. Attention
deficits are one of the disorders teachers most frequently associate with individuals with
learning disabilities. Teachers may describe their students with learning disabilities as
"distractible" or "in his own world." The inability to focus on information can inhibit the
student's ability to perform tasks in the classroom at the appropriate achievement level.
3. Memory
Memory involves many different skills and processes such as encoding (the ability to organize
information for learning). Students with learning disabilities may experience deficits in working
memory which affects their ability to store new information and to retrieve previously
processed information from long-term memory.
4. Metacognition
Metacognition is the ability to monitor and evaluate performance. This process supplies many
of the keys to learning from experience, generalizing information and strategies, and applying
what you have learned. It requires the ability to:
 Identify and select learning skills and techniques to facilitate the acquisition of information
 Choose or create the setting in which you are most likely to receive material accurately
 Identify the most effective and efficient way to process and present information
 Evaluate and adapt your techniques for different materials and situations
A deficit in any of these skills can have a major impact on the ability of a student to learn new
information and apply it to any situation.
5. Organization
Organization is the underlying thread of all these cognitive processes. The inability to
organize information can affect the most superficial tasks or the most complex cognitive
activities. Students with learning disabilities may have difficulties organizing their thought
processes, their classwork, and their environment. Any deficit in these areas can have a
detrimental effect on the academic success of the student.

B. Academic Achievement
Because of the effect on cognitive processes, students with learning disabilities may have
difficulty in a variety of academic areas as well as social and emotional development. While a
student with a learning disability may have difficulties in all academic areas, major problems
are more often found in reading, language arts, and mathematics.
1. Reading
Reading is the most difficult skill area for the majority of students with learning disabilities.
Learning disabilities in reading encompass a vast array of reading issues including dyslexia.
Some of the most common reading disabilities are word analysis, fluency, and reading
comprehension.
 Word analysis includes the ability to associate sounds with the various letters and letter
combinations used to write them, to immediately recognize and remember words, and to
use the surrounding text to help figure out a specific word. Word analysis is a foundational
skill for reading. For students with learning disabilities, it is a major issue to overcome to
be a successful reader.
 Fluency is the rate of accurate reading (correct words per minute). With processing and
word analysis issues, a high rate of reading fluency is often quite difficult for a student with
a learning disability.
 Reading comprehension is the ability to understand written material. If a student with
learning disabilities has difficulty reading written material, then comprehension will always
be greatly affected. While problems with word analysis can affect reading comprehension,
other factors that may contribute to problems with reading comprehension include the
inability to successfully identify and organize information from the material.
2. Language Arts
Language arts is often another problematic academic area for students with learning
disabilities. While language arts is a broad subject, students with learning disabilities have
problems with three major skill areas that affect the entire subject. These include spelling,
spoken language, and written language. Because of the close relationship of some of these
skills to reading ability, they tend to be areas of great difficulty for many students with learning
disabilities.
 Spelling requires all the essential skills used in the word-analysis strategies of phonics and
sight-word reading. The difficulties students with learning disabilities have in learning and
applying rules of phonics, visualizing the word correctly, and evaluating spellings result in
frequent misspellings, even as they become more adept at reading.
 Spoken language, or oral language, is a deficit area for many students with learning
disabilities, impacting both academic and social performance. Spoken language issues
may include problems identifying and using appropriate speech sounds, using appropriate
words and understanding word meanings, using and understanding various sentence
structures, and using appropriate grammar and language. Other problem areas include
understanding underlying meanings, such as irony or figurative language, and adjusting
language for different uses and purposes.
 Written language is often an area of great difficulty for students with learning disabilities.
Specific problems include inadequate planning, structure, and organization; immature or
limited sentence structure; limited and repetitive vocabulary; limited consideration of
 audience, unnecessary or unrelated information or details; and errors in spelling,
punctuation, grammar, and handwriting. Students with learning disabilities often lack both
the motivation and the monitoring and evaluation skills considered necessary for good
writing.
3. Mathematics
Mathematics does not receive the same attention as reading and language arts, but many
students with learning disabilities have unique difficulties in this subject area. Specific
problems may include difficulty understanding size and spatial relationships and concepts
related to direction, place value, decimals, fractions, and time and difficulty remembering
math facts. Remembering and correctly applying the steps in mathematical problems (such as
the steps involved in long division) and reading and solving word problems are significant
problem areas.

C. Social and Emotional Development

It is important to realize that most social behaviors also involve learning. The characteristics
that interfere with a student's acquisition of reading or writing skills can also interfere with his
or her ability to acquire or interpret social behaviors. For example, individuals may have
difficulties correctly interpreting social situations and reading social cues, and they may act
impulsively without identifying the consequences of their behavior or recognizing the feelings
and concerns of others.

IV. Why Provide Educational Services of Accommodations to Individuals with Learning

Disabilities?
Learning disabilities are lifelong impairments that may impact all areas of an individual’s life. It
is important to provide services and accommodations that are required by law, not just
because of the legal requirement, but also because providing these services and
accommodations benefits individuals with learning disabilities and society overall by
facilitating full participation in society by individuals with learning disabilities.

V. Specific Learning Disabilities

1. Auditory Processing Disorder - Adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded
through the ear is processed and interpreted by the brain. Also known as Central Auditory
Processing Disorder, individuals with Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) do not recognize
subtle differences between sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear
enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to
make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out competing background noises.

Signs and Symptoms

 Has difficulty processing and remembering language-related tasks but may have no trouble
interpreting or recalling non-verbal environmental sounds, music, etc.
 May process thoughts and ideas slowly and have difficulty explaining them
 Misspells and mispronounces similar-sounding words or omits syllables; confuses similar-
sounding words (celery/salary; belt/built; three/free; jab/job; bash/batch)
 May be confused by figurative language (metaphor, similes) or misunderstand puns and
jokes; interprets words too literally
 Often is distracted by background sounds/noises
 Finds it difficult to stay focused on or remember a verbal presentation or lecture
 May misinterpret or have difficulty remembering oral directions; difficulty following directions in
a series
 Has difficulty comprehending complex sentence structure or rapid speech
 “Ignores” people, especially if engrossed
 Says “What?” a lot, even when has heard much of what was said

Strategies
 Show rather than explain
 Supplement with more intact senses (use visual cues, signals, handouts, manipulatives)
 Reduce or space directions, give cues such as “ready?”
 Reword or help decipher confusing oral and/or written directions
 Teach abstract vocabulary, word roots, synonyms/antonyms
 Vary pitch and tone of voice, alter pace, stress key words
 Ask specific questions as you teach to find out if they do understand
 Allow them 5-6 seconds to respond (“think time”)
 Have the student constantly verbalize concepts, vocabulary words, rules, etc.

2. Dyscalculia - Affects a person’s ability to understand numbers and learn math facts.
Individuals with this type of Learning Disability may also have poor comprehension of math
symbols, may struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time,
or have trouble with counting.

Signs and Symptoms

 Shows difficulty understanding concepts of place value, and quantity, number lines, positive
and negative value, carrying and borrowing
 Has difficulty understanding and doing word problems
 Has difficulty sequencing information or events
 Exhibits difficulty using steps involved in math operations
 Shows difficulty understanding fractions
 Is challenged making change and handling money
 Displays difficulty recognizing patterns when adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing
 Has difficulty putting language to math processes
 Has difficulty understanding concepts related to time such as days, weeks, months, seasons,
quarters, etc.
 Exhibits difficulty organizing problems on the page, keeping numbers lined up, following
through on long division problems

Strategies
 Allow use of fingers and scratch paper
 Use diagrams and draw math concepts
 Provide peer assistance
 Suggest use of graph paper
 Suggest use of colored pencils to differentiate problems
 Work with manipulatives
 Draw pictures of word problems
 Use mnemonic devices to learn steps of a math concept
 Use rhythm and music to teach math facts and to set steps to a beat
 Schedule computer time for the student for drill and practice

3. Dysgraphia - Affects a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.

A person with this specific learning disability may have problems including illegible
handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty
composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the same time.

Signs and Symptoms

 May have illegible printing and cursive writing (despite appropriate time and attention given
the task)
 Shows inconsistencies: mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower case, or irregular sizes,
shapes or slant of letters
 Has unfinished words or letters, omitted words
 Inconsistent spacing between words and letters
 Exhibits strange wrist, body or paper position
 Has difficulty pre-visualizing letter formation
 Copying or writing is slow or labored
 Shows poor spatial planning on paper
 Has cramped or unusual grip/may complain of sore hand
 Has great difficulty thinking and writing at the same time (taking notes, creative writing.)

Strategies
 Suggest use of word processor
 Avoid chastising student for sloppy, careless work
 Use oral exams
 Allow use of tape recorder for lectures
 Allow the use of a note taker
 Provide notes or outlines to reduce the amount of writing required
 Reduce copying aspects of work (pre-printed math problems)
 Allow use of wide rule paper and graph paper
 Suggest use of pencil grips and /or specially designed writing aids
 Provide alternatives to written assignments (video-taped reports, audio-taped reports)

4. Dyslexia - Affects reading and related language-based processing skills.

The severity of this specific learning disability can differ in each individual but can
affect reading fluency, decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and
sometimes speech and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes
referred to as a Language-Based Learning Disability.

Signs and Symptoms

 Reads slowly and painfully
 Experiences decoding errors, especially with the order of letters
 Shows wide disparity between listening comprehension and reading comprehension of some
text
 Has trouble with spelling
 May have difficulty with handwriting
 Exhibits difficulty recalling known words
 Has difficulty with written language
 May experience difficulty with math computations
 Decoding real words is better than nonsense words
 Substitutes one small sight word for another: a, I, he, the, there, was

Strategies
 Provide a quiet area for activities like reading, answering comprehension questions
 Use books on tape
 Use books with large print and big spaces between lines
 Provide a copy of lecture notes
 Don’t count spelling on history, science or other similar tests
 Allow alternative forms for book reports
 Allow the use of a laptop or other computer for in-class essays
 Use multi-sensory teaching methods
 Teach students to use logic rather than rote memory
 Present material in small units

5. Language Processing Disorder- Affects attaching meaning to sound groups that

form words, sentences and stories.
A specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD). While an APD affects the
interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain (e.g., processing sound in noisy
backgrounds or the sequence of sounds or where they come from), a Language Processing
Disorder (LPD) relates only to the processing of language. LPD can affect expressive
language (what you say) and/or receptive language (how you understand what others say).

Signs and Symptoms

 Has difficulty gaining meaning from spoken language
 Demonstrates poor written output
 Exhibits poor reading comprehension
 Shows difficulty expressing thoughts in verbal form
 Has difficulty labeling objects or recognizing labels
 Is often frustrated by having a lot to say and no way to say it
 Feels that words are “right on the tip of my tongue”
 Can describe an object and draw it, but can’t think of the word for it
 May be depressed or having feelings of sadness
 Has difficulty getting jokes

Strategies
 Speak slowly and clearly and use simple sentences to convey information
 Refer to a speech pathologist
 Allow tape recorder for note taking
 Write main concepts on board
 Provide support person or peer tutor
 Use visualization techniques to enhance listening and comprehension
 Use of graphic organizers for note taking from lectures or books
 Use story starters for creative writing assignments
 Practice story mapping
 Draw out details with questions and visualization strategies

6. Non Verbal Learning Disorder- Has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial
expressions or body language and may have poor coordination.
Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVD or NVLD), is a disorder which is usually
characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor,
visual-spatial and social skills.

Signs and Symptoms

 Has trouble recognizing nonverbal cues such as facial expression or body language
 Shows poor psycho-motor coordination; clumsy; seems to be constantly “getting in the way,”
bumping into people and objects
 Using fine motor skills a challenge: tying shoes, writing, using scissors
 Needs to verbally label everything that happens to comprehend circumstances, spatial
orientation, directional concepts and coordination; often lost or tardy
 Has difficulty coping with changes in routing and transitions
 Has difficulty generalizing previously learned information
 Has difficulty following multi-step instructions
 Make very literal translations
 Asks too many questions, may be repetitive and inappropriately interrupt the flow of a lesson
 Imparts the “illusion of competence” because of the student’s strong verbal skills

Strategies
 Rehearse getting from place to place
 Minimize transitions and give several verbal cues before transition
 Avoid assuming the student will automatically generalize instructions or concepts
 Verbally point out similarities, differences and connections; number and present instructions
in sequence; simplify and break down abstract concepts, explain metaphors, nuances and
multiple meanings in reading material
 Answer the student’s questions when possible, but let them know a specific number (three vs.
a few) and that you can answer three more at recess, or after school
 Allow the child to abstain from participating in activities at signs of overload
 Thoroughly prepare the child in advance for field trips, or other changes, regardless of how
minimal
 Implement a modified schedule or creative programming
 Never assume child understands something because he or she can “parrot back” what you’ve
just said
 Offer added verbal explanations when the child seems lost or registers confusion
 7. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit- Affects the understanding of information that
a person sees, or the ability to draw or copy.
A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-
verbal LD, it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place
frequently, struggles with cutting, holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.

Signs and Symptoms

 May have reversals: b for d, p for q or inversions: u for n, w for m
 Has difficulty negotiating around campus
 Complains eyes hurt and itch, rubs eyes, complains print blurs while reading
 Turns head when reading across page or holds paper at odd angles
 Closes one eye while working, may yawn while reading
 Cannot copy accurately
 Loses place frequently
 Does not recognize an object/word if only part of it is shown
 Holds pencil too tightly; often breaks pencil point/crayons
 Struggles to cut or paste
 Misaligns letters; may have messy papers, which can include letters colliding, irregular
spacing, letters not on line

Strategies
 Avoid grading handwriting
 Allow students to dictate creative stories
 Provide alternative for written assignments
 Suggest use of pencil grips and specially designed pencils and pens
 Allow use of computer or word processor
 Restrict copying tasks
 Provide tracking tools: ruler, text windows
 Use large print books
 Plan to order or check out books on tape
 Experiment with different paper types: pastels, graph, embossed raised line paper

VI. Related Disorders to Learning Disabilities

1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder- Affects focus, attention and behavior and can make
learning challenging
A disorder that includes difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty
controlling behavior and hyperactivity. Although ADHD is not considered a learning disability,
research indicates that from 30-50 percent of children with ADHD also have a specific
learning disability, and that the two conditions can interact to make learning extremely
challenging. It is a condition that becomes apparent in some children in the preschool and
early school years. It is hard for these children to control their behavior and/or pay attention. It
is estimated that between 3 and 5 percent of children have attention deficit hyperactivity
 disorder (ADHD), or approximately 2 million children in the United States. This means that in
a classroom of 24 to 30 children, it is likely that at least one will have ADHD.
ADHD is not considered to be a learning disability. It can be determined to be a
disability under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), making a student
eligible to receive special education services. However, ADHD falls under the category “Other
Health Impaired” and not under “Specific Learning Disabilities.”
The principle characteristics of ADHD are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
There are three subtypes of ADHD recognized by professionals. These are the predominantly
hyperactive/impulsive type (that does not show significant inattention); The predominantly
inattentive type (that does not show significant hyperactive-impulsive behavior) sometimes
called ADD; and the combined type (that displays both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive
symptoms).
Other disorders that sometimes accompany ADHD are Tourette Syndrome (affecting a
very small proportion of people with ADHD); oppositional defiant disorder (affecting as many
as one-third to one-half of all children with ADHD); conduct disorder (about 20 to 40% of
ADHD children); anxiety and depression; and bipolar disorder.
*National Institute of Mental Health, 2003

2. Dyspraxia- Problems with movement and coordination, language and speech.

A disorder that is characterized by difficulty in muscle control, which causes problems
with movement and coordination, language and speech, and can affect learning. Although not
a learning disability, Dyspraxia often exists along with Dyslexia, Dyscalculia or ADHD.

Signs and Symptoms

 Exhibits poor balance; may appear clumsy; may frequently stumble
 Shows difficulty with motor planning
 Demonstrates inability to coordinate both sides of the body
 Has poor hand-eye coordination
 Exhibits weakness in the ability to organize self and belongings
 Shows possible sensitivity to touch
 May be distressed by loud noises or constant noises like the ticking of a clock or someone
tapping a pencil
 May break things or choose toys that do not require skilled manipulation
 Has difficulty with fine motor tasks such as coloring between the lines, putting puzzles
together; cutting accurately or pasting neatly
 Irritated by scratchy, rough, tight or heavy clothing

Strategies
 Pre-set students for touch with verbal prompts, “I’m going to touch your right hand.”
 Avoid touching from behind or getting too close and make sure peers are aware of this
 Provide a quiet place, without auditory or visual distractions, for testing, silent reading or work
that requires great concentration
 Warn the student when bells will ring or if a fire drill is scheduled
 Whisper when working one to one with the child
 Allow parents to provide earplugs or sterile waxes for noisy events such as assemblies
 Make sure the parent knows about what is observed about the student in the classroom
 Refer student for occupational therapy or sensory integration training
 Be cognizant of light and light sources that may be irritating to child
 Use manipulatives, but make sure they are in students field of vision and don’t force student
to touch them

Assistive Technology
Students with learning disabilities have a variety of difficulties in school. In order for many
students with learning disabilities to be successful in school, assistive technology devices are
used to accommodate the student's learning. Here are a few of the types of assistive
technologies used for students with learning disabilities:

Reading:
 Text to Speech software
 Screen Reading software
 Audio Books

Writing:
 Portable Word Processors
 Auditory Word Processing Software
 Word Prediction Programs
 Graphical Word Processors
 On-Screen Keyboards
 Voice Recognition Software
 Organizational/Outlining/Drafting Software
 Online Writing Support

References:
The LDA of California and UC Davis M.I.N.D. Institute “Q.U.I.L.T.S.” Calendar 2001-2002
http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/specific-learning-disabilities/

Prepared by: Junabele F. Dy