‘Summarizing Assessing whether research supports an argument. Adjective + preposition -t collocations Infinitive phrases Avoiding plagiarism Discussion point Discuss these questions with a partner. 1 What risks do people take in these areas of their lives? money social life and friendships travel work 2 Whatis the biggest risk you have taken in your life so far? How did you feel about it? risks do you think you may have to take in the future? How do you feel about that? se wisk (OZa ‘excitement. 3. The sensation-seeking trait can be passed on to children. 4 Our preffontal cortex may not fall develop unt alates 25. en and women take diferent ypes of vals. 16 Perceptions of risk are different depending on a person's and familiar with the situation he o she Pete ASSESSING WHETHER RESEARCH SUPPORTS AN ARGUMENT {nis common for writers to use research to support their argument in text. When assessing cited research, osk yourself these questions: ves Currency: Is the research up-to-date? Relicblity: Were the results obtained just once, or hove the resus been repected? Wos the research carried out by 0 reliable and independent organization? Validity: Did the research include o large sample oudience or 2 small numberof peopl from jst cone or wo groups? Could the resus have been caused by somehing else? Relevance: she research relevant fo the argument being mads® Do the resus ofthe survey direcly support the conclusions being drawn? 2 Look atthe research you identified in exercise 1 and answer he questions. 1 How isthe dopamine receptor research valid? 2 How is the sensation-seeking personality trait research relevant 3 Howis the research showing that sensation-seeking can be passed on to children valid? 4. How is the pre-fronal cortex research reliable? 5. Does the research into male/female differences and perceptions of tsk hhave currency? Is it relevant? Developing critical thinking Discuss these questions in @ group. 1 Doyou agree that young people take more risks than older people? Why or ‘why not? 2 How do parents, schools, the government etc. try to minimize the risk that ‘young people take in your country? Is it their esponsibility t do so? Why why not? esponsibility is it to teach children how to calculate risk so they safer decisions in their lives? Why? How can they do i? do you assess risk in your own life? Do you think you do this 7 orare there things you should do differently? Ifo, what oxVocabulary preview TTS ‘Complete the paragraph with the words in the box. and participate ins), mn polthele (5) r t0 decision making, withou all feel in life too strong READING Risk-takers: Who are they? as Before you read Imagine « typical rsk-taker. Write down notes about the person’s age, ‘appearance, character, gender, job, free-time activities, and social life. Then compere notes with a partner. Global reading SUMAN OS ‘Summarizing the key points in a text enables you to gain « good understanding of the « Follow these steps for making effective summaries: 1 Skim-read the text to get an idea ofthe topic. 2 Reread the text more carefully. Divide it nto sections and take notes of the main points an supporting evidence facts. Using your notes, write thesis statement, This is one sentence which summarizes the main corgument in the tex. Include the writer's name and the atile date, e.g., Smith (2013) 5 4. Write your summary. Start wih he thess statement, flowed by supporting ideos/eviden these ideas appropriately. Be objective and stick to what the writer said, but use your 1 Skim-read the research paper, Risk-tokers: Who are they? on pages 40-41 by Dr. Charlie Wittman, on why people take risks. Check the possible causes that he discusses. 1 Dy Social background 4 C1) Age 2 O Genetic factors 5 CO Work experience 3 CO) Brain chemicals 6 O Gender 2 Read Risk-takers: Who are they? in more detail and take notes on the main idea and the supporting evidence and ideas. Compare notes with a partner. 3 Use your notes to help you choose the most appropriate thesis statement, Whore the thers not oppropricie? PoP 1. Witsman (2012) believes that people are willing to take more risks because ‘of genes they inherit from their parents. 2 Wittman (2012) suggests that age, gender, brain, and biological makeup | __canall help to determine whether a person isa risk-taker 3 Witteman (2012) states that there isa stronger case for biological reasons determining risk-taking than psychological reasonsewer dopamine receptors in their nerve cells, Bis personality trait which causes you to look for vseeking trait can be passed on to children, frontal cortex may not fully develop until as ate as 25. and women take different types of risks. Psat ih essa is Peent cne ASSESSING WHETHER RESEARCH SUPPORTS AN ARGUMENT is conmon for wre tout rsercho upp hei ergunens in et When exes cid esarch, ask oursel hese questions: PP Meir oe oe ‘Currency: the research up-to-date? Rabbly: Wore he eu bine ust ono, or hove he els boon opecadt Wo he research cried ot by 0 relohe ond independent sgerccons ality: Did the research include large sample audience or smal numberof people from just ‘one or hwo groups? Could the results have been caused by something eas? Relevance: Is the research relovant to the argument being made® Do the results ofthe survey directly support the conclusions being drowe? 2 Look atthe research you identified in exercise 1 and answer the questions. 1. How is the dopamine receptor research valid? 2 How is the sensation-seeking personality trait research relevant? 8 How is the research showing that sensation seeking can be passed on t0 children valid? How is the pre-frontal cortex research reliable? oes the research into male) hhave currency’ Is it relevant? female differences and perceptions of tisk Developing critical thinking Discuss these questions in a group. How do parents, schools the government et 10 miniize he people ake in your counuy I thi eaponsibity odo so? Why why not? Feponibily s 10 ach cldren howto calculate ko they fale decsions in theives? Wry! Hove can they do ‘do you assess risk in your own life? Do you think you do this yore there ings you should ere so, whatLy Jamie is a risk-taker; a 24-year-old financial accountant who spends his earnings me i motorbikes and kite-surfing, Risks something we face daily, whether itis deciding how a company should invest to ensure its future or whether to take an umbrelia to work. However, some people, like Jamie, are obviously more willing to take risks than others. Biological and psychological evidence indicates that Jamie is a risk. wml because of the way his brain processes dopamine; because he is a novelty-seeker, ‘and eS ES Ri ee nee tee Fela MUTiacaarela) Reading skills Biological rea: ons for risk-taking Biologists appear to have discovered a physical reason that explains why some people like Jamie are risk opamine is a neurotransmitter, chemical that transmits signals between nerve cells (neurons). Its linked to the brain reward system ands the chemical that makes us fee! good, and scientists believe it to be linked to risk taking. Our nerve cells have dopamine feceptors which control the amount of dopamine that each call receives, but not all receptors may be active. When a person has few active receptors to Control the amount of dopamine that is received, a cel can become flooded, resulting in an extreme feeling of happiness. Researchers at Vanderbilt University in Nashville and Albert Einstein 9f Medicine in New York asked 34 men and women tc com a questionnaire about their risk-taking to assess whether they seek ne ‘opportunities or are cautious in lif. This was then followed a brain scan using a technique called positron emission tomography to analyse the number of dopamine receptors that the participants had. The results of the research, reported in the Journal of Neuroscience (2008 sistent with similar studies Carried out with rats, and had the same outcome. It concludec that people who ate risk-takers have fewer dopamine receptors than people who are not. This suggests that the rush of pleasure a rsk-taker receives when a cell becomes flooded with dopamine can become addictive for some people. They therefore pursue new and exciting activities in order to try to repeat this feeling, and as a result their concern for risk becomes considerably reducePsychological reasons for risk-taking Dopamine ives us abolgia reason or isk taking but sents believe thee maybe pycholagalesons too. Sensation seeking personaly rat tht describes the dese oi actives that rng Us pleasure n 196, psychologist Marvin Zuckerman created the sensation seeking cae a personality test which was designed to Soon mucfte taka peson ts ssn questionnaire stl used today, was ven to people who ere activin seeing new actives andto people who were more satisfied with a quiet life. From the results, he decided that there are four components of sensation. Seeking. The isis thrill and adventure setng or example dng dangerous sports he seconds cprenceeng Taoking fornew experiences. The thirds disinhibition the esr to take risks in social activities Te fourths boredom suscepti, alow tolerance of boredom. While fltakingis nt atin sel tis very much asodted with sensation seeking as high sensation seeker doesnot appraise skin the same way that ow sensation ech does A desir to achieve pleasure means that theresa eater wilingness to take more ks Studies of identical wins ha determine whether sensation ‘or our environment. Pais of tins been cared outro king isa resuof genes noha grown up together and pais of ivinswho had grown up apart were stdled (Zuckerman, 2007). The study determined that 6% ofthe sensation seeking tat canbe determined by genes showing jst how influential genes are ink taking. This Ishigher than many other tats, which usually range from 30-50%, suggesting that the sensationseekng wat. anda tendency towards risk-taking, can in fac be inherited Age and risk-taking ge isalso relevant tothe area of risk taking When we loka the actions of some young ps they seem to have been done witha lear dsregrd fr safety I now appear there maybe neurological reasons for this O Jay Giedd from the Nationa institut of ‘Mental Health inthe US. {2008 conducted study which involved caning the brains of 145 clren every to years for tn years Using an Ml magnetic resonance mage) scanner Theres showed thatthe area ofthe ran thats just behind the forehead—thepre-fotal ortes—does rot fly develop uni as ate a 25. This par of the rain isknown to control the way we organise, plan make eee a or mem amnen judgments and teason, sits essential fF Calculating isk teenagers and young adult re ‘dependent on a part of thei brain which snot fully formed unt heir mid-20s, tis logical that they wl sometimes miscalclate and therefore take more risks Gender and risk-taking maybe believed that amie the sk taker inoduced atthe beginning ofthis paper takes ‘ss simply because hes mal, assuming that fener women ae rsktakers, But according to recent research by Columbia Busines Schoo in the US 2011), gender seems to have an effect fan the typeof sktaking that takes place and not wietherit actually occurs The esearch found that fnandlisks are more typical of men whereas Socks such as iving a controversial opinion impublcormakng a significant career change, are me representative of women, These cifferences may be elated oa persons perception of how fly an actions Te searcher sugges that hen you are les familar with a situation, you are tore ltl to perceive task They elev that ten and women perceive situations diferent, possibly because of their cflerent ie experiences bfected by thir gender While Jamie may not te ivolved in risky behaviouras a direct result cf being male his gender andlife experiences to dat could have impacted on his choice of career, Allowing him to take isk ina situation in which he Goes not perceive himselt be doing so. Conclusion ‘Theve hasbeen much esearch that examines sk taking and why diferent people behave cfferently. The research presented inthis paper indicates, that there are both biological and psychological ‘explanations as to wy people ike Jamie may ‘choose to take more risks than others However, one of these explanations are define Its. possible tha the bran reward system, a persons sensation seekng character, age, and gender al impact on rstaking behaviour pursue (¥)_Jpar'su psychological (adj) /,sutka'ladgik(o)l tolerance (n)_talorans’ en yy a a I be 2% a aCollocations consist of two or more words which are commonly used together. There gre adjective + preposition collocations in English. many ‘Some people are obviously more willing to take risks than others. Technology capable of scanning the brain in detail was used in the study. Collocations have to be learned individually as there are generally few potterns. When, in English, try to notice adjective + preposition collocations to help you, 0ding 1. Complete the sentences with an appropriate preposition in the box. Some prepositions are used more than once. “fr im of on woth anguage development 1 Sensation-seekers are generally more active__finding new ties 2. Young people are so dependent __their parents for money that they cannot afford to take financial risks. 3. Young people who take risks while driving are not representative all young drivers. 4 Some people are not satisfied _ their lives and so take risks to create excitement. 5 Men being greater risk-takers is consistent most people's perceptions. 6 Men are more likely to be involved __ risky sports than women. 7 People are more take risks today than they were a hundred years ago. 8 People do not want to take risks related money at the moment. 9 Doing something without thinking about the consequences is typical __ young people. you, you do not need to follow it. 10 Ifa rule is not relevant 11 Understanding statistics is essential _ risk managers, __ stopping ! 12. Public safety announcements are influential people from taking risks. 2 Find the adjectives and prepositions in Risk-takers: Who are they? to check your answers in exercise 1. 3 Discuss the sentences in exercise 1 with a partner. Do you agree or disagree with them? Why or why not? oeINFINITIVE PHRASES ee, Jafntve isthe form ofthe verb that is used wi i Ban Bed pada vets vihout to teg, eae. ae ee sktoking con result in success or failure, but f you want to achie i it is usually fo take some kind of risk. a yo wet ele here are other forms ofthe infinitive which can change the meaning ofa sentence: Peta infiniive the action tock place before the | Biol : ologists appear to have discovered 0 fime we are talking about physical reason that explains why some Jo have + past participle people are risktakers. ee sa Suggests the action is in progress around the | Young people seem tobe taking more risks time we are talking about | noe bg ne a jpber-ingverb ne Passive infinitive | Scien Baliove it e inked fo risktotng Focuses onthe action and not the person | doing the ction | Gace | The infinitive forms above can be used with modal verbs, bu here is no fo before the infinitive ver, bis genes may have caused his reckless behaviour as teen. [modal + have + post participle} We should be trying fo reduce risktaking among young people. (modal + continuous infinitive) His research suggests that the sensotionseeking Wait can in fact be inherited. (modal + passive infinitive) Juauidoyjasap asensury] 1 Whot is the difference in meaning between the sentences in each pair? lar risks. 1. Some adults appear to take reg Some adults appear to have taken regular risks 2 Risky behavior is likely to be causing unnecessary accidents. Risky behavior is likely to have caused unnecessary accidents 3 Many people would like to take more risks in lie Many people would like to have taken more risks in ie BOK Without risk-taking, humans would not have achieved so much. Without risk-taking, so much would not have b plete the text withthe perfect, continuous, or passive infinitive form of verbs in porentheses. sn achieved. Parents these days seer (1) (protect) their children more than ever bel must (2) ‘give) the opportunity to take risks in order to aid their d ‘an adult, he/she needs (3) with the success and failure skills will (4) re, And yet the truth is that children. Jevelopment. By the time a child becomes Wearn) how to deal ‘associated with risk-taking, as these need) in the adult world I's a real or (enjoy) such activities when they are likely (6) were growing uPiF WRITING summary writing in which you can avoid plagiarizing Neoerolns ek enol academic texts, You ae then going Yo ‘employ these techniques when writing a summary of a research paper. Writing skill AVOIDING PLAGIARISM, Plagiarism is copying someone's work so that it appears to be your own. If you are sy plagiarism, your work will usvlly be disqualified. When you include other people's \wrting, make sure you avoid plagiarism, ‘Give credit tothe author by including his/her name and the dote ofthe work Dr. Atkins (2012) claims tht. ‘+ Putany phrases you take fom e text between quotation marks. Wittman (2012) suggests that “peer pressure i influential in rsky behavior ” Praphrase the author's ideas. This means puting them completely into your own words fone or two words is not enough, Original statement: Gluckman (201 4h: “Peer presure ales how teenagers at.” Gluckman (2014) suggests tht peer pressure ofc how teenagers act x Gluckman (2014 suggests that a young person's actions may be affected by hiencls who enc im /her to oct in a certain way. '¥ you wan fo reference an author's work that you have read in anether author include both names and dates, ‘Stirling (as cited in Roberts, 2010) people believe, Include o fll bibliography atthe end of your text Order items alphabetically b spect of ideas in yo a) = = Say that rsetaking among teenagers is no os high os mo 1 Read the following excerpt of « 2013 es Professor of sociology Dr. Bouman, What he opie el oad Per pressure may be having an effect on today's teenage drivers. In { study at Temple University, teenagers, students, and adults nea te Gecide whether to stop at yellow lighis or drive through them in-a video game, When they believed that two same-sex frends were watching them in the next room, the teenagers drove through 40% more vow tights, which resulted in €0% more crashes. Such results Help te explain the higher numberof car accidents among this age group. 2 Read the paragraph again and toke notes on the ke YYOUF notes, write a thesis statement to 3 Look at the summary of the essay e» t below. How does jiarize ‘the essay? ae Feet Pressure may be having an impact on teenage crivers today. In a ‘study, young driver drove through 40% more yelow lights ina ove ‘game when they thought thei friends were wat iching. These results can ‘explain why teenagers have a higher number of accion ey pons Then, usin ‘summarize the main ideo. e 4 Write « two- or three-line summary of the exce but giving credit to the author. “tana_ re WRITING TASK ov are going f0 write a summary ofRisktokers: Who are they? the summary of an academic paper that has been written by @ =“ set Unerinw ony adv repesion cae Eee exanpes of perfec continuous, ond pssnveinfiies Dace wether fhe summary has been sourced appropriately, Sper artcle “The need to lear risk” (2013), which can bpefoundin the Journal of Rsk Literacy (Vol. 2, luo 4), Paticia Hughes argues that risk Meracy is essential n fr daly ives and therefore should be studied in schools Inawdertohelp young people to calculate risk better, {gesting ways in which isk iteracy could be taught ‘psupport her argument, Hughes provides evidence Thatisk tracy education has been successful among AB,yearolds, One hundred 16-year-olds were involved in her stud, which required them to make decisions about TW fo save or invest money both prior and subsequent forecsting lessons on statistics. The teenagers appeared fohave been more successful in making decisions based (calculated risk after thai lessons, which prompted Hughes to say that “secondary schools should be doing ove To teach risk Iteracy in math lessons.” Sih Seen BRAINSTORM (apoge 38 you ed ps for writing a summary ofthe key pons in att. Con you remember he tps tke when doings? Sip Shep 3: Sie Step PLAN Ack the thesis stotement you chose and the ntes you weed ws Rsk: Who ar he? on poge 38 lan @ summary ofthis research pope by choosing wha fo indude ed pling hese items int an porcine oder. Use the ‘xanpesmmary obove to el ou. wrire Wie your summary in around 200 words. Moke sure you cred plagiarism by cing sources, orophresng, and sing | Hie goes. se icv + preposition colocation and ifn Forms whee appapiae, your summary wih pra Read he ches Blow ond gv feedback o your perine, Hes your pores sanmaied the ext abecely? pte: ted sues? pape op? prince ss sent an sporing es? AND EDIT painrs comments and ewe you summerySTUDY SKILLS Evaluating online sources cv thee questions with « ports Aeod the scenario ond thi = k about what Likana did right and wht she did creas tt oboe evelvting online sources. Wich scapes do you Wiyn”“%” Which strategies do you think would be use for you tory? Over to yc Discuss these questions wih a porter 1 wha 24 .STUDY SKILLS Evaluating online sources Getting started Pee these weston: wih a porns a . StS Your Favorite website for accessing information for school/college? i ty benefits and limitations {nt easier to access information online ot in printed material? Why? Think | reasons JO.'S Petoted material better than online material? Think of three ndvantages Scenario Liliana’ tuto, Read the scenario and think about what Liana did right and what she did Brite an eer te h Consider it age 21 duc it Read the tips about evaluating online sources, Which strategies do you a y Whee” “Se? Which strategies do you think would be useful for you to try? pind inf ” norm: topic and read the ;.) Do not search only for Websites listed. Hal, 1 Be objective. formation that supports your balanced information. it were driving website 2. Source appropriate websites. Think about the type of text you are writing ‘was a campaign webs. and look for websites that are relevant to that. When writing an academic two were blogs. Fach text. you will find that online journals, newspaper reports of research, and Liliana some ideas ab other academic sites are most helpful topic and all agreed 3. Be critical. Do not assume that everything you read is true. Check that ‘pinion that the driving information is up-to-date and of good quality. Do statistics or research should be increase. come from a reliable source? Can they be confirmed elsewhere? Avoid notes ofthe key point nonymous websites then saved the wd adie 4 Check that the author is credible. Websites that include information Bather bookmarks. about the author are likely to be more credible than those that do not. ‘Ixy Inher essay, Eliane to find out about the author's experience, background, and reputation. If this informati . the author is biased, you may not be able to trust his/her information, Point, carefully sours 5 Source information appropriate to the topic, Make sure that the Beste possible information you choose to use addresses the area of the topic that you are es four writing about. Avoid information that will take you away from this topic. Bi a the Note down web addresses. Keep a record of any websites you want to. sal . revisit or source in your essay as you do your research. You may not find ot a ch __ them again if you do not bookmark them or note them down, and this will ireersiy tht make it difficult to evaluate them or source them later in your writing ae “road safety‘demttying different perspectives Recognizing trends and patterns Preposit mal phrases Impersonal report structures Hedging he ty or the countrysidet Do you like where you live? Why ot why not ages and disadvantages of living ina city? Think of at least thee of each ihe problems that exist in your nearest city? How do you think SPRAWL EEthese occur with the rehousing of residents (R), the ee of existing communities (U, or both (3). Be well-being employment opportunities - City's infrastructure stretched jdents join mainstream society ~ Government and community work together Critical thinking skill RECOGNIZING TRENDS AND PATTERNS ‘Many academic fexls include statistical information. Statistics may describe a static figure, or they may describe a trend or pattern. A trend is a gradual change or development, whereas a pattern is a series of repeated events or actions that tell us how things normally happen. Over 50% of people live in cities. (= static figure) Unemployment has risen by 3%. (= trend) Rent prices have increased to an average of $200 per month. (= trend) ‘Many families earn just a few dollars each day. (= pattern) Several hundred people move fo the city each month. (= patern) ‘When we are not sure about the exact figures, we use vague language with phrases such 1s opproximately just over, just under, more than, almost, just, about This number is expected to reach almost 1.5 billion. Estimated to cost just over $1.2 billion, Complete the sentences with a number from the text. | There will be in 2008. people living in cities in 2030, up from __ people live in informal settlements today, more people are expected to move to informal settlements before the end of the decade. % of people are estimated to earn less than $30 a month in Kibera. % of young people are said to be out of work in Kibera. % of jobs are thought to be created by the informal economy. ‘The Mumbai recycling industry has a value of £ The global population is expected to grow by by 2030, ‘at the statistics in exercise 1. Which statistics represent a trend? Which a pattern? Which are static figures? ping critical thinking questions in a group. lusions does the author make? Is he exact about his conclusions or is he do you know? with the author's conclusions? Why or why not? think governments should do to prepare for future migration from, areas? ‘SPRAWLREADING Solving the problem of informal settlements Before you read ‘Look ot the picture below and answer the questions, 1 Why do people live in informal setlements like this? Think of the reasons 2 What do you think ites lke for them? What reasons can you give for this 3 "What names given to informal seemens like thisand the people who live 'in them in your language? Do you know any other names for them in English? lobal reading IDENTIFYING DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES ‘An analysis ofan ideo, projec, case sid, et. slike to consider and reference the perspectives ofall he groups of people invelved, whether this is done explicily or impli. For exomple, the paper on pages 50-51 looks t informal setfements ond includes he viewpoins of vrious groups involved in those commits, ‘When reading such 0 text, ii important to identify the different Perspectives fo get 9 much uller understanding ofthe issues involved ond {sess the quality ofthe alysis. As you reo, unetine the groups of People that are mentioned and focus on what the writer says ebout each, 1. Read a poper by Kamal Roan, a student intern wth an NGO, entitled setving the problem of informal setemens on pages 80-51, What the difference between rehousing people and upgrading setiemeans 2 Underine the different groups of people mentioned in the text, 3 Read the paper again and make notes in «table si ilar to the one below thet may reflect each group's perpecv on rehoutng end vege Se Informal commonity residents —Language development PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Prepositional phrases begin with o (cf. p. 73). ; preposition + noun down - | them : ce preposition + pronoun Vi preposition + gerund by rehousing residens z preposition + noun cows _ | ain ‘@ noun oF pronoun. They tell us vhich ong Prepositional phrases can act as on adjective ond ears Pied: # s eipig an what kind, or how many. In this sentence it tells a a One in every seven people lives in unsafe housing . i tive. The us how, Prepositional phrases can also act as an adverb and modify a verb or adjective. They tell us how, he Zh is sentence it fells us why: when, or why. In this sentence i tells us why: cep ioe einsron oh Their aim isto drive economic development with Me snc Many of them are set phrases, ¢.g., in the land wiheut aidoubt, in conclusion. Some begin and en arate of, on the edge of preposition, e.g., with a view fo, af Without a doubt, people in urban areas have beter access fo education. People are moving to the city at @ rate of hundreds 2 day. 1 Find and underline the prepositional phrases in the box in Solving the problem of informal settlements. 2 Complete the text with the prepositional phrases.Language development PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Prepositional phrases begin with a ; {ct. p. 73) se = | reposition + noun _Preposition + pronoun | preposition + gerund { preposition + noun dlause d , = joun. They Us whic Prepositional phrases can act as an adjective Suse Fibnd: ee NEI US Which ong what kind, or how many. In this sentence it tells us what F O lives in unsafe housing built on land with no secure tenancy rights Ine in every seven people lives in uns rb or adjective. They tell Prepositional phrases can also act as an adverb and modify a ver i ¥ tell us how, , when, or why. In this sentence it tells us why: ae Their aim is to drive economic development with a view fo bringing residents into the mainstream +. Many of them are set phrases, e.g., in the end, without a doubt, in conclusion. Some begin ond or preposition, e.g., with a view fo, ata rate of, on the edge of. Without a doubt, people in urban areas have beifer access fo education. People are moving to the city ata rate of hundreds a day. Language development Find and underline the prepositional phrases in the box in Solving the Problem of informal settlements. by no means f intermsof in: 2 Complete the text with the prepositional phrases.way to experience life in [city name] is by .,. ryto 20 years ago, [city name} .. o improving life in [city name}, the local government in [city name] would also be improved with the aid of ... pelation {0 entertainment in {city namel, you . z | in the hope of 3 concerning “¢ completely different/opposite to 4 with the method of ‘¢ with help from 4 Think about a city you know well and complete the sentences in exercise 3 with your own ideas. REPORT STRUCTURES eo od ° <2) 3 = g iA Teport structures are very common in academic English and are often used to describe beliefs or to present widely accepted information that does not have a specific source. ‘are also used when the person who did the action is unknown or unimportant. There are ‘common structures: b It passive + that + clause (tis believed that migration to cities is on the increase.) | Subject + passive + to + infinitive (Migration to cities is believed to be on the increase.) | There + passive + to + infinitive (There is believed to be an increase in migration to cities.) 1 Rewrite each sentence, starting with the words in parentheses. Use an impersonal report structure. 1 We know that people are unable to find work in rural areas. (It... ) 7 People suppose that living in a city brings more employment ‘opportunities. (Living ina city ... ) They think that there is greater access to schooling. (There ... ) People believe that transport is much better in the city. (It... } ‘We estimate that there are 70 million people moving to cities each year. (There ... ) Some people allege that urban life is worse for migrants, (Urban life ... ) Other people claim that this is not true and rural life is far worse. (It... ) ‘We say that urbanization is necessary for a country to develop. (Urbanization ... ) kind of reputation does your city/nearest city have? Complete the with your own ideas about what people believe is true. said that is believed to be claimed that the people area is thought to future it is expected to ... @ partner and tell each other what you have written, giving Is the reputation you describe fair? SPRAWLrs = 4 oO 7 r A c WRITING An argumentative essay You ore going to learn about ways to sound more, ‘are then going fo use ing fe ‘arguments, or opinions. this longuage when writing an argumentative e886 Wi ting skill HEDGING Nene Acodeni wu wl ps norman at aol win hea be spree by oon dptl edence Or wer demnet are ane ees sch eine ood therefore uses vague--hedging language fo ensure thei cccurtely. Compare these senlences The industry is worth as much as £700m a year. The industry could be worth as much as £700m a year Rehousing projets have met with « mixed degree of success. Rehousing projects appear to have met with « mixed degree of success. Hedging language includes certain verbs (e.g., assume, appear}; modal verbs of probab ir, (e.g., could, mighf; adverbs of frequency (e.g, ofen, sometimes); adverbs of probobility (© 9. defnitely, probably); and determiners (@.g., some). Underline the hedging language in each sentence. 1 Generally speaking. innovation in informal settlements indicates a dlesite for seltimprovement The best ideas appear tobe those developed within the community and ar likely to involve collaboration, ‘New products invented in an informal settlement tend to be made with recycled resources, which suggests they are environmentally friendly. 4 In some cases, business leaders have examined innovation in slums because they think their organizations may succeed better as a result. Read the article about an innovative type of ourism ented City fours, but ‘not as you know them. Does the writer present information as fac, or does she use hedging language? Do you think the writer is correct to do this? kind of city tours gE ‘others live, Nicknamed “sham are. and are becomming po who go on such a tourdearn there face, as well as discover! the settlements so the: more aware of the hi 2 3 focerested in helping. that che only people who 5 Rewrite the article and make it fairer and language where appropriol, ns M=@ arcuate by adding hedging ferent Kn ori appears oe hing peal to nderstan how sPRaw.TASK going to write on argumentative essay entitled Slum tourism: Positive ies essay written by a university student ge etl tata dor onal structures and circle hedging language. 'of slum tourism is thought to be the understanding that the complexities of Ite in an informal settlement. Visitors ‘about the problems that exist within these communities, ut the supportive community within which the residents lve. to greater understanding of how society should work }develop these areas and improve ving standards. On the other that some visitors are not interested in understanding ‘are instead visiting out of a sense of curiosity, This is unlikely Jany kind of long-term advantage for the people that agree to be ‘and suggests that these tours are not helpful iy tours, bt not os you know them ogi. Tink bout the effect of slum tourism onthe peopl involved and amp he ble ih potential cdvonages ond dsovanages. Use he ides in he ride to hlp you. Advantages Disadvantages say, Prepare to wrt five parogrophs tht indude on introduction wth o thesis stotemen, the advantoges, ‘ond a conclusion. sayin oound 300 words Inde impersonal sutures and hedging language whee appropri to give sill fone ryt indude a variety of prepositional phrases say who porne, Read the cect below ond give Feedback o your pare, Brine givecbloced vewpon, icing bot beets and dono? psa’ ing hove on prop ne—ie, des e/She se mpasonastucrs? Dns he/she se edging pane indde vaiy of repostionl phases? EDIT comment and rewite your ess. SPRAWLical thinking skil Oh RT Tee by Stele SO" Clarity and internal consisten¢ One important aspect of presenting a clear authorial position is creating a ones argument, so that all parts of the line of reasoning contribute to the conclusion. Nothing then contradicts or undermines the main message. Inconsistencies make an argument hard to follow, jeaving the audience uncertain about what the is trying to persuade them to believe. Ea: Apples are good for your teeth. Acid corrodes. ples consist mainly of acid so they can’t be for teeth, —— Here, the message lacks internal consistency. The reader is left wondering whether apples are good for your teeth or not. Including opposing arguments A strong line of reasoning will usually give sideration to alternative points of view, including those that appear to contradict the ain argument. A good argument manages such apparent contradiction by: = making it clear throughout the line of reasoning what position it wants the audience to take; = making it clear when it is introducing an alternative point of view; = counter arguments to show why the alternative point of view is less convincing; ng any apparent contradictions by .g how the main argument holds true. Ea Apples are better for your teeth than refined sugar snacks. Some people argue that apples are an acid and that acid damages tooth enamel. However, any food, if left on the teeth, is bad for them. Refined sugars are particularly damaging to teeth. Compared with the sugary snacks most people eat, apples provide a more beneficial alternative and have long been recommended by dentists. Here, the argument is internally consistent: apples are better for your teeth than refined sugar products. All the reasons support this The opposing view (that acids corrode teeth) is included but its importance is minimised, SPRAWL It is worth noting that the main strong partly because it tentative way so that it is ea easier to argue that somett than ... rather than making a statement such as ‘Apples arc may not hold true in every Precision P The example above demonstrat may need to be very precise wording is a common cause the example below. rm - Apples are good for your t been recommended by dent: strange that this is the case consist of acid and acid co! However, the acid is relative certainly apples are more be alternative snacks made as sweets and cakes Here, the argument is relat and is more consistent than Ex itis still not a consistent argum« Opening statement is that ‘Ap your teeth.’ However, by the « the author is arguing that t harmless’ and that ‘apples are than alternative snacks’. Ar relative benefits is not the s statement that ‘apples are gc is not internally consistent