Renaissance, PaAeLUDLy PMNCCUC Revolution ee DO eon een TorenCHAPTER FOCUS, Significance if you were to think about the differences between medieval and modem times, you would probably think first of the great difference in the material goods available. Today we have CD players, microwave ovens, and conveniences that medieval people never dreamed of. However, another and perhaps even greater difference exists: a difference in attitudes. Beginning in the 1300s, people gradu- ally began to look for new ways to explain why ‘and how things happened in the world. ‘Many historians believe that the changes in attitude that altered how people viewed them- solves and their world grew out of a philosophical and artistic movernent that began in Italy in the early 13008. Because it centered on a revival of interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome, we call this movement the Renaissance (REN.uh-sahnts), a French word meaning “rebirth.* Terms to Define Renaissance Counter-Reformation humanists broadsides perspective almanacs. Reformation standard of living indulgences. inflation 95 theses, Scientific Revolution sects scientific method predestination geocentric theory theocracy heliocentric theory People to Identify Niceolo Machiavelli Martin Luther Leonardo da Vinci John Calvin Michelangelo Ignatius de Loyola Johannes Gutenberg Nicolaus Copernicus William Shakespeare Galileo Places to Locate Florence Zurich Venice Geneva Wittenberg Chapter Theme Questions 1 The Arts How might the influx of new ideas affect the arts? ‘ "= Religion What factors might have led to major shifts in religious thought? "Science How might a change in methods of investigation lead to an entirely new way of viewing the world? November 4, 1966, newscasts across the World carried reports of a staggering natural aster. In northern Italy the Amo River had burst over its banks, sending torrents of swirling flood waters cascading through the museums, cathedrals, and libraries of Florence. When the waters receded, they let layer upon layer of sewage and muck. Within days, hundreds of people converged on the water logged city to help with the massive cleanup. ‘Why would news ofa flood in northern Italy elec trify people across the world? Quite simply because that city contained the world’s greatest store of Renaissance art and literature. One reporter noted: 61¢ is fair to say that much of what we know today of painting and sculpture, of architecture and political science, of scientific method and economic theory, we owe to the artists, politicians, statesmen, bankers, and merchants of the Renaissance—that explosion of intellectual and artistic energy in Italy between 1300 and 1600. And Florentines stood at the turbulent center of the Renaissance.?? ‘The outpouring of creativity that was the Renaissance changed the course of Western civilization Renaissance Writers and Artists Focus Questions ‘© What led tothe Italian Renai © What were the charactorst Renaissance art? ‘© What were the characteristics ofthe Northern Renaissance in terms of humanist thought, literature, and art? Scholars use the term Renaissance to refer not only to a philosophical and artistic movement but also to the period during which it flourished. The ‘Twe Renaissance, REFORMATION, aN Sciinc Revowurion [325Renaissance was a time of many developments, including the invention of the printing press, advances inscience, and a new emphasis on reason. The Origins of the Italian Renaissance A renewed interest in Greek and Roman literature and life characterized the Renaissance. [n many ways it was natural that this interest would reawaken in Italy. Ruins of the mighty Roman Empire served as constant reminders of Roman glory. The tradition of Rome as the capital city of a vast empire lived on in the popes, who made Rome the seat of the Roman Catholic Church. The Crusades and trade with Aftica and Southwest Asia introduced new ideas and brought Italians into contact with the Byzantine Renaissance Italy, c. 1500 = Sw1ss CANTONS — MEDITERRANEAN ‘sea , Learning from Maps During the Renaissance, Italy was a patchwork of small states, @ Place To what ropublic aid the island of Corsica belong? 326] cuseren 14 civilization, whose scholars ha ing from classical Greece a ape developments in such disciplines bang! ience fied the curiosity of mon’) made science utiosity of man Italian cities such as Fo ne Milan and Naples had grow eno, industry. Their citizens include wh tage wealthy merchants. In Florence, "Yi Medici (MED-ee-chee) family gray 5, pl et bankers and then as rulers of the ey Hty fgg of Florence, Lorenzo Medici became gt As the arts and influenced Florence agg et Ph wake Taian tin The Humanities: Beginning in the 1300s, a numbe developed a lively interest in ae shoe Roman literature. Medieval scholars who oS uk ancient history had tried to bring oats leamed into harmony with Christian (8 contrast, the Italian scholars studiad neu® Br world to explore its great achievemens, St These Italian scholars stressed the suc of thetoric, history, and poetry, using clasts call these studies the humanities; people whose ¥® in the humanities were called humanists thee searched out manuscripts written in Greekanfine Often they would find more than one copys Ifthe copies differed, humanists compared the die versions to try to determine which was mow athe In doing so they displayed a critical approach learning that had been lacking ‘As humanists studied classical manuscripts, ty came to believe that it was important to know ho things worked. This belief led them to emphasise education. However, they also felt that a person shad Jead a meaningful life. Humanists became convinced that a person had to become actively invoked practical affairs such as patronage of the ars. Humanists viewed existence not only as a prepart tion for life after death but also as a joy in ite Along with a belief in individual dignity came an admiration for individual achievement. Mint individuals of this period displayed avant oft such as being both poet and scientist. Writers of the Italian Renaissance One of the first humanists, the Iralian Frans) Petrarch (PEE-trahrk), lived from D504 © a Like many of the humanists, Petrarch Fe famous as a scholar and as a reacher He oh poetry, and his sonnets to Laura, a" imagin ithe § wrote about etyealistic WAY! 7 esent rived 10 PT suctiavell venti fink eX foo between the fondon of the gat and the COM fin of the peo pi The state, he vote, must. be vied and eff nt the state wee divided and ‘ficient, drastic measures might be required to gin contra Machiavelli's st well-known, var, The Prince, 1s wssotially a lndbook on how — Machiavelli [hea grat ruler, Machiavelli "ed that a ruler did not {iuabideby traditional cus ‘a od morals but instead oul I be concerned only with fom a rm S588 in political vor yg. example ofthis dt ruler, Machiavell sore Borgia, who eqPaltical power wel and. ruthless ince has often ‘d a justification > * Conidere ons in Statecraft ship practiced by rulers such as Borgia. In his essay, Machiavelli advised rulers to maintain the safety of their states by whatever means they thought necessary and not to let consid- of the type of tyrannical leader- | | erations of hon- esty, justice, or honor hamper them. Today we use the word Machiavellian to describe peo- | ple who use deceit and who have little regard for morality in their effort to get what they want. In this excerpt from The Prince, Machiavelli discusses | power and the need to inspire | fear in one’s subjects:"A contro: Title page from The Prince versy has arisen about this: whether it is better to be loved than feared, or vice versa. My view is that it is desirable to be both loved and feared; but it is difficult to achieve both and, if one of them has to be lacking, it is much safer to be feared than loved. "For this may be said of men generally: they are ungrate- ful, fickle, feigners fliars] and dis semblers (deceivers], avoiders of danger, eager for gain. While you benefit them they are all devoted to you: they would shed their blood for you; they offer their possessions, their lives, and their sons...when the need to do so is far off. But when you are hard pressed, they turn away. A ruler who has relied completely fon their promises and has neglected to prepare other de- fences, will be ruined, because friendships that are acquired with money, and not through greatness and nobility of charac: ter, are paid for but not secur- ed, and prove unreliable just when they are needed. “Men are less hesitant about offend: ing or harming a ruler who makes himself less loved than one who inspires fear. For love is sustained by a bond of gratitude which, because men are exces- sively self-interested, is broken whenever they see a chance to benefit themselves. But fear is sustained by a dread of punish- ‘ment that is always effective.” Te Renaissance, Reronwarion, ano Scienrine Revowion [327woman, are considered some of the greatest love poems in literature ‘ Petrarch’s main influence, however, grew out of his desire for continuity with classical writers, whom he believed were committed to virtue in both public and private life, Petrarch thought these individuals could best be imitated ifone studied their writings. The study of the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans came to be called classical education. A command of classical languages, as they had been used by the ancient Greeks and Romans, became the mark of an educated person. The humanists remained deeply committed to Christian teachings. For that reason, they sometimes felt a tension between their commitment to the study. of the ancients and theit commitment to Christianity Petrarch, for instance, agonized over his lust for fame {a common Roman ambition) because he feared it would hurt his chances for salvation. Like most Italian humanists, Petrarch thought it important to lead a full and active life here on earth, even if that meant devoting less time to spiritual concerns. Niccold Machiavelli (mahk-yah-VEL-lee) of Florence, a diplomat and historian who lived from 1469 to 1527, ranks as one of the most illustrious of the many Renaissance writers. In 1513 he wrote a famous essay, The Prince, which described govern- ment not in terms of lofty ideals but as Machiavelli felt government actually worked. Machiavelli can be considered a humanist because he looked to the ancient Romans for models and ‘because such matters as the workings of politics inter- ested him. However, the lack of concern for morality that he wrote about in The Prince set him apart from other humanists, who considered virtue their Baldassare Castiglione (kahs-teel-YOH-nay) was an Italian diplomat and writer who lived from 1478 to 1529. In 1528 he published what was probably the most famous book of the Renaissance, The Book of the Courtier. Castiglione'’s work is a book on courtesy as well as an explanation of the role of the refined courtier as opposed to that of the coarse knight of the Middle Ages. As nobles lost their military role, Castiglione gave them a new idea of refined behavior. The setting for the hook is the court at Urbino, an Italian city-state where the author lived many happy years. ‘Castiglione’s characters are real people who reflect in fictional conversations ‘on how gentlemen and gentlewomen ought to act in polite society. 328] cnarren 16 writer Baldassare Castiglione used ig ary device ofa dialogue between tends to per manners for ladies and gentemen courts. Italian Renaissance Artists Art addition to literature flourished in Ttaly dur. ing the Renaissance. In an outburst of creativity, Italian artists produced some of the world’s mos exquisite masterpieces. Medieval paintings stressed the world beyond everyday life—a world associated with religious subjeets—and depicted formal and stylized fguee ‘The most noticeable characteristic of Renaissance painting, on the other hand, is its reali. Renaissance painters depicted realistic and lifelike human figures in their paintings. Even the buck grounds of these paintings differed from those of ‘medieval paintings. Earlier artists had portrayed he Holy Land. Renaissance painters showed the rz"! countryside that they knew. The success of many female Renaisance 1 such as Sofonisba Anguissola, was accepted on ‘ est ko Pursuit of womanly virtue.” Anguissla for her self-portraits and for her portrait of Plt —rE eC Gaara pealism and Perspective the Middle Ages, paintings did wot look particularly realist mos all art was religious, and 3s were not interested in draw ip atenion to the human nature a for example, Jesus and Mary. fratead, artists tried to visually Iepresent spiritual aspects of their ‘beets. For example, the relative Sue of figures or objects often Showed their importance: in a spiritual hierarchy. With the Reneissance came a re the human form and the natural world. To be tealistc, @ painting had to create the illusion of distance and depth on a flat surface. In the early 400s, a Renaissance architect named Filippo Brunelleschi performed a series of optical exper- iments to devise mathematical formulas for achieving perspective. Brunelleschi discovered the laws of linear perspective, which explain how the human eye perceives distant objects as en RL TTT Renaissance painters could make their ‘works lifelike because they had learned a very important technique of painting called perspective. By making distant abjees smaller than those in the foreground, and by amanging objects in certain ways, an artist could create theillson of depth on a fla canvas. Giotto (JAWT-oh), who lived from 1276 to 1337, and Masaccio (mahZAHT-choh), who lived from 1401 to 1428, were important realist painters. ‘According to legend, a fly in one of Giotto’s paintings looked so lifelike that an observer tried to brush it off Masaccio used light and shadows to give the effect of to objects, ‘The late 1400s and early 1500s are often referred ‘as the High Renaissance. Among the many great Fainters of this period, four made particularly out- ‘anding contributions to the arts. ~ ,-,beonardo da. Vinci (dah VEEN-chee)—painter, engineer, architect, and scientist—lived | 8.1452 t0 1519. Da Vinci used his experiments in rest in accurately depicting the beauty of | smaller than close ones. Renaissance painters soon began to use Brunelleschi’s rules of per- spective in their works. In The School of Athens (above), Raphael used precise mathematical measurements and per- spective techniques to render the architectural setting and the people within it. In this scene, which appears on a wall in the Vatican Palace in Rome, Plato and Aristotle are surrounded by other famous Greek philosophers. science to enhance his painting. Studies of anatomy helped him draw the human figure, and mathematics helped him organize the space in his paintings. People throughout the world still marvel at his mural The Last Supper. Probably his most famous painting is the portrait called Mona Lisa. "Another master of Renaissance art, Michelangelo Buonarroti. (meekay-LAHN:jay:loh bwaw-nahr RAW tee), lived from 1475 to 1564. Millions of peo- ple have visited the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, the residence of the pope in Rome, and looked with wonder at the frescoes Michelangelo painted on the ceiling. ‘Although he was a brilliant painter, Michelangelo preferred sculpture. Both his paintings and his ‘stone carvings of such biblical figures as David and Moses suggest a massive dignity. Almost as versatile ‘as da Vinci, Michelangelo also wrote poetry and worked as an architect, helping design St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. [32a “Tue Renaissance, Rerormarion,aNo Scienrc RevouuTioN |1520, Most of the sects later died out. The Anabaptist are somewhat of an exception. This sect believed that infants should not receive baptism because they could not understand the significance of the ceremony. Instead, they believed baptism should be offered only to adults who accepted the Anabaptist faith. The beliefs of this sect survive today in Mennonite and Hutterte religious communities. The Anglican Church. In England the Protestant Reformation came about by entirely different means than in Germany. True, some Protestant ideas had fil- tered into England by the 1520s. The English also had a tradition of resistance to the popes that went back to John Wycliffe in the 1300s. However, King Henry VIIL caused the break between England and the Roman Catholic Church between 1529 and 1536. The break was a political move that had little ro do Boy res falucer maxima laude dligna qua: pauas annis tranfadhs Panfipa eChnfianiflimo rige Franco clebrataeft/nam cam jnvelem haneLusheramt quidam. , manuscript page illustrates the restoration of ‘Mary that hed been destroyed by violence Reformation. “The Renasssance, Reromwarion, avo Sotenvinc Revouuvion | 335with religious doctrine. In fact, before 1529 Henry VIII had defended the church so well against Martin Luther's ideas that the pope had granted Henry the title of “Defender of the Faith’—a tile thatthe present ‘monarch of England still bears. England's break with Rome took place because Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, for not producing a male heir to the throne. The king believed that a continuing strong monarchy depended on having a son to succeed him. The royal couple had a daughter, Mary, but England had no tradition of a ruling queen. Furthermore, Henry wanted to be rid of Catherine and to marry Anne Boleyn, a lady-in-waiting at the court Although the Catholic Church forbade divorce, the pope could make exceptions. Pope Clement VII, however, refused to dissolve Henry’s marriage Clement made his decision in part because troops led by Catherine of Aragon’s nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, had captured and sacked Rome in 1527. Pope Clement’ refusal to grant the divorce infuri- ated Henry, who withdrew England from the Catholic ‘Church and created a new church. In a series of laws, Parliament created the Church of England with the king as its head. Although the Church of England, or Anglican Church, slowly acquired some Protestant doctrines, it kept the organization and many of the ‘ceremonial features of the Catholic Church. Of course, Henry VIII's church granted his divorce. The king eventually married six times in all. He finally fathered a son, the future Edward V1, although not by Anne Boleyn. More important historically, by creating the Anglican Church he opened the way for the Protestant Reformation in England. 1. Define Reformation, indulgences, $5 theses sects. 2 Identify Martin Luther 3. Locate and Explain the Significance Wittenberg 4, Understanding Ideas What specific issue sparked the Reformation in Germany? 5. Contrasting Ideas What were the main differ- ences between Luther's ideas and those of the Roman Catholic Church? 6. Summarizing Ideas Describe how Protestantism spread beyond Germany. 336] Chaeren 14 The Catholic Reformat Focus Questions ‘© Who was John Calvin? wp the Reformation? + What stops did the Catholic hy, respond to Protestant reform? + What was the approach used t0 Catholic reform? Ste dei On at role did he Play Ch take ty Although areas of northem Protestant during the Reformation Europeans remained faithful to the Rey Church. Change and challenge continual thoi even in countries such as France, where ay tower fith remained stong. After 1550 the ign in Europe was dominated by the followers of bom reformer named John Calvin and 22% and a Catholic revival known as the Counter Reforma fan Milo Calvin and Calvinism Huldrych Zwingli (TSVING-Iee), the vicar 4 cathedral in Zurich in the ealy 15005 was ct influenced by the humanist writings of Emm Zwingl was stirring up religious reform in Switselnd when he heard about Luther’ 95 theses. Zningl ad Luther met and discovered that they agreed, moe qr less, on doctrine but disagreed about forms of wonbip and the use of images. Zwingli’s supporters, for exam- ple, covered up wall decorations in churches. In 1531 Zwingli died in a battle between Cathlis and Protestants, but the French Protestant John Calvin carried on the work of the Reformation in Switzerland, Calvin founded a Protestant church that had astong following. He formulated a complete and cleat sto beliefs, the Institutes of the Christian Religion, publibed in 1536. This work laid down exactly what the ath ‘ought to believe on every major question ofr ‘Calvin thus provided his followers—Calviniss—w" a code that united them and strengthened thm against opposition and persecution. In 1536 Calvin settled in the «i where Calvinism became the eae ou fi retained Luther's reliance on faith and on th He also placed added emphasis on the belie ae among Protestant theologians during oe a - God had decided, at the beginning of S* cet iy of Gene Calaer a bli known as predestination, sul be Se (orchosen beforehand) for salvation ‘pose he elect.” They formed a special com- eral wwho were expected to follow the re avands. These standards placed great senor devoutness and self-discipline and as fol. Te individual was vo posess a fot ection 0 Gods wishes come became very influential in Geneva. The Cal theoeracy, oF a government ruled by a being God's authority. By attaching such clay caltifce to righteous living, the lives ofthe eat imporeulated down t0 the smallest detail red dancing, card playing, showy dress, a pe langage. Violation of thes avs ele inna son spread t0 France, where its convers rece known a6 Huguenets (HYOO-guh-nahts). Show France remained primarily Catholic, Cains conto led nearly one third of the country at LM k ie 6 tata le Tate 9: 8 Bene in, 2 ge i. Po aE Calvin was instrumental in the foundation of Protestantism in Genova. ‘one point. Many high-ranking nobles as well as towns- people adopted the Calvinist doctrines. The Catholic French monarchs considered the Huguenots a threat to national unity Beginning in 1562 the Huguenots defended themselves in a series of bloody civil wars with the Catholics. In 1598 King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes (NANTS), which gave the Huguenots freedom of worship and some political rights Calvinist minorities also existed in Poland and Hungary in eastem Europe. The Calvinists met with the most success, however, in Scotland, in the northern Netherlands, and in some parts of Germany. In these countries the strength of the Calvinists among the people persuaded rulers to change their views. In a form called Purizmism, Calvinism would play a vital role in England and in its North American colonies. By 1600 the Calvinist churches were among the strongest of the many Protestant churches established in Europe. “Te Renaissance, Rerormario, ano Screnrinc RevowwTion [337‘The Counter Reformation Tetook some time forthe Catholic Church to recognize that Protestantism posed a serious threat. The pope at firse dismissed Luther’ criticisms. A number of people within the Catholic Church, including Erasmus, had called for internal reforms even before Luther appeared. As the breakup of the church continued, these reformers eventually convinced the pope of the drastic need for change. In the 1530s a major reform effort known 3s the Counter-Reformation, or the Catholic Reformation, began in the Catholic Church. Initially created to foster a more spiritual outlook in the Catholic Church, the Counter-Reformation. also clarified the doctrines of the church and pursued an aggressive campaign against Protestantism. Titian to record the Council of Trent in session. 338] chaeren 14 Counter Reformation tactics, Pon. p reigned as pope rom 1534 0 1549, ey ll policy of reviving a mote spititual guy) lberg, Catholic Church. To accomplish thi oO the devout and learned men as bishops and cay Pope Paul Ill also brought i Inquisition t0 Rome. Spanish authorities fe! trying and punishing so-called heretics The Inquisition borrowed its cruel ps ad ent si such as buming at the stake, from fon P™*nt which had used such methods againgy of criminals and traitors. The leader © "St Inquisition did not see themselves prime ye ishing Protestants but rather as ke, within the church, In 1559 Pope Paul IV introduced ano of combating heres. He established arly ag sping Catholic, het method Febidden Books, which forbade Cathay certain books that were considered harm f moras. The Index was a recognition of the ing had played in spreading the Reformation. Rat fore the printing press the church could easly find sng burn manuscripts of heretical works. After printing developed, it hecame far easier to forbid people to ey certain books than to bur the books. The Cath Church maintained the Index until 1966, when te Second Vatican Council finally abandoned it The Council of Trent. Pope Paul Ill knew that no counterattack against Protestantism would be post ble unless Catholic doctrines were well defined Church authorities often disagreed about complicated doctrines, which made ic difficult to take a sand against opposition. In 1545 Paul summoned church leaders to the Italian city of Trent. The Council of Trent, which met in three sessions from 1545 t 156, defined official church doctrine with the same precision Calvin had used to define his faith The Council of Trent banned the sale of ind ences and tightened discipline for the clergy. In most, cases, however, the council reaffirmed the importance of those doctrines that Protestants rejected. It empha- sized the need for ceremonies, arguing that God ought to be worshiped with pomp and splendor. It noted that people must depend on priests because God stanted forgiveness only through the church. The council stressed that although everyone enjoyed free will, a person’s fate after death depended not only his or her faith, as Luther claimed, but on ceremonial church actions as well. The decisions made at the Council of Tent "= effective for the Catholic Church. Many peP™licity and austerity .stantism’s simp! many others took comfort from beautifully decorated churches, priests, and the idea that one could s to gain salvation. Protes ent 02 Se ati efor oo wo e Counter-Reformation sness on the part of the Catholic ne a major reason for the success of the semavion. This aggressiveness took many jers of th ‘Church becat Santer Ref Cou Boner educated priests worked more forcefully forms. Murch. The old religious orders reformed their eee religious orders such as the Society of rales Town as the Jesuits, formed. Je otis Je Loyola founded the Jesuits in 1534. ai Spanish solder whose lg had been shat Lon pring for Charles V against the French, te long period of recovery from his injury gave teen wo rad about the lives of Jesus and the ike Martin Luther, Loyola wondered how he ation despite his sins. The answer rision that he recorded in his book According to Loyola, salvation sats could attain sal came to him in a Spiritual Exercises Sm be achieved by selfdiscipline and by doing good deeds—in other words, by one’ own actions. feola convinced six fellow students at the Unversity of Paris to take religious vows of poverty, astity, and obedience to the pope and to follow him, Les than 10 years after Loyola founded his group, Pope Paul III recognized it as an official order ofthe Catholie Church Loyola organized the Jesuits like a military body, with discipline and strict obedience. He was the general ofthe onder; the members were his soldiers. ‘The Jesuits quickly became the most effective agents in spreading Catholicism. By 1556 the order had shout 1,000 members. Their missions took them as far away as China and Japan. In Europe their preaching and their hearing of confessions slowed the spread of Protestantism in Poland, Germany, and France. “The Jeuits stressed education. They founded some of the best colleges in Europe, combining humanist values with theology to turn out learned, fervent supporters of the church. Although some people had cherished hopes that the Reformation would bring about a new spirit of tolerance, the period from the 1530s through the ‘id-1600s was a time of devastating religious wars, sometimes interrupted by long truces, in Germany, Switeland, France, and the Netherlands. Not until the mid-1600s, when the wars ended, could the de Loyola received approval from Pope Paul i found a new Catholic order, that ofthe Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, through which he organized a system ‘of schools and universities. results of the Reformation and the Counter Reformation be fully seen. Results of the Religious Upheaval The most striking result ofthe religious struggle of the 1500s was the emergence of many different churches in western Europe. In Italy, although Protestantism never made much headway, interest in church reform remained strong. Most of the people of southern and eastem Europe and the native population of Ireland remained firmly Catholic. France and the Netherlands had large numbers of Protestants. In Switzerland, northern Germany, England, Scotland, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, various Protestant faiths became the established church, backed by the central government (see map on page 340). ‘Another far-reaching result of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation was a new interest in edu- cation. Many new universities had appeared in the 1400s and 1500s because of the humanists’ concern for leaming. After the mid-1500s enrollments in “Twe Renaissance, Reronuarion, ao Scien Revowwrion [339European Religions, 1600 ATLANTIC OCEAN Hiren Hi coinse _ isaeces Wi rome caie o [Fortede min rerio from Maps Although the Reformation gained many converts in northern Europe, southern italy remained predominantly Catholic. @ Region What religions were dominant in Scotland? Norway? England? these universities increased dramatically; religious reformers supported this trend. Protestants believed that people could fin their way to Christian faith by studying the Bible, As a result, reading became increasingly important. In their schools the Jesuits and other new religious orders worked to strengthen the faith ofthe Catholics. Education did not mean tolerance of new ideas, however. Neither the 340] Charter 14 Protestant nor the Catholic authorities permite views that differed from their own, The Reformation led to an increase in power of national governments and a decrease in power othe pope. In Protestant regions each government tn responsibility for the leadership of the offical chush In Catholic areas, rulers loyal to the pope oe obtained considerable control over their churchesoo progesiaton theocracy, Counter fi mation eo “jt Calvin, Ignatius de Loyola deny ‘nd Explain the Significance Zurich, Gane Ideas What were the main : vader alin ‘and how were they iiyesod in the goverment of Geneva? summarizing Ideas Describe how the Catholic 5. sien responded tothe Reformation includ- ing the rote ofthe Council site , ny were Ignatius de S Aaa ee soothe the Catholic Church: successful? (ulture and Daily Life Focus Questions + What were the ch during the period of time known as the The ideas that shaped the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Counter-Reformation involved relatively few people. Ordinary people had their own. views about themselves and the world around them. Magic and Witchcraft Most Europeans lived in or near small villages and spent their entire lives combating nature t0 raise food. People close to the land could never predict what life would bring. They never knew when a cow might suddenly fall ill, when lightning might burn down a cottage, of when churning would fail to tur milk into butter. ‘The world of spirits. Since people considered God tobea distant, unknowable force, they thought spirits Populated the world. Although good spirits abounded, tenons, or devils, made life difiul. Because ofthis Mle in spirits, nothing was considered an accident. IF lightning struck a house, a demon had caused it Ifa pitcher of milk spilled, the evil work of a demon was the cause. Many “superstitions,” such asthe belief that walking under a ladder might bring bad luck, began during this period Village priests usually accepted these beliefs or at least pretended to ignore them. To the ordinary villages, the priests explanation that the misfortune was God's will or Gods punishment for sin was not very satisfying. Nevertheless, villagers believed that the priest's actions could have positive effects. For exam- ple, every spring in a special ceremony, the priest would go out to the fields to bless the earth and pray for good crops. His blessing ofa husband and wife at a wedding supposedly gave the couple a good startin life, and baptism was thought to safeguard a newborn child The priest, however, was not the only person to whom the villagers turned in times of trouble. They also looked to a so-called “wise” or “cunning” man ot woman. This person, usually an older village member, was thought to have a special understanding of the way the world operated. Ordinary people would explain their problem—a lost ring a cruel husband, a sick pig, or even an ominous sign—to these “wise” folk. Since people believed nothing happened by accident, anything unusual, such as a frog jumping into a fishing boat, was taken as a warning, The wise man or woman would explain what the warning ‘meant and would sometimes recommend a remedy to ward off evil. The remedy might include wearing a ‘good-luck charm, chanting a strange spell, or drinking a special potion. ‘The belief in witcheraft. Wise people were often called “good witches.” However, if their relationship with their neighbors tumed sour, wise people might be accused of being “bad witches” In many cases the per- son accused of witchcraft would be an elderly widow. Pethaps too weak to work, with no husband or family to support hr, she would be the most defenseless person in the community and an easy target for attack. Stories about witches became more sensational as they spread throughout the countryside. Outrageous accusations were made. A person might be accused of flying on a broomstick, sticking pin into dolls, or danc- ing with the devil in the woods at night. Ifthe majority of people believed an accusation, a priest might be asked to hold a ceremony to exorcise, or drive out, a demon that was thought to have taken over the witch's body. In other cases, the accused person might be dragged to a bonfire, tied to a stake, and burned, pethaps with the approval ofthe local lord “we Renaissance, Romario, awo Scieurinc Revowurion [341An enormous outburst of “witch hunting” occurred in B 1 more than ope int the mid-1500s and k 00 years. Both religious and secular leaders wer ready to see the existence of witches as an acceptable explanation for the problems in the world around them. Eventually, however, as the religious wars came ater security in to an end and people experi their lives, fewer cases of witcheraft were reported. Forms of Recreation For most people, he meant work and night meant sleep. Because manual farming methods were slow, people needed all their daylight hours for raising limited because the re exhausted from working all day and idles needed for Still, they did find time for relaxation food. Evening activities we farmers because they could not afford the c had a gathering place where people e together to drink, sew, do simple chores, and tell stories. Some pe such as skittles (a le played game form of bowling). Occasionally, traveling companies of actors passed through a village and put on a simple show. The year contained many special days. The 2] chaeren 14 church decreed some holidays local saint or tradition. During sg ot ne holi 7 rs donned costumes and would of Ns, A favorite ceremony poked fun sights and scenes of village life, In yt" fan Europe, this ceremony had differene "Mpa twas called “rough music,” “cheers misrule,” the basic ceremony nen of the village formed net marched along, ridiculing foolish people of the village. For exan men might impersonate a couple kya because the wife beat the hush; accepted would be pulled along in a ¢ a i. ie the other villagers would jeer and howe 4) P** Sometimes the marchers had ‘s on they might want to show how things would pes poor or the weak had power. They wea ook the like a bishop, or they would put the pene al throne. Act this point, the jokes lost thei [nt ness and symbolized the resentment the wil about the privileges of those who ruled them, Pieter Brueghel the Elder is known forbs depictions of peasant life, The Peasant Wedding, painted in the 1560s, shows ‘a group of gues seated ata table as food is being prepared. IPyeorle throughout the 1D ages have played games TD tor amusement and diversion. In some cultures, games were a way for children to learn skills that would be useful to them in later life. In addition, games provided relief and relaxation from the routine of hard work in the home or the fields. Dice have been found in Egyptian tombs. The modern game of backgammon developed from a board game played in Mesopotamia, and chess proba- by was first played in India. More than 400 years ago, the Flemish artist Peter Brueghel painted the large picture shown bet labove).The pictues almost an encyclopedia {the games played by children of Brueghel’s time. Shsahel loved to show the activites of peasants ‘Working people. This painting depicts at least nace including everything from marbles to ¥ to ring-around:-the-rosy and hoop rolling. | Many games are played by adults as well as by children. Baseball, for example, can be a pickup game in a neighbor- hood park or a schoolyard, or a competition among profes- sional athletes. In recent years people of all ages have been fascinated by the new games and twists on old games that electronics and the computer have made possible. The wide appeal of games to people of all ages may account for a feature of, Brueghel’s painting that has never been explained, Some people think that all the people playing games in his paintings look like adults. Perhaps Brueghel wanted to suggest that adult activities are no different from the games that children play. However, we cannot know for sure. What we do know is that many of these games and activities are still amusements today (center), for children as well as for grownups | throughout the world. “Te ReNaisSANce, RefoRMATION, AND Scienminc RevowwTion. [343,Violence and Protest in the Village Villagers lived in close-knit communities. Anyone who seemed to upset their traditions or their sense of proper behavior was treated harshly. The strain of hardship ot famine could cause villagers to respond, sometimes violently The women of the village often led these protests Because women were responsible for feeding theit families, they especially felt the impact of taxes or for example Isewhere for food shortages. If the women suspectes that a baker hoarded bread or sent it higher profits, they might ransack the bakers shop. (On the other hand, people of this time tended to identify closely with other members of their com- munity. In large communities, such as towns, this right mean members of one’s profession. In smaller villages, whole communities tended to work and rake decisions together. Printing and the Spread of Knowledge In the 1500s the world beyond the village began to affect village life. Printed works and, in some areas, traveling preachers, inspired the changes Few ordinary villagers could read. Often even the village priest could not read. Nevertheless, soon after the invention of movable type, publishers started 348) haere 14 selling popular Works. Single pring ™s broadsides began to appen. at include a royal decree or merg “; boa crime or other event. Books and o,° the village, catred by peddlers wh! from the outside world. When they. la together, they might enjoy listen the latest broadside - While romances and epics o appealed to the nobility publake subjects that appealed to country aj eA ag cheap books for this new marker Te"! Paige! books were almanacs, the ances, Som, Farmers Almanac of today. In fs, % The oy predictions about the weather an . growing crops. Almanacs also can Py ge ‘maps, and medical advice. The book ole because they spoke to the beliefs an} nt Stele, ordinary people. TET thy Soon after Luther's break with th, new religious ideas reached the vill preachers came to visit. Books might peddlers’ packs. Perhaps people h attacked the church read in \e church in 159 lage. Some mo ‘ard stoties thay village gathering Luther and Calvi, tions of the Bi place. Certainly the messages of | traveled in this way, as did translat li photograph shows ihe printing press invented bY Johannes Gutenbers. hapter 14 Review no. to AD. 1300 cA. 1450 Ao, 1509 ‘AD. 1513 Chapter Summary The following list contains the key concepts you have learned about the Renaissance and the Reformation 1. Beginning in the early 1300s, a literary and artis tic movement known as the Renaissance swept htaly and then spread to northern Europe. 2. The humanists, such as Petrarch, Erasmus, and More, emphasized a renewed interest in classi- ‘al learning, a critical spirit, and enthusiasm for lite in this wort 3. The Renaissance also inspired masterpieces in painting and sculpture, 4. In Germany, Martin Luther broke away from the Roman Catholic Church and began the Protestant Reformation. The doctrines he devel- oped, known today as Lutheranism, spread throughout northern Europe. 5 In England the Anglican Church was founded under Henry Vill 6 John Calvin's teachings spread from Swita land to much of Europe. 7. In the 1530s the Roman Catholic Church began the Counter-Reformation. At the Council of Trent, church leaders defined official doctrines. The church used the Inquisition and the Index of Forbidden Books to combat heresy. New reli- gious orders, such as the Jesuits tried to halt the spread of Protestantism. & The development of the printing press and the religious changes of the Reformation brought ‘new ideas to the lives of ordinary people. New attitudes toward nature and toward the com- munity took hold. The Scientific Revolution transformed the meth- ‘ods and understanding of astronomy, physics, ‘and anatomy. Europeans made important tech nological and scientific achievements. The new scientific attitude would dominate future European thought. [352] caarren 14 40.1517 Luther poss 95 theses, Reviewing Important Terms On a separate sheet of paper, supply the term thet correctly completes each statement, 1. The creative movement that began in italy in the 1300s and included a revival of interest in tho clase cal learning of ancient Greece and Rome is calle the. 2 People who used classical texts to study grammar, rhetoric, history, and poetry were called 7 3. The painting technique in which painters make dis: tant objects smaller than those in the foreground ‘and arrange the objects in certain ways to make them appear more realistic is called 4 The religious revolution, which split the church in western Europe and created several new churches, is called the: 5. The sale of the Reformation, & Calvin made Geneva a in which the govern ‘ment was ruled by a clergy olaiming God's authority. 1. The ‘marked the development of a new ‘way of thinking about the worl. 8 Nicolaus Copernicus caused controversy with the . which contradicted what most people believed about the relationship between Earth and the Sun. by the church in Germany sparked Developing Critical Thinking Skills 1. Evaluating ideas Identify what each of the following people contributed to the humanist movement. Which person do you think made the greatest contribution? Why? (a) Petrarch; (b) Machiavelli {c) Erasmus; (d) Shakespeare? 2 Summarizing Ideas Describe what Martin Luther's ideas were on each of the following: (a) salvation: (b) the sacraments; (e) the clergy.A. 1543 Copernicus pub- lishos On the evolutions ofthe Celestial Spheres. ‘Ao. 1536 ‘A. 1545-1563, Calvin pubishes |} Council of Tent Institutes ofthe | Christian Religion Tae Interpreting Ideas (a) What was the Count: Reformation? (b) What ‘ty to accomplish? {c) How successful was it? Understanding Ideas During the time of the Reformation, most people in Europe lived in small ss. Describe how villagers explained the nat- change the way people viewed themselves and their world? Relating Geography to History Study the map of the world on pages Ré and RS in the Atlas. (a) Why was Italy ideally suited to establish trade with Southwest Asia? (b) How did the ideas of the italian Renaissance spread to northern Europe? Relating Past to Present 1. A Renaissance person is defined as one who is knowledgeable in bath science and art. (a) Give an ‘example of someone in today’s world who might be called a Renaissance person. (b) What are the advar tages and disadvantages of this combination of knowledge for an educated person? (a) How did the invention of printing revolutionize the spread of knowledge and ideas in Europe during the time of the Reformation? (b) Describe how radio and television have changed our understanding of the world, Applying History Study Ski Before completing this activity, review Building History Study Skills on page 331. Look again at Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam on Page 331. Then look at the statue of Hermes by Praxiteles in column two on this page. 1. How do these works of art show similarities between the values of Greck and Renaissance societies? 2 How do they show differences? — 0.1687 Newton publishes Mathematical Principles of ‘Natural Philosophy. A. 1555 Peace of Augsburg is signed ‘| ap. 1632 ‘| a0. 1637 meets. | | Galieo publishes Dialogue | | Descartes publishes Ta | onthe Tino Great Systems | | Discourse on Method. | 2 ofthe World ‘Search the Internet through the HRW Web site for more information on one of the Renaissance writ- fers that you read about in this chapter. Present an ‘ral report about that person. Be certain that your graphy dis ‘cusses the per- ‘son's major achievements, 6070: go.nrw.com KEYWORD: $00 Renaissance @ 1. Writing @ Report Leonardo da Vinci was one of the ‘greatest geniuses of the Renaissance. Prepare a writ- ten report on Leonardo's talents and achievements ‘and place @ copy in your portfolio. You may use the following sources: “The Scope of Genius” in John Hale's The Renaissance (Time-Life Books) and “Leonardo da Vinci” in Horizon Book of the Renaissance (American Heritage). 2. Writing a Monologue Do research to find out addi- tional information about what it was like to be @ European villager during some part of the period from 1300 to 1700. Write a monologue about a typi- cal day or wook in your life, or about a special occa- sion such as a holiday or feast. Begin with a description of the time and place when you lived. Place a copy of the monologue in your portfolio. ‘Tue RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION, AND ScieNTINC RevousTion [353