I3 Psicolingüística II Factores Individuales Del Aprendizaje Anthology

UNIVERSIDAD DE INNOVACIÓN PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL
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UNIVERSIDAD
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Master´s degree English Teaching
CLAVE-07PSU0162R
INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE

LEARNER’S DEVELOPMENT
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AIM O F T H E S U BJ ECT
As explained in the subject Second Language Acquisition, the process of learning

a second or a foreign language in today 's world is not restricted to a reduced number
of people; rather the opposite, we live in a civilisation where exchanges and contacts
between different countries, communities and cultures are becoming more and
more frequent. Without a doubt language learning plays a major role in this.
As you are, already aware (see SLA course material, Chapter 3) there is a series of
factor's in the second language learning process which can be considered universal,
in the sense that they may apply to all learners independent of their language
background, personality, cognitive features, situation and so on; acquisitional
sequences, error types, the role of the input could be regarded as such.
In contrast, there are a number of other areas that are characteristic of individuals
and they reflect to a certain extent the way a particular learner approaches the
second language learning process. This is in fact the objective of this subject: the
study of the learner´s individual factors or differences (IDs). This means that this
subject should be regarded as an extension of the SLA subject, and we will be
referring back to it a number of times. It might even be a good idea to re-read SLA
before you start reading this one.
Whether we take the perspective of a teacher or a learner, we are all aware of the
often significant differences existing between individuals in the language learning
context.
As students, we realise that some of our classmates are better or worse language
learners than ourselves even though we are all exposed to similar teaching, we all
use the same learning materials and we all have similar opportunities to practise
English.
As teachers, we know that in our classes all learners do not behave in exactly the
same way. We may have some students who always adopt a very active role
whereas others prefer to remain neutral or even passive towards learning. There are
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some students who progress very fast with very little effort whereas others put a lot
of work into learning and they obtain very poor results. There are learners who prefer
to learn things by heart whereas others opt for learning by practising and doing
exercises. We may also find students who always depend on the teacher for almost
everything; however, others tend to be more autonomous.
In the units that follow we will try to set out the major areas in which language
learners differ. Differences arising from contextual variables or as the product of
particular teaching methods will not be dealt with in detail, since they are so varied
and numerous that it would be impossible to examine them here. Attention will be
paid to areas such as language aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, learning
strategies, personality, age, etc., as detailed in the table below.
For the purpose of this subject, the factors influencing learner differences in
language learning will be grouped, as shown in the table below, under three main
headings: cognitive, affective, physical and psychological. Although three
different groups of variables are distinguished, they should not be regarded as
mutually exclusive or independent; they are all closely related and on many
occasions the effects of some interact with others. Furthermore, the dividing line
between the cognitive, affective, and physical and psychological fields is not as clear
as one would like it to be. Thus, for example, the personality factor has been
classified under the physical and psychological group although affective and
cognitive traits are also present in it. Motivation is essentially an affective factor but
it is also associated with other social and cognitive aspects. This is also true for some
of the other individual differences such as learning strategies and learning styles
where the line between the cognitive and the affective is at times difficult to draw.
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*Intelligence
*Language aptitude
*Cognitive style
a) field independence/dependence
*Learning strategies
a) direct
- memory
COGNITIVE - cognitive
- compensation
b) indirect
- metacognitive
- affective
- social
*Attitudes towards language learning

*Motivation for language learning
a) extrinsic
AFFECTIVE b) intrinsic
c) integrative
d) instrumental
e) resultative
*Age
*Personality
PHYSICAL AND a) extroversion/introversion
PSYCHOLOGICAL b) risk-taking/inhibition
c) anxiety
d) tolerance of ambiguity
e) other
Table 1. Factors influencing individual learner differences in language learning.
Following the above framework, Chapter 1 will concentrate on cognitive factors while
affective variables will be studied in the second chapter. In Chapter 3 the importance
of certain physical and psychological factors such as age and personality will be
briefly explained. Finally, a series of appendices related to the previous units will be
included. These supplementary materials will try to show the implications of all the
previous theories for English language teaching and they will mainly serve to reflect
on the relevance of individual differences research for the actual English teacher.
They mainly consist of a series of practical activities which derive from the principles
explained in Chapter 1 to 3. There are also a further set of Appendices (4.1 and 4.2)
which detail specific research studies which have been carried out on the various
factors: these are included for those interested in further study in the field- in other
words Appendices 4.1 and 4.2 represent optional extra reading.
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C hapt e r 1
COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON
LA N G UA G E LE A R N I N G
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Cognitive factors refer to the mental conditions, strategies or processes which the
learner has access to while learning a foreign language. We will be examining the
factors of intelligence, aptitude for learning a language, cognitive style and learning
strategies.
1.2. INTELLIGENCE OR TH E "G " FACTO R

Intelligence is also referred to in SLA studies as the "g" factor, the g standing here
for 'general' since it is present in all learners. When reflecting upon the role and
influence of intelligence in SLA, the first question that comes to mind is to what extent
intelligence is an important factor in the learning of a second language; in other
words, can we speak of the existence of a direct correlation between intelligence
and successful second language learning?
Possibly, if we asked different people in the street this question, most of them would
give an affirmative answer. In some sectors of our society there is a sort of admiration
for those who are able to speak one or even several foreign languages, to the extent
that knowledge of a foreign language is usually regarded as synonymous with being
highly intelligent. Let's look at this question in more depth.
If we turn to First Language Acquisition, we will see that intelligence in this case is
not a determining factor, given the fact that almost everybody learns their first
language; even those who suffer from mental disabilities are usually able to express
themselves and communicate through language. Granted, individuals will learn (and
use) their mother tongue to varying degrees of 'expertise', but an ‘expert’ level of
proficiency is reached by all. But if we extrapolate this to the second language
learning situation, we see that learning a foreign language does not work in exactly
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the same way as learning a first language: foreign language learners, apart from a
few exceptions, consistently fail to reach native competence. However, they do
reach greatly varying degrees of competence. So could intelligence have something
to do with the more or less successful learning of a foreign language?
Obviously, the importance of intelligence in second language learning depends on

what we understand by it.
In general, intelligence has been defined and measured in terms of linguistic and
logico- mathematical abilities. IQ (lntelligence Quotient) tests, for example, have
traditionally focused on one's ability to interpret or manipulate language (linguistic
ability), or on one's ability to solve logic problems (logico-mathematic ability). So
academic achievers tend to do well on IQ tests.
Gardner (1985) reformulated previous theories of intelligence and referred to seven

different forms of knowing which, according to him, give a much more
comprehensive picture of this construct. He claimed that there are multiple
intelligences, which include the two mentioned above (linguistic and logico-
mathematical abilities), but which include five other types of intelligence. The multiple
intelligences are:
1. Logico-mathematic.
2. Linguistic.
3. Spatial.
4. Musical.
5. Bodily- kinesthetic (fine motor movement, athletic prowess).
6. Interpersonal (the ability to relate to others).
7. lntrapersonal (the ability to relate to oneself. self-know ledge).
8. Naturalistic (the ability to recognise forms/patterns in nature).
9. Spiritual (the ability to relate to things of a 'spiritual' nature).
This definition of intelligence provided by Gardner clarifies matters a bit, but it does
not explain in full the relationship between intelligence and second language
learning. His work has been more influential in making theorists (and teachers)
aware of the multi- faceted nature of intelligence, the variety of learning styles which
students display because of it, and the implications these issues might have for
materials writers and educational planners.
1.2.1. WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT THE EFFECT OF INTELLIGENCE ON

LANGUAGE LEARNING?
Some studies (Genesee 1976; Ekstrand 1977) seem to show that intelligence may
influence the acquisition of some skills associated with SLA, particularly those used
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in the formal study of an L2 such as reading, writing, language analysis, and
vocabulary study. In contrast, intelligence is much less likely to influence the
acquisition of oral fluency skills. In other words, intelligence may be a predictor of
success of language learning in formal instruction contexts, but this will not be the
case in naturalistic settings, that is, in those environments where language
instruction plays a minor role.
However, the construct of 'intelligence' used in these studies reflects the dominant
view of intelligence of the time i.e. that it consists only of logico-mathematical and
linguistic ability. We are back to the IQ tests syndrome (see above), where only a
certain type of intelligence is valued, thus throwing doubt on the relevance of these
findings for overall foreign language acquisition, which might demand, for example,
highly developed interpersonal skills, especially in a naturalistic setting.
Where does that leave us? The research seems to be a little contradictory: on the
one hand we have a correlation between intelligence and formal L2 learning
contexts, and on the other hand we have no correlation between intelligence and L2
communicative learning:
...intelligence seems to be a strong factor when it comes to learning second languages in

classrooms, particularly if the instruction is formal. When the classroom instruction is less
formal, however (i.e. more communicative), so- called 'intelligence' (as measured by IQ tests)
may play a less important role. (Lightbown & Spada 1993:37)
1.3. LANGUAGE APTITUDE
Firstly, what exactly is language aptitude? Could it not be said to be the same as
intelligence? In fact, there is a subtle difference between intelligence and aptitude.
Aptitude is considered to be the ńatural ability´ which we have to learn languages
and people possess it to varying degrees. Thus we find students who may score low
on an IQ test or do poorly at school, but go to a foreign country and ´pick up´ the
language in no time at all. These people would have what we call a natural aptitude
for languages. It is believed to be in part related to general intelligence, but it is also
considered to be in part distinct. However, as Ellis (1985) claims, language aptitude
is difficult to define precisely because its measurement and definition depend to a
large extent upon underlying language teaching theories and interpretations of the
language learning process.
Researchers have been interested in aptitude as a predictor for successful language

learning. In other words, they have focused on trying to define the different
components of aptitude in order to then 'test' learners on these to see whether a high
aptitude score corresponds with a high L2 competence. The importance of language
aptitude in SLA is underlined by researchers such as Skehan who believes that
"aptitude is consistently the most successful predictor of language learning success"
(1989:38). Aptitude has not been seen by researchers as a monolith, but rather as
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a composite which consists of different characteristics (e.g. those of Sapon and
Carroll's MLAT referred to below).
Early attempts to come up with reasonable and comprehensive definitions of the

components of aptitude through the design of aptitude test batteries were made by
Henmon et al. (1929) and Symonds (1930). However, these tests showed serious
deficiencies as they reflected approaches to language teaching typical of the time
(see Ellis' comment above about the difficulty of adequately defining exactly what
aptitude is). Great emphasis was placed on the individual's capacity to deal with
grammatical concepts and the ability to translate. Predictably, the findings reported
did not reveal definite correlations between language aptitude and the learner's
language proficiency, because, as we now know, language proficiency does not
consist of mere knowledge of grammar.
More recent aptitude tests such as Carroll and Sapon's Modern Language Aptitude
Test (MLAT, 1959), and Pimsleur's Language Aptitude Battery (LAB, 1966, 1968)
represent not only a more progressive and scientific approach to aptitude test
construction but they also reflect the audiolingual principles in fashion at the time.
Carroll and Sapon's MLAT identified four main components in language aptitude:
- Phonemic or phonetic coding ability, that is, the ability to discriminate and
recall new sounds.
- Grammatical sensitivity. In other words, the ability, to recognise the different

grammatical functions that words perform in a sentence (e.g. the subject and
object of a sentence).
- Inductive language learning ability, which consists of the ability to identify

patterns of relationships and differences between grammatical forms and
meanings (e.g. to recognise that in English 'to' can denote direction).
- Rote learning ability, which involves the ability to make associations

between native language words and target language words. In other words,
memory.
Pimsleur's LAB, specially devised for persons aged thirteen to nineteen, is

comparable to the MLAT although the former stresses inductive and auditory abilities
much more than the latter. For Pimsleur (1966), language aptitude seems to consist
of a language analytic ability and an auditory ability.
Three decades later, it was generally recognized that these batteries of aptitude tests
were not completely valid for the factors intended to be measured. Stern, writing in
1983, pointed out that:
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...researchers have set out from the identification of a few basic

characteristics of school learning, such as word knowledge, verbal
intelligence, reasoning and school achievement. They have then focused on
those cognitive qualities needed to function in a particular type of introductory
second language class...
(1983:374)
Both Ellis (1985) and Krashen (1981) believed that the ability to communicate
meanings should be included in one way or another in any aptitude test as it is an
important component of SLA. Krashen (1981) even thought that the aptitude factor
related only to acquisition and it was not connected with formal instruction. Skehan
(1989), on the contrary, believed that aptitude was relevant to both naturalistic
learning and to formal teaching situations.
Other research on aptitude has not been completely conclusive. It has been
confirmed that the learner's memory and ability to analyse incoming language are
basic conditions for successful language learning. However, it has also been proved
that the size of the working memory is not related to learning success (Skehan 1982).
More recent research on the aptitude factor was specifically concerned with the
origin of language aptitude. These studies were all based on follow-up research to
the Bristol Language Project (Wells 1981, 1985), which was particularly concerned
with the study of children's language development in the first language. The follow-
up research to the Bristol Language Project was conducted when children started
the study of a foreign language at secondary school. The results obtained indicated
that aptitude was related to first language learning ability rather than to foreign
language achievement, and aptitude scores seemed to be predictable from four main
sources: social class, vocabulary development, parental education and an innate
language learning ability. However, the innate and fixed nature of aptitude was not
completely demonstrated by this research although the existence of an aptitude
stability over time was clearly proved.
The implications of all these findings for language teaching seem to be quite important.
Two contrasting views in relation to the question of aptitude are found.
- Some scholars, such as Bialystok and Frohlich (1978), or Krashen (1981),

maintained that aptitude is probably an unmodifiable variable (i.e. it is fixed)
in second language achievement and, as such, it is not trainable.
- A few others led by Skehan (1989) believe, on the contrary, that language
teaching should account for the aptitude factor involving the "tailoring of
courses" according to the "learner's aptitude characteristics" (1988). It would
also involve a certain degree of training in some of the elements which seem
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to make up the construct of aptitude. This is in fact at the core of a learner-
centred curriculum.
In spite of all the attempts to clarify this question, very little research has been carried
out in the last few years to identify the elements which compose the aptitude variable
and to study the relationship between aptitude and learner's proficiency.
1.3.1. APTITUDE: CONCLUSION
As a general conclusion to this section on aptitude, several points can be raised.
- First, aptitude is an important factor in SLA but a clearer and more concrete
definition of this construct seems to be necessary. What is really meant by
language aptitude? Exactly how is intelligence different to language aptitude?
This definition should obviously make specific references to the constituent
elements of aptitude.
- Secondly, new versions of the already existing aptitude tests should be

devised with the purpose of measuring not only grammatical, memory and
analytical language abilities but also the learner's capacity to communicate
meanings.
- Thirdly, some of the results obtained from aptitude research seem to indicate
that it may be a relatively fixed, innate capacity. However, it may be possible
to develop aptitude by means of adequate instruction. As a result,
individualised learning, which considers the characteristics of the learner, as
well as developing the skills related to aptitude, should be promoted.
Teachers should be aware of the existence of learners with different
capacities and abilities in their classroom, that is, there should be provision
for both "strong" and "weak" learners.
- Fourthly, aptitude relates to the rate of a learner's acquisition rather than to

the route of acquisition, especially when we are dealing with formal classroom
instruction. This means that if learners are specially gifted for the learning of
English, their learning will progress more rapidly but, in contrast, all learners,
independent of their aptitude, will follow a similar learning route.
- Finally, it would be interesting to know to what extent aptitude is connected

with other second language learning variables such as age, intelligence,
motivation, learner's use of strategies, sex, personality, cognitive style, and
so on.
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1.4. COGNITIVE STYLE
We turn next to consider a third learner factor, cognitive style. What exactly is it?
Cognitive style refers to the manner in which the learner perceives, monitors,
conceptualises and recalls linguistic information. Wilkins et al. (1971: 373) define it
rather more grandly as:
...a characteristic self-consistent mode of functioning which individuals show in
their perceptual and intellec tual abilities.
Although cognitive style and learning style are frequently used as synonyms, the latter
is more comprehensive than the former. Learning style includes cognitive, affective
and psychological behaviours that indicate learners' characteristic and consistent way
of perceiving, interacting with and responding to the learning environment (Willing,
1988). We will be referring to learning style again later in this section.
Cognitive style is considered by Brown (1973) as a combination of affect and cognition

and he groups the following specific variables as characteristic of it:
- reflective-impulsive thinking
- broad-narrow categorizing
- skeletonizing-embroidering
- belief congruence-contradiction
Other characteristics which have been associated with leaners' cognitive styles include
to what extent learners are interference-prone, that is, to what extent their native
language will interfere with the second language in terms of negative (i.e. inappropriate
L1) transfer.
In spite of the wealth of terminology available, most scholars when referring to cognitive
style focus in particular on the duality field dependence / independence. This distinction
derives from the psychological domain and more in particular from Witkin (1962, 1971),
who designed a test known as the Group Embedded Test (GET). This test was
constructed with the purpose of measuring the field dependence/independence
dimension, and in it a subject has to find a target shape embedded in a more complex
pattern. The test is hypothesised to reflect the way individuals perceive and organise
the world. People who 'do well' on the test are able to separate the figures from the
ground and therefore theoretically able to separate the essential from the inessential
(field-independent), whereas subjects who cannot distinguish figures from the ground,
are considered to be "field-dependent"; they tend to have a more holistic view of
things. Ellis (1985) summarises the main characteristics and implications of these two
notions in the following way:
FIELD DEPENDENCE FIELD INDEPENDENCE

1. Personal orientation 1. Impersonal orientation
i.e. the learner relies on an external frame of i.e. the learner relies on an internal frame reference in
reference in processing information. processing information.
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2. Holistic 2. Analytic
i.e. perceives a field as a whole.
i.e. perceives parts in relation to the whole.
3. Dependent 3. Independent
i.e. the self-view is derived from others. i.e. sense of separate identity; the learner is more
autonomous.
4. Socially sensitive 4. Not so socially aware

i.e. less skilled in interpersonal-social relationships, object-
i.e.greater skill in interpersonal-social relationships,
oriented.
person-oriented .
Table 1.1. Main characteristics of a field dependent and a field independent cognitive-style.
Source: based on Ellis 1985.
The field dependence / independent distinction does not imply that there are only two types
of learners as far as cognitive style is concerned. It just means that some learners will be
more or less field dependent oriented. As Ellis says,
The terms do not really represent alternatives, but poles on a continuum, with individuals
varying in the extent to which they lean towards dependence or independence.
(Ellis 1985: 114)
It is generally assumed that field dependent learners will learn more effectively in a
naturalistic setting as the learner will come into contact with other speakers of the target
language more easily. On the contrary, in the classroom setting the opposite will be true: the
field-independent learner will try to analyse language more naturally than the field-
dependent one, and thus theoretically be more successful in a formal instruction
environment.
Skehan for his part defines the social characteristics of the field dependent and field
independent learner as follows:
Field dependent individuals are thought to be person oriented, interested in other people and
sensitive to them... They are also thought to be gregarious. In contrast field independent
learners are more impersonal and detached, less sensitive and more aloof; they are cerebral
and object oriented.
(1989:111)
However, despite the enthusiastic reception which theorists have given to the notion
of field dependence/independence, it is not an unproblematic construct. Specifically
the means by which this construct has been measured - the GET test - has been
questioned. Williams and Burden (1997: 91) warn that:
These constructs are being measured by an obscure test of visual perception which is
currently little used by professional psychologists, and which appears to bear little relation to
learning style.
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In fact, Williams and Burden go further, and query the whole rationale behind many
research approaches to individual differences:
What is sometimes forgotten in research into individual differences is that the characteristic
selected is in fact no more than the researcher's best effort at conceptualising what the
particular trait involves. This becomes what the psychologists term a hypothetical
construct,...There is no such thing as 'intelligence' or 'field dependence' or 'motivation' but it
can sometimes be convenient to treat such entities as if they do exist so that we can construct
tests to measure them. Unfortunately, the outcome of that testing procedure can then come
to represent in people’s minds the meaning of that construct. For example, for many years
the only definition of intelligence that was offered in many psychological textbooks was that
'intelligence is what intelligence tests measure'.
(ibid: 89)
However, it should also be pointed out that although most research studies on
cognitive style concentrate on the potentially suspect distinction field-dependence /
field- independence, several scholars such as Reid (1987) and Willing (1987)
distinguish other types or modalities of learning styles.
Thus, Reid distinguishes between four perceptual learning tendencies:
- Visual learning (learning mainly from seeing words in books, on the board,
in workbooks, charts, drawings, photos, etc.);
- Auditory learning (learning by hearing words spoken and from oral

explanations as well as by listening to tapes or to lectures);
- Kinaesthetic learning (learning by experience, by being involved physically

in classroom experiences); and
- Tactile learning (hands-on learning, learning by doing, working on

experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models, and touching and
working with materiaIs).
Willing too identified four main learning styles used by ESL learners in Australia.
These can be described as follows:
- Concrete learning style: people-oriented, emotional and spontaneous;
- Analytic learning style: object-oriented, high capacity for making

connections and inferences, prefers logical and didactic presentation;
- Communicative learning style: quite autonomous, prefers social learning,

likes taking decisions.
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- Authority-orientated learning style: tends to depend on the teacher, does
not enjoy discovery learning, prefers to be told what to do and how to do it,
intolerant of facts that do not fit.
TASK 1.1
Look at this learner's description of how she learnt a foreign language.
When I first arrived in the country, I did a two- week intensive course. Just to learn the basics
- you know – shopping, directions and so on. Then I just spoke to everyone I could find. I
even spoke to myself out loud sometimes. I bought a grammar book with a key and did
exercises on difficult things like the subjunctive. I found that it really helped me to memorise
verb conjugations, and then slowly I learned how to use them more or less correctly. But I still
make mistakes, and l've been living here for 11 years.
1. How would you characterise her learning style?

2. How would you describe your learning style as regards language learning?
Provide as much detailed information as you can.
The important question for us as language teachers is, of course, to what extent
cognitive style or learning style affects the success (or otherwise) of learning a
foreign language.
However, once again, the results of research into the role of cognitive style in SLA
are not conclusive (Before we look at some of the important findings in this field, you
may want to see Appendix 3.2 for a summary of the main research studies in this
area. They make fascinating reading, but you are not expected to make yourself
familiar with all the details - your reading should be for interest's sake alone).
1.4.1. COGNITIVE STYLE: CONCLUSION
Whether or not you have read the research findings, one thing is clear: there are no
simple answers. But we may be able to make a few tentative generalisations.
In general, studies on cognitive style appear to demonstrate that a close relationship

between cognitive style and academic achievement does not exist. In other words,
there does not seem to be a clear connection between our approach to learning and
learning success.
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The results obtained vary considerably from one study to another and they are not
at all conclusive. This implies that the task of learning a language can be tackled in
many different ways: some learners will prefer learning by doing or will focus on the
written word; others, in contrast, will be more prone to reflect upon their learning or
will pay special attention to visual features during their learning. Learning goals can
be attained in various ways. Second language teachers should thus be aware of the
existence of different cognitive / learning styles in their classes and should try to
accommodate these, through varying modes of instruction. Also, it has been argued
that learning styles should be seen from a developmental perspective, that is, that
learners may be encouraged to explore and even perhaps expand their own
preferred learning style, thus making it more effective for the task of learning a
foreign language.
Another interesting and important point as regards the role of cognitive style in
foreign language learning is the influence of cultural background on the learning
styles learners may develop (Reid 1987). Not only is cultural background of
relevance, but factors such as age, sex and level of education also seem to influence
what style learners develop.
As a final comment, one wonders why the research carried out up to date in this
domain has only been concerned with the correlations between cognitive style and
language learning success and why attention has not been paid to its relationship
with other learning factors such as intelligence, age, aptitude, strategies and
personality. In our view, further study and research should be carried out in this
direction.
1.5. LEARNING STRATEGIES
In the last few years, research has revealed the great importance of learning
strategies for second language learning.
Learning strategies are defined by Oxford and Crookall as:
steps taken by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage and retrieval of
information.
(1989: 404)
Willing (1988) emphasises the idea of a struggle or difficulty, which in her opinion is
connected with the word strategy. Ellis probably provides the clearest and simplest
definition:
Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to
learn an L2. They can be behavioural (for example, repeating new words aloud to help you
remember them) or they can be mental (for example, using the linguistic or situational context
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to infer the meaning of a new word). They are typically problem-oriented. That is, learners
employ learning strategies when they are faced with some problem, such as how to
remember a new word. Learners are generally aware of the strategies they use and, when
asked, can explain what they did to try and learn something. (1997:77)
Wenden and Rubin (1987) in their definition of strategies point out that they usually
refer to specific actions or techniques which may or may not be observable. In their
view, some strategies are consciously used and can be modified and learned. It is
also generally agreed that strategies are present in both informal and academic
settings. However, so far most of the research in this area has been particularly
focused on the classroom. The list that follows summarises the main features of
language learning strategies.
Characteristics or features of language learning strategies
- Language learning strategies...
1. ...contribute to the main goal: communicative competence.

2. ...allow learners to become more self-directed and autonomous.
3. ...expand the role of teachers: students take more responsibility for their learning.
4. ...are problem-oriented: they are tools, they are used because there is a problem
to solve, a task to accomplish.
5. ...are specific actions taken by the learner.
6. ...involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive.
7. ...support learning both directly and indirectly.
8. ...are not always observable: they are not always readily observable to the human
eye; which is why foreign language teachers, in general, are not aware of them.
9. ...can be taught: strategy training.
10. ....are often conscious: students may or may not be aware of their use.
11. ....are flexible: there are certain strategies which are common to everybody,
although some may be completely personal.
12. ....are influenced by a variety of factors: degree of awareness, stage of learning;
task requirements, teacher expectations, age, sex, nationality/ ethnicity, general
learning style, personality traits, motivation level, and purpose for learning the
language.
13. ....are present in all learners.
Different typologies (O'Malley 1985a, Ellis 1985, Wenden ·and Rubin 1987, Willing
1988, Oxford and Crookall 1989) were established for the classification of language
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learning strategies; these include direct, indirect, cognitive, metacognitive, social,
linguistic, non-linguistic, communicative, analytic, Gestalt, compensation and
retrieval. For practical purposes, we are only going to refer to cognitive, memory,
compensation, metacognitive, social, affective and communication strategies
(see tables 1.2 and 1.3). These groups should not be considered as completely
independent, as they are closely connected. On many occasions learners may make
use of different types of strategies simultaneously.
- Cognitive strategies are essentially operations used by the learner to obtain

knowledge and understanding of the linguistic system. They involve the
manipulation of the language in some direct way. Generalising, making
comparisons between languages, note- taking, practising, analysing and
reasoning can be included under this category.
- Memory strategies correspond to the specific techniques which help the

learner to store and, when necessary, retrieve the stored information.
- Compensation strategies are behaviours adopted by students to

compensate for missing knowledge, such as using circumlocution, avoidance,
guessing while listening or reading, etc.
- Metacognitive strategies are concerned with how to learn or with learning

to learn. These language learning strategies involve being aware and
reflecting upon the learning process together with planning, arranging and
evaluating one's language. Advance organisers, directed attention and self-
management are generally considered strategies belonging to this group.
- Social strategies have particularly been explored by Wong-Fillmore (1979):

these strategies are associated with the social behaviours involving other
people in the language learning process. Examples are counting on friends
for help, participating in group conversations, pretending real understanding,
questioning and cooperating with peers.
- Affective strategies are techniques which help learners achieve better

control over their emotions and attitudes towards, the language learning
process. Self- reinforcement and positive self-talk can be grouped here.
- Communication strategies (see table 1.3) are almost exclusively restricted

to the oral production level. They can be considered as those compensation
strategies used while speaking. They are usually used by the learner as a
solution to a communication problem. Ellis defines them as follows:
Psycholinguistic plans which exist as part of the language user's communicative competence.
They are potentially conscious and serve as substitutes for production plans which the learner is
unable to implement.
(1985: 182)
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Paraphrase, avoidance, restructuring, code-switching, foreignising, literal translation

and repetition can be classified under this label. Manchón Ruiz (1985) makes a
division between those communication strategies based on L1 such as literal
translations, loans and foreignisms, and those based on L2 or interlanguage, such
as the formation of new words, the use of semantically related terms, paraphrase,
etc. Ellis (1985) establishes the following typology of communication strategies. First,
he draws a distinction between reduction and achievement communication
strategies. Reduction strategies, which can be formal and functional, are described
as attempts to avoid a communication problem and they involve the learner giving
up part of the original message. Achievement strategies are put into operation
when the learner decides to keep to the original message but is forced to
compensate for his/her lack of means and linguistic resources. They can be of two
different types, compensatory and retrieval (see table 1.3).
Refer to tables 1.2 and 1.3 (overleaf) for a summary of all these learning strategies.
Practising. E.g. Reading a text aloud several times; practising the pronunciation of a
particular sound in front of the mirror.
Analysing and reasoning. E.g. Breaking down a new sentence or word into its
component parts.
COGNITIVE Recelving and sending. E.g. Using the dictionary, a grammar book.
STRATEGIES
Creating structure for input and output. E.g. Emphasising the most important points to
remember through highlighting; summarising the most important questions.
Generalising. E.g. Generalising grammar rules as regards the formation of the simple
past of regular verbs, or the formation of plural nouns.
Making comparisons across languages. E.g. Comparing English with German.
Note-taking.
Applying images and sounds. E.g. Associating words with pictures.
Creating mental linkages. E.g. Grouping words into semantic fields: lexical items
MEMORY connected with shopping, food and drink, parts of a car; etc.
STRATEGIES Reviewing well. E.g. Revising notes.
Employing action. E.g. Using mechanical techniques.
Guessing intelligently. E.g. Guessing the meaning of words in a reading text.
COMPENSATION Avoidance. E.g. Avoiding the use of a particular word or expression because the
STRATEGIES learner is not very sure about its use.
Circumlocution. E.g. Expressing an idea indirectly and with a higher number of words.
Being aware and reflecting upon the learning process.
Arranging and planning learning. E.g. Preparing a language learning notebook;
METACOGNITIVE keeping a learning diary.
STRATEGIES
Evaluating learning. E.g. Learning from previous errors in writing; self-evaluation
tasks.
Advance organizers. E.g. Planning in advance what one has got to do.
Directed and selected attention. E.g. Concentrating on key words in a listening
exercise.
Counting on friends for help. E.g. Asking a friend questions.
SOCIAL Participating in group conversations while pretending real understanding.
STRATEGIES Questioning and cooperating with others. E.g. Cooperating with proficient users of the
new language.
Empathising with others. E.g. Developing cultural understanding.
Lowering one's anxiety. E.g. Using music and laughter to calm down.
Self-reinforcement. E.g. Saying to oneself "You can do it, come on"
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AFFECTIVE Positive self-talk. E.g. Encouraging oneself to do something.
STRATEGIES Taking one's emotional temperature. E.g. Discussing your feelings with someone else.
A. Reduction strategies: the learner attempts to avoid the problem by giving up
part of the original communicative goal.
a. Formal reduction: avoidance of rules the leaner is not sure of.

b.Functional reduction: avoidance of certain topics, modality markers and
certain functions.
B.- Achievement: the learner sticks to the original communicative goal but
compensates for the insufficient means and tries hard to retrieve the required items.
a.Compensatory
COMUNICATION (i) Non cooperative strategies.
STRATEGIES - code- switching: the learner uses the form in the non-L2 language. E.g. A
learner speaking English makes use of a Spanish word in the middle of a
conversation because s/he is not able to come up with that word in the target
language (TL).
- foreignising: the learner makes use of a non-L2 form but adapts it to make
it appear like a L-2 form. E.g. The use of the non-existent word "saltation”
instead of "jump'.
- literal translation. E.g. "actually" translated as "'actualmente'.
- substitution.
- paraphrase: the learner describes or makes a paraphrase of an L2 form.
- word coinage: the learner makes up a new L2 form composed by two L2
forms. E.g. "ultrafrozen'.
- restructuring.
(ii) Co-operative strategies:
- Direct appeal: the learner requests assistance.
- Indirect appeal: the learner does not overtly request assistance, but pauses,
signals to indicate the need for help.
b. Retrieval
(i) Waiting.
(ii) Using semantic fields: the learner recognises the semantic field to
which the items belong and starts running through items belonging to that
field until that particular item is finally found.
(iii) Using other languages.
Table 1.3. Communication strategies (after Oxford 1990 and Ellis 1985).
A fair amount of the research has been carried out to explore the world of language
learning strategies. This begs the question of exactly how we find out what learning
strategies learners favour, and whether or not this affects their language learning.
Researchers have used techniques, or 'research instruments' in the jargon, such as:
interviews and thinking aloud of learners; making lists of strategies to observe
learners with; observation (without lists); diary studies (in which students report their
use of strategies); questionnaires studies on strategy training.
1.5.1. STRATEGY TRAINING
The last area above, that of strategy training, is arguably the area of most interest
to us as classroom teachers. The implication is that learning strategies are not fixed,
immutable characteristics, but something which we, as teachers, can help our
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students to develop through specific pedagogical practices. That is, we can 'teach'
students to become more efficient learners of a foreign language.
In the 1980s and 1990s a good number of teaching materials (Ellis and Sinclair,
1989; Brown, 1989; Oxford, 1989; Wenden, 1991) were developed with the aim of
introducing strategy training in general language courses. These books generally
provided teachers with tasks, data and explanations to acquire the skills and
knowledge necessary to help their students to become more autonomous learners.
Although most of the activities proposed were interesting and helpful, they may
present the teacher with difficulties in terms of how to combine the language and the
strategy training components. Appendices 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 include some
exercises directly related to this topic.
Appendix 1.1 shows an activity to develop students' reading strategies. Appendix

1.2 for its part gives us an example of how to encourage the learner's use of
metacognitive strategies. Furthermore, strategy training (also known as 'learner
training') should have as its ultimate aim the fostering of students' autonomy in
their own learning: learners should be trained to learn on their own without the
physical presence of the teacher. One of the tasks of the language teacher is to help
the student to learn more happily and effectively. Teachers should devote part of
their teaching time to making students aware of why certain things will help them in
their learning, and why others will not. Students will feel responsible for their own
learning if they understand how the learning process works. Appendices 1.3 and
1.4 give us some simple ideas for how to do this in our classrooms.
1.5.2 OUT-OF-CLASS LEARNING STRATEGIES
In an ideal world, students would be learning English not just inside the classroom,
but outside as well. In an EFL situation, we are all aware of the limited opportunities
our students actually have for coming into contact with the target language outside
the classroom walls. Nevertheless, good, self-motivated language learners will make
the effort to improve their English outside of formal instruction, by using strategies
such as going to the cinema to see original version films, reading newspapers in
English, and so on. These are known as out-of-class strategies.
TASK 1.2
Reading 1.1 describes a study by Nigel Pickard into a group of German-

speaking EFL learners' out-of-class learning strategies. Look at Reading 1.1, and
answer the following questions.
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1. What are "functional practice strategies"? Give 5 concrete examples
of functional practice strategies.
2. How do you think Krashen would respond to Hafiz and Tudor's
study (summarised on p.151)?
3. What does Pickard's study tell us about these students' out-of-class
reading strategies?
4. What does Pickard's study tell us about these students' out-of-class listening
strategies?
5. In his conclusion, Pickard talks about teachers as "facilitators of out-of-class
strategies" (p.158). How could teachers achieve this? Give three or four
specific ways in which a teacher could achieve this.
1.5.3. LEARNING STRATEGIES: CONCLUSION
In contrast to the three other areas which we have examined so far (those of
intelligence, aptitude and cognitive style), that of learning strategies seems to be
much more cut and dried. That is, research seems to have come up with some solid
evidence about the nature and usefulness of learning strategies in SLA. Perhaps
most importantly, the definitions given by most scholars and researchers for what
language learning strategies actually are, are remarkably consistent. At the most
basic level, learning strategies are considered to be cognitive processes where the
learner is an active and involved participant.
TASK 1.3
In this task, you are expected to draw on what you have read about learning
strategies.
Do you think the following statements are true or false? Give a reasoned answer
for each, explaining why you think they are either true or false. You will need to
write about 3-4 lines for each answer.
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1. Learning strategies are used by learners of all levels, and all learners
are clearly aware that they are using strategies.
2. The strategies used by students of advanced levels seem to be

somewhat different to those used by more elementary learners.
3. The number of years spent in studying the language stands out as

an important variable affecting the learner's choice of strategies.
4. Strategy use seems to be directly connecte.d with the complexity

of the task learners have to complete. Thus, the more complex
the task, the more strategies a learner will employ.
5. Motivation and the learner's attitudes towards the learning of the

foreign language do not affect the use of language learning
strategies.
6. Sex and ethnic differences influence the choice of strategies.
7. People with different personalities, learning styles and

psychological types will often apply the same kinds of learning
strategies.
8. Successful and unsuccessful learners do not seem to make a similar

use of language learning strategies.
9. The number of communication strategies used by students correlates with

their proficiency rating. In other words, the more strategies a learner uses, the
'better' his/her English is.
10. Teachers, on the whole, are relatively aware of their own students' use of
strategies.
11. Language learning strategies are teachable and students can be

trained, in their use.
12. It is quite difficult to introduce a 'learner training' component into

a language course.
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1.6. APPENDICES
[1] APPENDIX 1.1: Developing reading strategies.

[2] APPENDIX 1.2: Training students in the use of metacognitive strategies.
[3] APPENDIX 1.3: Reflecting upon your learning.
[4] APPENDIX 1.4: Promoting learner autonomy.
1.7. READINGS
[1] READING 1.1: PICKARD, N. (1996). Out-of-class language learning

strategies. ELT Journal 50/2, pp. 150-158.
1.8. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Intelligence
[1] GENESEE, F. (1976). The Role of lntelligence in Second Language

Learning. Language Learning 26: pp. 267-80.
Aptitude
[1] SKEHAN, P. (1989). Individual Differences in Second Language
Acquisition. London and New York: Arnold, Chapter 3, pp. 25-44.
[2] WESCHE. M. B. (1981). Language Aptitude Measures in Streaming,

Matching Students with Methods, and Diagnosis of Learning
Problems, in Diller, K. (ed.): Individual Differences and Universals in
Language Learning Aptitude. Newbury Ho.use. Rowley, Mass. pp. 119-
39.
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Cognitive Style
[1] REID, J. (1987). The Learning Style Preferences of ESL Students.
TESOL Quarterly 21/1: pp. 87-111
Learning Strategies
[1] OXFORD. R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher

Should Know. Newbury House/ Harper and Row. New York.
[2] PALACIOS. l. M. (1996). The Importance of Language Learning Strategies in

Foreign Language Teaching. Cuadernos de Filología Inglesa 5/1: pp. 103-20.
[3] WENDEN. A. & RUBIN. J. (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning.

Prentice Hall lnternational. London.
[4] WENDEN, A. & RUBIN, J. (1991). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy.
Prentice Hall lnternational. Hemel Hempstead.
1.9. WEB READINGS
[1] (BBC Blog entry, 2009) Link to webpage:

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/blogs/pinarboynikoglu/individual-
differences-language-learning
[Read: December 6, 2010, GMT-5].
[2] (Rod Ellis, 1994 extract) Link to webpage:

http://www.scribd.com/doc/7326379/lndividual-Differences-in-
Language-Learning
[3] (Strategy Training for 2nd Language Learners, 2003) Link to webpage:
http://www .cal.org/resources/digest/0302cohen. html
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Chapter 2
AFFECTIVE INFLUENCES
ON LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Affective influences refer to the effects of the emotions and feelings on the learner
in the task of second language learning. We will be mainly concerned with the
affective influences of attitudes and motivation. Motivation has been the subject of
extensive research, initially in the domain of psychology, and later in SLA research.
In this unit we will first look at some of the main psychological theories of motivation,
then at motivation in second language learning, and finally at the implications of the
findings of motivation studies on the classroom teacher.
How important is the issue of motivation seen to be? The comments below show the
views on motivation of various researchers:
If motivation exists, success in language learning is guaranteed. (Corder 1981)
Motivation is a topic that can mean the difference between success and failure in the
classroom.
(Travers, Elliot & Kratchwill 1993)
The most successful language learners will be those who have both talent and a high level
of motivation for learning.
(Ellis 1985)
Motivation is the most important factor for success in language learning. It is even more
important than specific ability in languages.
(Gardner 1985)
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Positive self-concept, high self-esteem, positive attitude, clear understanding of the goals for
language learning, continuous active participation in the language learning process, the
relevance of conductive environment that could contribute to the success of language
learning (Hussin, Maarof, and D'Cruz, 2001)
In general, successful language learners appear to have higher self-esteem than those who
are unsuccessful (Richard-Amato, 2003).
Gardner, one of the researchers quoted above, has been a key figure during the last
few decades in the development of theories of motivation in SLA, and we will be
examining his findings in more detail during this unit.
However, before we look more closely at this issue, it may be interesting as well for
you to consider your own views on the topic of motivation.
2.2. ATTITUDES AND MOTIVATION: THEORETICAL

PERSPECTIVES
As we have seen from the quotes above, the motivational factor is considered a
central concept in any pedagogical theory since it is not possible to think of learning
without motivation. However, the definition and measure of motivation have caused
serious problems for psychologists and second language acquisition researchers,
as it is such a difficult concept to pin down precisely.
2.2.1. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
As we mentioned in the introduction to this unit, theories of motivation originate in

the field of psychology. We will briefly focus on the main psychological theories of
motivation, as their influence on the exploration of motivation in the language
learning context has been considerable. In psychology, three general approaches to
motivation can be distinguished in three different theories: Motivation for Learning
Theory, Need Achievement Theory and Attribution Theory. We will briefly examine
each of these in turn:
- The Motivation for Learning Theory
This theory is traditionally associated with the investigation of learning and,

strictly speaking, with the psychology of learning. This type of motivation is
affected by several motivational variables such as the teacher, the subject,
the student's personality and group dynamics. This motivation can be of two
different types, intrinsic and extrinsic. We speak of intrinsic motivation
when something is done to satisfy one's interests, to adapt oneself to reality
and to meet a certain need. Extrinsic motivation arises when the person is
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moved by forces external to him/herself. These two terms (extrinsic and
intrinsic) will be looked at in greater detail when we come to consider the
specific relationship between motivation and second language learning.
- The Need for Achievement Theory
This theory, developed by McClelland et al. (1958), can be defined as the

attempt to increase or keep our own abilities at the highest possible degree
in all those activities where a norm of excellence seems to be necessary. The
need for achievement is not necessarily the same as the search for
observable compensations or rewards such as getting high marks, a good
salary or a prestigious social position. The important thing is the individual´s
attitude with respect to achievement more than the achievement in itself.
McClelland et al. believe that the need to achieve depends to a great extent
on the results of previous learning experiences. A distinction is made between
high achievers and low achievers. High achievers are those people who,
because of their past learning experiences, expect the world to contain
reasonable challenges and enjoy responding to such challenges. Thus they
will perceive a new learning situation as outside their scope but reachable
with effort. On the contrary, low achievers are people who have had
discouraging or unsuccessful learning experiences. They prefer tasks, or set
themselves goals, which are either unattainable, being excessively
demanding, or too easy, in order to justify failure in the former and very likely
success in the latter. Although the need for achievement motivation has been
studied by psychologists in great detail, this is not the case in language
learning studies where it has been almost completely disregarded.
- A ttribution Theory
This studies the different ways people attribute causes to events. As early as
1944 Heider began to develop his central idea that it is how people perceive
events, rather than the events themselves, that influences their behaviour.
His ideas were expanded by others, in particular Weiner (1980), whose
contribution can be helpfully summarised in the chart below:
Table 2.1. Locus of Control.
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According to Attribution Theory, people may attribute events to four basic causes:
their own ability and the difficulty of the task, which are stable or fixed, and the effort
required to succeed, and luck, which is unstable and can fluctuate. The locus of
control refers to the sense the individual has of whether he/she is in control of
his/her actions and what he/she is learning. If one has a high internal locus of
control, one feels that things are achievable: one has the ability and one merely
needs to put in some effort.
On the other hand, if one has a high external locus of control, one is likely to
believe that tasks are too difficult, and successful fulfilment of tasks is really a matter
of luck: in short, things are out of one's control. The substantial research on locus of
control led Findley and Cooper (1983) to conclude that feeling in control of events is
associated with greater academic achievement:
Those with a high internal locus of control show strong tendencies to seek information and
use it appropriately in problem -solving tasks, to be active and assertive and to exhibit a high
degree of exploratory behaviour and excitement about learning.
(Williams and Burden 1997: 101)
According to Skehan (1989), the causative factors to which success is ascribed (that
is, having a high internal locus of control) are the most important elements of this
Attribution Theory for language learning. Why?
Ushioda (1996: 14) offers this example:
...if two students both fail to complete a problem-solving task but student A
believes she is no good at this kind of task, while student B believes she has
simply used the wrong approach, we can easily predict that student B will be
better motivated to try again.
2.2.2. TYPES OF MOTIVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
The attention paid by psychologists to motivation in general learning theories was

soon extrapolated to the language learning field. As early as the 1950's, Nida (1956)
was claiming that motivation was the most important factor in a person's learning of
a foreign language. In this context motivation is defined as the need or desire
learners feel to learn the second language. However, most people would agree that
motivation usually involves a great number of processes and that it can have several
sources.
Without a doubt, the most effective and extensive research on the role of attitudes
and motivation in SLA was carried out by Gardner and Lambert, who are considered
to be the pioneers in the field.
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Gardner and Lambert started by extending Mowrer's theory of motivation in first
language learning. According to Mowrer (1960), a child's motivation for expressing
him/herself derives from the basic desire to communicate with other valued people,
his/her parents in the first place, and then other members of the child's environment
and language community. In the same way. Gardner and Lambert believed that the
successful learners of a second language have to identify themselves with the
members of other linguistic and cultural groups in order to become part of that
community.
In addition, Erwin's theory of social relationships also had a relatively important

impact on Gardner and Lambert's model of motivation in SLA. According to Erwin
(1964), emotional dependence or respect for another individual may explain certain
instances of marked success in second language achievement.
These ideas, which informed their research, led Gardner and Lambert to the
formulation of a social-psychological theory of motivation in language learning,
which distinguishes between extrinsic (outside, 'social') types of motivation, and
intrinsic (internal, 'psychological') types. (A fascinating account of Gardner and
Lambert's early and later research, as well as of other studies into motivation, is
given in Appendix 3.3. As with the research studies detailed for Unit 1, you are not
expected to study this in depth. It is provided as an optional additional piece of
reading material.)
Based on Gardner and Lambert's pioneering work, the literature on motivation in

language learning usually distinguishes between the following different types of
motivation:
2.2.2.1. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation is derived from external sources, that is, it comes from outside
the learner. Extrinsic motivation is thus directly related to the materials and method
of teaching as well as to the constraints and rewards for the learner in the classroom.
Intrinsic motivation comes from internal sources, that is, from within the learner
him/herself, and reflects, for example, the urge to engage in a learning activity for its
own sake. Intrinsic motivation has also been associated with 'cognitive drive',
which is the urge to learn for its own sake. This is very typical of young children but
tends to deteriorate with age.
Ushioda, in describing intrinsic learning motivation, lists a number of positive

features:
- It is self-sustaining because it generates its own rewards.

- It leads to voluntary persistence at learning.
- It focuses on skill development and mastery.
- It is an expression of personal control and autonomy in the learning process.
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(1996:20-21)
The view of motivational sources as being fundamentally either extrinsic or intrinsic

has given rise to the Carrot and Stick Hypothesis versus the Internal Cause
Hypothesis, (Skehan 1989). The former simply refers to extrinsic motivation in non-
theoretical language, while the latter refers to intrinsic motivation.
2.2.2.2. Integrative versus Instrumental motivation
According to Gardner (1972:132) integrative motivation:
reflects a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other
group.
Thus learners who display integrative motivation have the desire to identify with
and integrate into the target language culture. Instrumental motivation refers to
practical considerations and it is connected with the advantages that the learning
of a foreign language can give the learner, for example, in terms of studies or career
promotion. A learner with instrumental motivation learns the language for what
he/she can 'get' with it. As integrative motivation is firmly based in the personality of
the learner, Gardner and Lambert hypothesised that it was more effective than a
purely instrumental motivation:
(instrumental motivation) is less effective because it is not rooted in the personality of the
learner, and therefore, more dependent on fallible external pressures (Skehan 1989:52).
Although these terms (integrative and instrumental) were introduced by Gardner and
Lambert in 1973 and have been used extensively since, at least one study (Burstall
et al. 1974) has shown that in practice it may be impossible to distinguish between
these two types of motivation. It is also worth considering that since the creation of
these terms (and therefore concepts) the instrumental spectrum has increased
exponentially, due to the variety of professional reasons that motivate people to learn
English. As David Graddol (2006) wrote. English has become a life skill, and as
such has ceased to be an object of study for its own sake. We seem to have moved,
temporarily perhaps, into a new instrumental phase for English, reducing (in general
terms) the impact of the integrative spectrum.
Nevertheless, it is also important to note that none of the four motivation types
identified so far are mutually exclusive. A learner could easily have all four motivation
types simultaneously - and presumably be an extremely successful learner!
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TASK 2.1
1. Of the four motivational types examined above, which do your students most
display? Why do you think this is the case?
2. Which of these motivational types can we, as language teachers, directly
influence in the language classroom? How?
A further interesting distinction which has been made with regard to types of
motivation is between global, situational and task motivation (Brown 1987). We will
now turn to look at what these are.
2.2.2.3. Global, situational and task motivation
Global motivation refers to the overall orientation of the learner towards the
learning of a foreign language. It is affected by things such as the learner's previous
educational experiences and a multitude of social factors, but also (and more
importantly for our purposes) it is affected by the teacher's own attitudes conveyed
either unconsciously or through explicit information and persuasion.
Situational motivation is more concerned with the learning context - the

classroom, the total environment - and this is less open to teacher interference,
although one could argue that by making the classroom an attractive place to be
(posters, students' work displayed, etc.) the teacher could influence this motivational
factor too.
Finally, task motivation is related to the way a learner approaches a specific task
in the classroom. Hebb (1959) suggested that both humans and animals seek a level
of "optimal arousal" at which they function best. (Subsequent studies, such as by
Berlyne (1960) and Hunt (1965) confirmed that even rats were motivated by curiosity
and novelty rather than just food and survival). This level of optimal arousal will vary
from person to person; and it is this area - trying to make tasks 'optimally arousing'
(or intrinsically interesting and attractive to learners) - in which we as teachers
probably invest most of our efforts.
2.2.3. THE COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION

We have examined some of the different types of motivation which are described in
the literature, and now we will turn to look at exactly what the component parts of
motivation are considered to be. Once again, we will be looking at the work of one
of the most influential figures in the field: R. Gardner.
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Gardner (1985) proposed the following equation to represent the different

components of motivation:
Effort
+
Setting and desire to achieve goals
+
Attitudes
Figure 2.1: Motivation components according to Gardner (1985).
Effort then is the first element in motivation. This effort, according to Gardner, may
emerge out of several factors, such as social pressures, great need to achieve,
desire to please a teacher or parents, etc. The setting and desire to achieve goals
is also very necessary in a theory of motivation because it is the component that
serves to channel the effort. Motivation also includes an attitudinal element toward
the learning of the foreign language. Depending on the different attitudes individuals
possess toward the learning of the language, their motivation will vary. In this
analysis of motivation, the emphasis laid on the attitudinal component clearly stands
out. It is this component we will now explore in greater depth.
Attitude generally refers to a person's inclination, which already exists in the

individual and is acquired by learning, that moves him/her to behave in a particular
way in certain situations. In Fishbein and Ajzen's words, attitude is described as:
a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or

unfavourable manner with respect to a given object.
(1975:6)
It is assumed that the underlying structure of this inclination responds to a particular

mental state. According to Sabater (1989), this mental state consists of the following
components: conative elements (a sort of behavioural automatism), affective
elements (patterns of values of the received stimuli) and cognitive features (beliefs,
that is, patterns of interpretation of the stimuli). As a corollary to these principles, it
is traditionally accepted that individual attitudes can be detected, measured,
modified and taught. Furthermore, attitudes develop within a frame of reference and
are situational. There are several factors which have a direct influence on attitudes.
Smith (1972) points out the following ones: family socialization, peer group influence,
specific events in the individual's past, sources of anxiety, age, sex, interest, aptitude
and intelligence. Teachers' and parents' attitudes are also of extreme importance as
they may have a direct effect on the students’ formation and change in attitudes.
Gardner's work led him to develop a socio-educational model of education where

the relationship between attitudes and motivation together with the learning of a
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second language are defined and explained. This model includes four main
components:
- The Social Milieu
This is the environment where the learner is situated and where attitudes and
motivation are formed. The community where individuals live conditions the
learners' views on the foreign culture, their expectations and their attitudes
toward the learning of the target language. In addition, the community
imposes a set of "Cultural Beliefs" through teachers, parents and/or peers
which will affect both the level of language competence reached and the
factors which will determine the learners' individual differences (IDs). Gardner
links the social milieu to different types of learning situations which give rise
to different types of motivation:
- There are additive learning situations, where learners who belong to a high
status language group add a second (or third) language to their repertoire,
and this has no detrimental effect on their first language proficiency. This
additive situation may give rise to an integrative motivation, according to
Gardner.
- Subtractive learning situations, on the other hand, occur when learners are
members of a minority language group, and are likely to replace the first
language with a more prestigious second language. In these contexts, a more
instrumental orientation is likely to be found. However, Gardner himself has
admitted that this distinction may be too simplistic, and social context may be
very subtle in its effect on motivation.
Individual Differences
This component relates to those factors within individuals which will determine their
level of achievement. They are expressed in terms of the following variables:
intelligence, language aptitude, motivation (instrumental and integrative orientations)
and situational anxiety.
Second Language Acquisition Context
A distinction is drawn between formal and informal language training. Formal

language training corresponds to formal language instruction while informal
language training has as its main objective the achievement of communication in a
natural setting. According to Gardner (1985), the nature of the context affects the
role played by the IDs in the acquisition process. The four variables mentioned in
the paragraph above apply to both formal and informal contexts while motivation and
situational anxiety become especially important in an informal setting.
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Outcomes
These can be linguistic (competence in the use of the second language) or non-
linguistic (concerning attitudes).
The four components of this socio-educational model of SLA should not be

considered as completely independent, as direct relationships exist between them.
Gardner, investigated the chains of causation between the different components of
this model by means of complex statistical procedures such as LISREL. (See
glossary for definition). According to Gardner, integrative orientation and attitudes
toward the learning situation come from the social milieu and affect motivation. On
the other hand, aptitude is an independent variable which only influences formal
learning contexts in a direct way.
TASK 2.2
Reading 2. 1 consists of a short extract from a book on Second Language

Acquisition detailing Gardner's socio-educational model of motivation. The
extract describes the components of Gardner's model below. Read the extract
and fill in the blank squares in the model.
Recent research into the role of attitudes and motivation in SLA has not introduced
any major innovations to Gardner's socio-educational model. However, concepts
such as the integrative - instrumental motivation duality have been called into
question. Some of the most representative of recent studies into determining the
motivational and attitudinal factors in foreign language learning are reviewed in
Appendix 3.3, and are included with this study material as optional extra reading.
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2.2.4. THE RELATIONSHP BETWEEN SUCCESS AND MOTIVATION: THE
RESULTATIVE HYPOTHESIS
One question which has persistently been asked in research into motivation is: to
what extent does success in language learning foster its own motivation? Or does
previous motivation lead to success in language learning? Or is it a case of both?
An assumption of most of the research into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation referred
to above is that motivation is the cause of successful learning. In other words, if a
learner is motivated, he/she will learn.
However, the Resultative Hypothesis suggests that for some people it is success
which provides the motivation to continue, rather than the desire for success which
provides the initial motivation (see the Need for Achievement Motivation referred to
above). In other words, initially successful learning results in motivation to continue
learning. The idea that motivation is the result of achievement was supported by the
studies carried out by four main researchers. These are Savignon (1972); Burstall
(1974, 1975): Herman (1979) and Strong (1984) (Their research is summarised in
Appendix 3.3). Skehan sums up the Resultative Hypothesis' position succinctly:
<.
Those learners who do well experience reward, and are encouraged to try
harder: learners who do not do so well are discouraged by their lack of success,
and, as a result, lack persistence. Motivation would be a consequence rather
than a cause of success (1989: 49).
The Resultative Hypothesis helps to explain the conflicting research results into
whether motivation is the cause of success in learning. Ellis, however, adds an
important rider to the Skehan quote above:
...learners who experience success in learning may become more, and in some
cases, less motivated to learn... In a context like Canada, success in learning
French may intensify English-speaking learners liking for French culture.
However, in California success in learning English may b r i n g Mexican women
into situations where they experience discrimination and thus reduce their
appreciation of American culture.
(1997: 76)
Ellis point is that successful language learning in some cases may actually lead to
demotivation, and that social context always needs to be taken into account when
considering questions such as these.
2.3. ATTITUDES AND MOTIVATION: CLASSROOM

PERSPECTIVES
As we have seen above, according to the theorists, there is no clear answer to the
question of whether motivation is causative or resultative. In fact, rather like the
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question over which came first - the chicken or the egg – the value of this question
is largely academic, as it does not pose any problem for the classroom teacher; it
simply means that among the things we as teachers do to increase student
motivation, we should also include the likelihood of success for students in their
learning activities. Hence the concern with ways of catering to mixed ability groups
of students, and trying to ensure maximum success in learning across a range of
abilities (in the subject Classroom Management you will find more information on the
topic of mixed ability classes).
Success in the classroom context does not necessarily mean simply 'getting the
answers right', but could include things like students producing and understanding
language, or being aware of a certain amount of progress in their learning. The key
here is that teachers need to ensure that students are aware of their own success,
whether this is conveyed through grades, praise or whatever. The other side of the
coin, failure, is also the teacher's job to convey. This may sound shocking, but Penny
Ur puts the case for teachers pointing to failure very eloquently:
success loses its sweetness if it is too easily attained and if there is

no real possibility or experience of failure. (Also), it is inevitable that
there will be occasional failures in any normal learning experience, and
they are nothing to be ashamed of; good learners recognise this, take
setbacks in their stride, and look for ways to exploit them in order to
succeed next time.
(Ur 1996:278)
However, as we know from experience, not all learners are 'good' learners, and, as
Ur also points out, it is vital for the teacher to know when the admission of failure
may demoralise and lower a learner's motivation:
There may be cases where you may prefer to ignore or play down a failure; and
success can be made more likely by judicious selection -of tasks, and by setting
the (minimum) standard of success at a clearly achievable level.
(1996: ibid.)
2.3.1. THE TEACHER´S RESPONSIBILITY TO MOTIVATE
The above discussion on the need for the teacher to convey to their students whether
or not success has been achieved in a task leads us to a consideration of exactly
what the teacher's role in motivating students should be.
From our point of view as classroom teachers, probably the most important point
about motivation, of whatever type, is the extent to which we can encourage it in our
students, as it appears to be so closely related to success in language learning.
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However, the recent learner-centred approaches to language teaching have
increasingly emphasised the teacher 's function as that of 'facilitator' or 'provider of
materials' or 'helper', who should gently guide the learner into taking over more
responsibility for his/ her own learning, thus becoming more autonomous. At the
same time, there are those (e.g. Girard 1977) who insist that the teacher's job is to
motivate learners, seemingly defining a more central role for the teacher. There
seems to be a basic contradiction here.
The way in which the individual teacher decides to deal with this apparent dichotomy
will depend mainly on his/her teaching context. For example, a group of highly
motivated adult migrants who need the target language to survive in a new country
may only need the teacher as organiser and provider of information. A teacher of
adolescents in an EFL context will obviously be required to take a more active part
in motivating these students.
It is interesting to note that studies into this question (e.g. Ur 1996) show that there
is no one right way for a teacher to motivate students. Some teachers appear to
motivate students by setting what are perceived of as high standards, and then
showing students that they are capable of achieving them, possibly in an atmosphere
of 'strictness'. Other teachers appear to motivate students by providing them with
gentle, warm, personal support, while yet others manage to motivate their students
through making tasks and lessons interesting, and also by conveying a sense of their
own enthusiasm about the topic, or about teaching itself.
2.3.2. MOTIVATIONAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OLDER AND YOUNGER LEARNERS
There is a view prevalent among teachers that it is easier to motivate children than
adults. While it may be true to say that children's motivation can be quickly raised
(for example, by activities which they find particularly fun or interesting - see below),
it is also true to say that children will often lose interest or motivation very quickly. If
children find an activity boring or pointless, they quickly become demotivated,
whereas adults will be more tolerant. Thus perhaps it would be truer to say that
children's motivation is more likely to vary, and it is influenced by the immediate
surroundings, like the teacher or the task, while older students' motivation tends to
be more stable.
Thus it is generally agreed that children have a greater immediate need to be

motivated, either by the teacher, or the materials, or both. Sometimes prizes or
similar extrinsic rewards are used to motivate children; however, these have short-
lived effects, and teachers usually try to motivate younger learners intrinsically - for
example, by getting their students interested in the activity for its own sake. With
children, this might mean using activities which involve a visual stimulus (for
example, pictures), or an aural stimulus (for example songs), or a physical stimulus
(for example games involving physical movement, such as 'musical chairs').
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2.3.3. SHORT -AND LONG- TERM MOTIVATION
Another distinction which it is useful for the classroom teacher to make is that
between short-term and long-term motivation. The former refers to motivation over
a short period of time (for example an hour, a single lesson, a week...), while the
latter refers to motivation over a longer period of time (for example, a month, a term,
a year...). Obviously, our concern as teachers is how to maintain our students'
motivation, both short and long-term. This may be done not only through the types
of activities or materials selected, but also through more 'abstract' considerations,
such as fostering a good group dynamic within the class.
2.4. THE DEBATE CONTINUES
Despite motivation being one of the IDs which has provoked the greatest amount of
investigation (and resultant literature), it is an area that still requires considerable
expansion. There are several questions which need to be addressed more fully if we
are to have a more complete picture of the exact role of motivation in learning a
foreign language. Some of the areas that could be explored include:
- The distinction between the integrative and the instrumental orientation in

motivation. To what extent are they tenable as different orientations? In what
cases do they overlap? What are the actual elements which constitute each
of these two subsystems? How do other types of motivation or orientation
interact with these?
- The role of attitudes in motivation. Do all attitudes influence motivation?

Which attitudes are the most relevant? In what way can attitudes be modified
and taught?
- The different variables which affect motivation. What is the role of age, sex,
cultural background, teacher's attitudes, intelligence, aptitude and personality
in motivation? Which are the relationships between these variables when
dealing with motivation?
- The importance of what Gardner calls the 'social milieu'. At least a clear
distinction should be drawn between a second and a foreign language setting.
It seems perfectly reasonable to assume that attitudinal and motivational
variables will not have the same effect in different types of settings.
- Research instruments for the investigation of motivation should also be

critically examined and revised. Are self-report data such as questionnaires
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(direct and indirect), scales, etc. good enough to account by themselves for
the attitudinal and motivational variables? Can observation be easily included
in a research design dealing with motivation? What are the advantages and
dis advantages of other research instruments, such as interviews, think-aloud
methods, diaries and sociometric measures? Do the tests administered at the
beginning and end of the course provide enough valid and reliable data to
assess students' progress?
- Longitudinal studies which may focus on the role of attitudes and motivation
over longer periods of time are also urgently needed.
- How can the contributions of motivation research be integrated into areas of

second language teaching such as course design, evaluation, instructional
materials and the learner's role?
2.5. MOTIVATION: CONCLUSION
In the course of our examination of motivation in this unit, it has become clear that
motivation plays a key role in second language learning; if there is a lack of
inclination towards language learning, learning will not take place. We, as teachers,
should try to motivate our students as much, and as effectively, as possible. We
have looked at a number of ways of doing so.
Apart from specific teacher-generated strategies to increase motivation, we also

need to take into account our students' interests, lacks and needs. Appendices 2.1
and 2.2 present two simple ways of finding out about our learners´ attitudes and
preferences for learning. The data obtained from these questionnaires should be,
when possible, incorporated into our course design. Our students should consider
themselves as part of the teaching and learning process and be allowed to make
decisions by participating directly in the teaching programme: students' needs and
preferences should be incorporated into the pedagogic aims set by the official
guidelines or syllabi.
Finally, it also seems worthwhile for us as teachers to ask ourselves to what extent
we behave in our classes as motivating teachers (see Appendix 2.3). On some
occasions we may be tempted to believe that our students are the only ones who
are responsible for weaknesses or failure to learn a language; this may not be
entirely true or accurate. lt is important that we, from time to time, assess and reflect
upon our own teaching with the aim of making changes in order to increase our
effectiveness, and our students' learning, and also in order to derive more personal
satisfaction from our jobs.
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2.6. APPENDICES
[1] APPENDIX 2.1: Basic needs analysis.

[2] APPENDIX 2.2: The way I learn English.
[3] APPENDIX 2.3: Am I a motivating teacher?
2.7. READINGS
[1] READING 2.1: Gardner's socio-educational model of motivation. In Baker
(1993: 96-98).

[1] CASTRO CALVIN, J. (1991). A Reappraisal of Motivation: The
Cornerstone of L2 Learning. Revista A licantina de Estudios Ingleses
4: 11- 23.
[2] CROOKES, G. & SCHMIDT. R. (1989). Motivation: Reopening the

Research Agenda. University of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL 8:
217 - 56.
[3] PALACIOS, l. M. (1994). La enseñanza del inglés en España a

debate. Perspectivas de Profesores y alumnos. Servicio de
Publicaciones de la Universidad de Santiago.
[4] R IBÉ, R. & VIDAL, N. (1995). La Enseñanza de la Lengua

Extranjera en la Educación Secundaria. Alhambra Longman.
Madrid. (Chapter 6 "La motivación", pp. 5 5-64).
[5] SKEHAN, P. (1989). Individual Differences in Second Language

Acquisition. London and New York: Arnold (Chapter 4, pp. 49-72).
2.9. WEB READINGS
[1] (Abisamra, N.) Affect in language teaching, 2009. Link to webpage:

http://nadabs .tripod.com/motivation/
[Read: December 6, 2010, GMT- 5].
[2] (Ebata, M. 2008) Link to webpage:

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Ebata -MotivationFactors.html
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[3] (Motivation and e-learning, 2010). Link to webpage:

http://www.englishonline.org.cn/en/teachers/workshops/beyond-
classroom/ teaching-ti ps/motivation-elearning#
[Read: December 6, 2010, GMT- 5).
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Chapter 3
PHYSICAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
INFLUENCING LANGUAGE
LEARNING
3.1. INTRODUCCION
Physical and psychological factors include mainly age and personality, and we will
be concerned with these factors in sections 3.2. and 3.3. of this unit. In the last part
we will look at the distinctive features of so-called 'good language learners'. As
mentioned at the beginning of this subject, the categories "cognitive", "physical",
"affective" should not be regarded as distinct, completely independent clusters of
factors, but rather as interrelating variables that interact with one another.
3.2. AGE
Several reasons may justify the amount of attention paid to the role of age in SLA.
Firstly, it is a variable which can be easily measured without the need for special
instruments or tests. This is not the case with other important second language
acquisition factors such as motivation, aptitude, cognitive style and learning
strategies, since for these factors, direct or indirect research instruments have to be
used; secondly, it is a factor with very practical implications for the planning and
design of foreign language teaching within the educational system, for example in
terms of what age to introduce the foreign language into the classroom; thirdly, it has
been generally taken for granted that young learners learn languages more easily
than adults.
A large number of researchers have dealt with the role of the age factor in SLA;
however, there is no general agreement on the issue. Obviously it is difficult to
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compare learners of different ages, not least because they may be learning a
language in very different contexts or environments. Compare, for instance, the older
learner who is learning in an ESL environment, and needs the language for work
and basic survival, with the 8 year-old who is studying in an EFL classroom for 2
hours a week. However, we will be assuming a certain degree of homogeneity of
context as we consider the role of age in SLA.
3.2.1. ROUTE VERSUS RATE OF SLA
Ellis (1985) makes a very useful distinction between the effects of age on the route
of SLA and the effects of age on the rate of SLA.
Studies concerned with the role of age in the route of SLA appear to suggest that
the age of the learners does not alter the route (or order) of acquisition. This
means, then, that it is possible to speak of a route of acquisition which is not affected
by the age factor and which consequently applies to both children and adult second
language learners. The investigations carried out by Bailey et al. (1974) and Cazden
et al. (1975) support this claim: both these researchers found that adult, adolescent
and young children went through the same stages in the route of SLA.
As far as the rate of acquisition is concerned, the evidence is not so clear. The age
variable seems to play an important role in success in SLA but, contrary to the
general belief, adults and particularly adolescents appear to be better language
learners than children. Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle (1978) found, for example, that
adolescents were the learners who progressed the most rapidly, especially in their
command of the grammatical system of the language. In contrast, the differences in
pronunciation skills were not- so clear between the different age groups of learners.
Burstall et al. (1974), the research team of the National Foundation for Educational
Research (NFER), in Britain, carried out an evaluation of the teaching of French in
primary schools, and reached a similar conclusion. In their study older learners
tended to be more efficient than younger ones and, in their view, the achievement of
skill in a foreign language is primarily a function of the amount of time spent studying
that language. Moreover, success in SLA also appears to be strongly related to the
age when SLA is initiated. This is particularly true where pronunciation is concerned.
Learners who start the learning of a second language at an early age are more
predisposed to acquiring better pronunciation skills than those learners who start to
learn a foreign language at a later age.
However, Krashen did not appear to share this view in full. He explained the role of
age in SLA in the following way:
It has been popularly assumed that the age itself is a predictor of second
language proficiency, that younger acquirers are better at second language
acquisition than older acquirers. It can be argued, however, that age is not in itself
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a predictor of second language rate or attainment, and that here too everything
reduces down to the quantity of comprehensible input and the level of the affective
filter.
(Krashen 1982:43)
Krashen was proposing that younger learners would be exposed to more

comprehensible input than adults, and that they were more 'open' emotionally to the
experience of learning a foreign language, unlike adults, who may feel anxiety or
stress in a FL learning situation.
3.2.2. AGE HYPOTHESES
Apart from the empirical research reviewed above, several scholars have also
formulated different hypotheses to account for the role of age in second language
acquisition. The principal existing theories on the effects of age in SLA can be
grouped under three main headings: the critical period hypothesis, affective
explanations and cognitive explanations.
3.2.2.1. Critical period hypothesis
The critical period hypothesis assumes that there is an age when language
acquisition occurs naturally and simply. Penfield and Roberts (1959) believed that
the best age for second language acquisition corresponds to the first ten years of life
as the brain during these early years preserves its plasticity. In their view, this
plasticity of the brain tends to disappear when the individual reaches puberty and as
a result, the flexibility required for the mastery of a second language is lost. They
justified this on the grounds of a series of neurological explanations. They believed
that the lateralisation of the language function in the left hemisphere of the brain
takes place with puberty.
This means that before puberty the two hemispheres of the brain have not yet
acquired the lateralisation, or specialisation of function, which characterises the adult
brain, and thus a child's brain is theoretically more 'receptive ' to language than an
adult´s brain. An interesting anecdote is that Penfield's own experience of language
learning seemed to be reflected in his theories: living in the French-speaking
environment of Montreal, he became keenly aware of how easily his (English-
speaking) children seemed to 'pick up' French, while he himself experienced
considerable difficulty or even failure in trying to learn French.
Penfield and Roberts' theory is supported later on by Lenneberg (1967), who proves
that the neurological basis for language learning in children and adults is different.
Lenneberg (1967) used data from aphasia and mental retardation to justify his
position. He found that when children before ten suffer brain damage in the left
hemisphere, the language function shifts to the right part of the brain and they can
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recover the speech faculty. However, after puberty language seems to be fixed in
the left hemisphere of the brain, as adolescents and adults cannot recover speech.
Thus the idea of there being a biological timetable for effective SLA was given a
neurological sanction - and it is difficult to argue with science.
Nevertheless, the link between age and brain lateralisation was called into question
later on by Krashen (1973, 1981, 1982), who argued that lateralisation occurs much
earlier than ten, at the age of five, and it does not imply the loss of any linguistic
abilities.
3.2.2.2. Affective explanations
Other scholars have explained the role of age in SLA by putting forward affective
arguments. In their opinion, the learning difficulties experienced by adults may be
due to the psychological and personal changes learners undergo with puberty.
Larsen and Smalley (1972) considered that after puberty individuals have more
problems in adapting themselves to the foreign language culture because their
personality has already been consolidated, or, to use the jargon, their 'language
ego', has become fixed, and is less permeable. This idea was backed up by Lambert
and Klineberg (1967), who found that the age of ten was the most positive period for
introducing cultural differences to children because they were extremely receptive.
Older learners it seems, almost always have a 'foreign accent' in the second
language, whereas younger learners do not. Guiora et al. (1972) also discovered
more pronunciation ability at the early stages of the development of the language
ego, which usually becomes fíxed around the age of puberty. In their opinion, this
explains the difficulties adults and older adolescents have in acquiring good
pronunciation in the foreign language.
Curran (1976) believed that children acquire second languages more easily because
they are not threatened by the sounds and structures of the new language. Young,
children do not mind looking for support in learning from others while this is not the
case with adults, who like to appear self-confident. This view is reminiscent of
Krashen's Affective Filter.
Brown (1973) felt that SLA is related to different stages of acculturation. This is
defined as the learner's ability to respond to foreign language culture. Children tend
to be more flexible because they are less culture-bound than adults. They move
through the stages of acculturation more quickly and thus acquire the L2 more
quickly.
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Neufeld (1978) made a distinction between primary and secondary levels of
language. Primary levels are related to a reasonably large functional vocabulary,
and basic mastery of pronunciation and grammatical rules. Secondary levels, on the
other hand, comprise the capacity to manipulate complex grammatical structures
and different language styles. According to Neufeld (1978), all learners are able to
acquire the primary levels of the foreign language. However, young children acquire
secondary levels much better than adults because they are more interested in being
accepted by the other members of the speech community. For Schumann (1975)
all these positions may be as important as neurological maturation to explain the
difficulties in adult second language learning. In his view, adults who become
bilingual or proficient in the language do so because under certain conditions "they
can overcome the social and psychological barriers of their leaning" (1975:231).
3.2.2.3. Cognitive explanations
Finally, cognitive theories have also been used to account for the effects of age in
SLA. These theories share the belief that adults have a greater ability to understand
language as a formal system, while children are not so well-predisposed to respond
to language as form. In other words, while adults tend to make use of inductive
reasoning because they have more developed cognitive faculties, children are more
prone to resort to their natural Language Acquisition Decive (LAD).
Rosansky (1975) explained the effects of age in SLA in terms of Piagetian states of
intellectual development. According to this view, the crucial period of language
development is the period Piaget (1959) referred to as the "period of concrete
operations" just before the stage of formal operations which appears with the onset
of puberty. Rosansky (1975) believes that the child is more open and flexible towards
the new language than the adult, who is more prone to identify differences between
the target language (TL) and the mother tongue.
Krashen (1982), however, felt that "older acquirers", that is, adolescents, are
superior to children in the rate of acquisition because they probably get more
comprehensible input and have means of producing language earlier. Krashen
(1982) also claimed that a significant use of the Monitor is only possible after the
learner has undergone the period of formal operations as described by Piaget
(1959). The Monitor helps the learner to talk early and to obtain input. He finally
concluded that adults and adolescents have a greater ability to obtain
comprehensible input and this is, according to him, the real causative variable, and
not age in itself. Ausubel (1964) also declared himself in favour of language learning
for adults.
The table that follows summarises the main explanations of the role of age in SLA.
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EXPLANATION MAIN ARGUMENTS
The language learning capacity of adults is impaired by deterioration in their ability to
1. Sensory acuity perceive and segment sounds in an L2.
There are changes in the neurological structure of the brain at certain ages which affect
2. Neurological learners' abilities to acquire the L2 pronunciation and grammar. Various accounts of the
nature of these changes have been proposed to account for the 'loss of plasticity' that
occurs with age (e.g. lateralisation and cerebral maturation).
3.Affective-motivational Child learners are more strongly motivated to cornmunicate with native speakers
factors and to integrate culturally.Also child learners are less conscious and suffer less
anxiety.
4.Cognitive factors Adult learners rely on general, inductive learning abilities to learn an L2, while children
use their LAD.
5.Input The language input received by children is superior to that received by adults.
However, adults may experience more negotiation of meaning.
6. Storage of L2
Children store L1 and L2 information separately; adults store L1 and L2, knowledge
information
together.
Table 3.1. Explanations of the role of age in L2 acquisition (after Ellis 1994).
Surprisingly, not much research has been concerned with the interrelationship of
age with other SLA variables such as strategy use, personality, motivation, etc.
Wankowski (1973) tried to investigate the correlations of the dichotomy extroversion
/ introversion in personality with age; he found that before puberty extroversion tends
to have a positive relationship with achievement whereas after puberty introverts are
more successful. Gardner (1985) also believed that age may be an important
variable in anxiety research as older students usually experience higher levels of
anxiety than younger children.
3.2.3. AGE AND CURRICULUM DESIGN
As the issue of the optimal age for language learning has such a great impact on
curriculum design and educational planning, it would be interesting to reflect a little
further on this issue. Given that the research evidence is inconclusive, how do
educational planners decide when FL teaching should be introduced into the school
curriculum?
Bearing the general conclusions above in mind, we believe that the following factors
should be taken into account when deciding at what stage foreign language
instruction can be introduced:
 The educational value given to foreign language teaching within each of the
stages of the curriculum.
This value will be conditioned by learners ' needs and the demands of society.
It is also important to consider how this foreign language instruction is
structured at the different levels of education. Some countries (e.g. Spain)
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introduce the study of a foreign language now at the age of four at the age of
eight at the primary educational level. However, this does not necessarily
guarantee that children will learn the foreign language faster. One should
keep in mind that children are not better language learners than adolescents
or adults. However, it is reasonable to think that as learners are going to be
exposed to the foreign language for a longer period of time than the majority
of pupils were before and, consequently, they are going to receive a higher
amount of comprehensible input, this will bring about an improvement in the
children's mastery of English. According to the new educational system,
learners will be studying a foreign language for a twelve-year period, which,
in theory, should provide them with a better command of the target language.
 The teaching of a foreign language during the first cycle of primary education
should not be considered as something in isolation.
 The general educational value given to the learning of foreign languages

needs to be made explicit in both primary and secondary school curricula.
What do we want our pupils to know of the foreign language, English in our
case, at the end of each cycle? Why? What for? This must be determined by
the learners' objective and subjective needs, general educationaI objectives
and the demands of society.
 The availability of human and material resources to develop a reasonable

language programme.
 Have teachers been specifically trained in the methodology that should be

used according to the learners’ stage of personal development? Are teaching
materials available in accordance with the learners' age?
 It seems to be clear that for an effective and useful introduction of foreign

language teaching to young children, there must be strong links between
primary and secondary education together with a high degree of coordination
between the different cycles within the primary level.
No doubt, the problem and role of the age variable in SLA will be the centre of
polemical discussions and debates in the future as there are political, economic and
pedagogical factors involved with very clear implications for curriculum and course
design. Therefore, further research, feasibility studies and educational programme
evaluation need to be carried out in this area; one should bear in mind that the first
contact learners have with a foreign language is really the basis for success in future
years.
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TASK 3.1
List the pros and cons of introducing the study of a foreign language at an early age.
3.2.4. AGE: CONCLUSION
As we said at the beginning of this unit, the research findings with regard to the
effects of age in SLA are not conclusive, and this is still a hotly debated topic. Yet,
although there is no full agreement between scholars about some of the questions
involved, the following principles seem to be generally accepted:
 Age does not influence the route of acquisition although it does affect the rate
of acquisition.
 Contrary to general belief, children are not per se better language learners
than adults.
 Adolescents seem to be the best language learners in comparison with young

children and adults.
 Children seem to master pronunciation skills much better than adults. In

contrast, adults have a clearer idea than children of language as a formal
system, as their general cognitive faculties are more highly developed. This
explains why the learning of grammar is generally easier for adults than for
children. Penny Ur usefully expands on this point:
The truth of theassumption that young children learn better i s even more dubious if
applied to formal classroom learning: here there is only one teacher to a number of
children, exposure time is very limited, and the 'survival' motive does not usually
apply. Moreover, young children have not as yet developed the cognitive skilIs and
self-discipline that enable them to make the most of limited teacher -mediated
information; they rely more on intuitive acquisition, which in its turn relies on a larger
volume of comprehensible input than there is time for in lessons.
(1996: 287)
 Success in SLA seems to be closely related to the age when SLA is started.
The amount of comprehensible input appears to be crucial, as does the
positive effect an early start appears to have on a child's subsequent attitude
to foreign language learning (Cenoz 1997).
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 None of the existing theories on the role of age in SLA explains by itself this
question in full. Biological, affective and cognitive factors have to be taken
into consideration to explain the effects of age in SLA. No one can question
that all human beings develop from biological, cognitive and affective
perspectives simultaneously. As Lightbown and Spada put it:
The learner’s age is one of the characteristics which determine the way
in which an individual approaches second language learning. But the
opportunities for learning (both inside and outside the classroom), the
motivation to learn, and individual differences in aptitude for language
learning are also important determining factors in both rate of learning and
eventual success in learning.
(1993: 50)
No age appears to stand as critical or optimal for all aspects of SLA. Language
learning may occur at different stages in human development from the early years
to adult life.
TASK 3.2
As a conclusion to this section, we would like you to review your assumptions

about age and language learning. Do you think the following statements are
true or false? Why? (You will need to write about 3-4 lines for each answer.)
1. Younger children learn languages better than older ones; children

learn better than adults .
2. Children tend to have 'better accent s' than adult learners.
3. Foreign language learning in schools should be started at as early an
age as possible.
4. Children learn languages in basically the same way.
5. Adults have a longer concentration span than children.
3.3. PERSONALITY FACTORS

SLA researchers have also been concerned with the role of this factor in the learning
process. Personality has been studied in terms of a series of features that seem to
be present in the personalities of particular learners. In the pages that follow,
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attention will be paid to the following personality features: extroversion versus
introversion, tolerance of ambiguity, anxiety and risk-taking.
3.3.1. EXTROVERSION / INTROVERSION
The working hypothesis of most studies conducted in this area has been that
extroverted learners learn more rapidly and more successfully than introverted
learners. This is based on the general belief that if the learner is extroverted, he/she
will tend to interact with others, and thus practise the language more often than an
introverted learner; consequently, an extroverted learner's learning will progress
more rapidly. On this issue Krashen argues that an outgoing personality may
contribute to "acquisition" rather than to learning in a classroom situation.
The research conducted does not fully prove the previous assumption. For example
Entwhistle and Entwhistle (1970) reported a very low correlation between
extroversion and academic success amongst British university students. They also
found that introversion was associated with good study methods, but introversion
still correlated significantly with achievement even when the effect of good study
methods was removed.
In Naiman et al.'s study (1978) a direct correlation between extroversion/introversion

and proficiency was not detected. Neither did Swain and Burnaby (1976) find the
expected relationship between their measures of sociability and talkativeness on the
one hand, and proficiency on the other. Other research studies (e.g. Ely 1986a;
Strong 1983) have found that sociability does not predict classroom participation,
nor does extroversion correlate with linguistic competence.
In contrast, some studies do seem to bear out the relationship between an extrovert
personality and success in language learning. For example, Rossier (1976),
reviewed in Ellis (1994), discovered that oral fluency correlated with
extroversion/introversion as measured by Eysencks's Personality lnventory.
Where does that leave us? Is or isn't extroversion/introversion a deciding factor in

second language learning? It would appear from the above studies that a positive
relationship between extroversion and proficiency can be demonstrated, but the
appearance of such a relationship is somewhat conditioned by research design
decisions, such as the variables used and, particularly, the measurement
instruments employed (personality questionnaires, inventories and scales).
Another important point to bear in mind is that there may be a correlation between
extroversion and communicative abilities, (extrovert students are probably more
chatty) but not necessarily between extroversion and overall competence, both
linguistic and communicative. (Hence the findings of Entwhisle and Entwhistle
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above, in which it was found that introverted students often had developed good
study methods and had high overall language proficiency). A major contributor to the
confusion surrounding whether or not extroversion/introversion plays a decisive role
in language learning seems to be that research studies define proficiency or
competence in different ways: some studies attempt to measure communicative
ability, assuming that this is competence, while others focus on grammatical
accuracy, pronunciation, lexis, etc., assuming that this is competence.
3.3.2. TOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY
It has been hypothesised that tolerance of ambiguity is a necessary quality for a

good language learner. This refers to the ability to face new stimuli of an ambiguous
nature without frustration and help from anybody; in other words, we would say that
a student tolerates ambiguity if he/she accepts the general principle that not
everything in the second language can be explained by means of rules and thus
interprets deviations from the norm as part of the linguistic system.
In one of the earliest studies into tolerance of ambiguity, Budner (1962) defines
ambiguous situations as being novel, complex or insoluble; tolerance of ambiguity is
defined as the ability to perceive such situations as acceptable, whereas intolerance
of ambiguity is a tendency to perceive ambiguous situations as sources of threat.
Using a specially designed scale, the research subject checks off a number of
descriptions of ambiguous situations as threatening or desirable in various degrees
of intensity. Naiman et al. (1978), in a study using Budner's Scale, reported that
tolerance of ambiguity was clearly connected with listening comprehension scores
but not with imitation test scores. Good listeners are not worried by ambiguous
situations. Other data they provide show that tolerant students prefer the teacher to
use the foreign language more in class and exhibit a lack of ethnocentricity.
However, some years later Chapelled and Roberts (1986) reported the lack of
connection between tolerance of ambiguity as a dimension of the learner's
personality and proficiency. But in spite of the inconclusive nature of the findings in
this area, tolerance of ambiguity is generally regarded as one of the features of good
language learners (GLLs -see section 3.4).
3.3.3. ANXIETY
Three different types of anxiety can be distinguished: trait anxiety, state anxiety,
and situation-specific anxiety. The first one would be a permanent personality
feature; state anxiety would be more temporary and could be defined as that
experienced by a student at a particular moment in time as a reaction to a particular
situation. Finally, situation-specific anxiety is that aroused by a specific situational
context such as speaking in front of other people, taking an exam, participating in
class, etc.
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Many of the studies on this variable prove the existence of situational language
anxiety felt by most learners when engaging in the process of language learning.
The reasons for this may be of a different nature: fear of making mistakes in front of
other students in the class, tests, teachers' questions, over self-awareness, lack of
self-confidence and self-esteem, etc.
Questionnaires and scales have been the main research instruments used to
measure this variable. Thus, Gardner and Smythe (1975) designed a French Class
Anxiety Scale based on the responses obtained from a questionnaire. Horwitz,
Horwitz and Cope (1986) developed a Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale.
This consists of thirty- three items relating to three different sources of anxiety: (a)
communication apprehension, (b) tests, and (c) fear of negative evaluation.
As regards the effect of anxiety on language learning, Maclntyre and Gardner (1991)
believe that it may affect the three main stages involved in language learning, that
is, the input, the actual processing and the output. However, most scholars up to
date have concentrated on the effects of anxiety on the actual output rather than on
the other two stages of learning (input and processing), since the influences of
anxiety on these two are more difficult to be measured and accounted for.
Finally, attention should be paid to Scovel's (1978), distinction between facilitating

and debilitating anxiety. The former helps learners to overcome a particular
situation since it may reinforce their effort and desire to do well and succeed; the
latter, on the contrary, may hinder or constrain learning since learners cannot control
themselves; consequently, results are less satisfactory than those which would be
obtained in a neutral situation. It appears that a little anxiety (facilitative: it facilitates
or helps) is good for learning and performance whereas an overload of anxiety
(debilitative - it debilitates or weakens) is detrimental.
The findings of research conducted on the effects of anxiety on language learning

serve to explain and justify the attention paid by modern language teaching
approaches to the fostering and encouragement of a good atmosphere in the
classroom.
3.3.4. RISK-TAKING / INHIBITION

The presence and absence of inhibition has also been explored with regard to
personality and its effects on language learning. It is generally claimed that a risk-
taking attitude is helpful for rapid progress in an L2 (McClelland et al. 1953).
Krashen (1981) maintains that with the onset of puberty, self-consciousness

increases and there is greater inhibition, as learners develop an Affective Filter. Thus
adolescent learners generally feel more self-conscious and tend to adopt a more
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passive attitude than younger learners who show a higher degree of spontaneity in
their behaviour.
Guiora et al. (1972) designed an experiment with the purpose of exploring the effects
on pronunciation of a reduction of inhibition produced by administering small doses
of alcohol to a group of learners. The results indicated that the subjects who received
the alcohol treatment did better on pronunciation tests than those who did not. As a
result, Guiora et al. concluded that inhibition had a negative effect on L2
pronunciation. However, before you reach for a bottle of whisky to take into class,
you need to be aware that studies such as these have limited credibility:
While results such as these are interesting, as well as amusing, they are not convincing, since
experiments such as these are far removed from the reality of the classroom situation. We
may also note in passing, that when larger doses of alcohol were administered, pronunciation
rapidly deteriorated!
(Lightbown and Spada 1993: 38)
Ely (1986b), in a rather more sensible experiment assessed classroom risk-taking

with a six-item scale. The results showed that there was an indirect relationship
between risk-taking and language learning success.
To conclude with this personality feature, we need to be aware that risk-taking

research is largely based on investigations in psychological laboratories in which
subjects agree to participate in certain tasks involving risk-taking behaviour. Most of
this research involves out-of-context behaviour, on tasks of no integral significance
for the subjects. Consequently, the validity of this research may be highly
questionable.
3.3.5. OTHER PERSONALITY FACTORS

Following studies in the field of psychology in the 1950s on such personality traits
as authoritarianism, ethnocentrism ahd dogmatism, Gardner and Lambert looked at
some of these traits in relation to their effects on language learning. Their aim was
to investigate exactly how these traits, and general social attitudes such as 'anomie'
and Machiavellianism (explained below) related to the success or otherwise of
learning a second language.
First we need to identify what these traits and social attitudes are. Stern provides a
clear definition:
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to see one’s own community as superior and other groups as
inferior. The authoritarian personality is ethnocentric, uncritical of authority figures,
traditionalist and prejudice-prone. Machiavellianism is the individual's tendency to manipulate
others. 'Anomie'... refers to the loss of an unconscious acceptance of society as it is,...
the feeling of dissatisfaction with one's role in society.
(1983: 379-80)
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Not surprisingly, Gardner and Lambert discovered that all these qualities - except
'anomie' - had a negative effect on integrative motivation and on successful language
learning. A learner who displays 'anomie', on the other hand, is generally critical of
his own society but open to the demands of a different culture and language, and
thus usually a successful language learner. To put it another way, learning a new
language requires flexibility and openness to new language norms and also to new
norms of social behaviour (This clearly relates to the findings on tolerance of
ambiguity discussed above). The work of Gardner and Lambert thus seem to
indicate that certain personality traits and basic social attitudes will create in the
learner either a negative or a positive predisposition towards second language
learning.
3.3.6. PERSONALITY: CONCLUSION

The available research does not show a clearly defined effect of personality on
SLA . However, extroversion, tolerance of ambiguity, low anxiety, a disposition to
take risks and 'anomie' seem to correlate in most cases indirectly with language
success. Furthermore, personality becomes an important factor in the acquisition of
communicative skills although there does not seem to be a close connection
between personality and pure linguistic ability.
Lightbown and Spada sum up where we are with regard to the question of the precise
effects of personality on SLA:
Despite the inconclusive results and the problems involved in carrying out research in the
area of personality characteristics, many researchers believe that personality wilI be shown
to have an important influence on success in language learning. This relationship is a
complex one, however, in that it is probably not personality alone, but the way in which it
combines with other factors that contributes to second language learning.
(1993: 39)
As Ellis (1985) claimed, the major difficulty in investigating the effects of personality,
remains that of identification and measurement. Some of the instruments used
(personality inventories, questionnaires and scales) may have conditioned some of
the results found. Although learners' personalities cannot and perhaps should not be
changed, teachers could encourage in their students certain attitudes towards
language learning that could have direct and/or indirect influences on their
personality profile. We will mention some of them:
- A high respect for the TL, TL speakers and TL culture. It is important that
students should understand that there are different ways of communicating
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and approaching reality. They should also be completely open to customs,
habits and cultural values different from their own. Furthermore, the existence
of exceptions in the linguistic system and deviations from the general norm
and rules should be accepted and considered as part of the learning process.
- Close attention needs to be paid to the practical aspects of language learning.

It is clear that a language is learnt by using it. Errors and mistakes should be
regarded as an almost necessary part of language learning and students
should be given the chance to correct themselves. Teachers should not
emphasise difficulties in language learning: they should consider the positive
features rather than the negative ones in students' work. Learners should take
advantage of the opportunities they may have for language practice.
- Confidence in the teacher is vital. It is important to create a good atmosphere

in the classroom so that learners can overcome any kind of anxiety they may
feel. A high degree of anxiety will condition language learning in a negative
way. We all learn best when we are mentally relaxed and we do not feel tense.
This does not mean that concentration on the students' part is not important
in the classroom. Learners should be involved in the teaching and learning
tasks.
3.4. THE GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNER
Several scholars have attempted to identify the characteristics of successful or 'good'

language learners with the assumption that once identified, they could provide useful
information to be incorporated into the language classroom. The research conducted
by Naiman et al. (1978) is no doubt the most frequently mentioned in the literature
with regard to this area.
Good Language Learners (GLLs) were described by these scholars as follows:
- GLLs become actively involved in the language learning process, that is, they
generally adopt a very active role in the classroom.
- GLLs take advantage of all the opportunities they have to practise the
language. They have good techniques to practise listening, speaking, reading
and writing.
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- GLLs elaborate an awareness of language both as a formal, grammatical
system, and as a means of communication.
- GLLs gradually develop the new language into a system and learn to think in
it.
- GLLs accept and are able to deal with the affective demands of learning an
L2.
- GLLs are like good detectives. They are always looking for clues that will help
them understand how the language works. Sometimes, they make guesses
and ask people to correct them if they are wrong.
In addition to the previous list of strategies, Naiman et al. (1978) also identified other
techniques used by the learners in specific situations, such as repeating aloud after
the teacher, listening to the radio and TV, reading and following the rules as
presented by grammar books or textbooks.
Ellis (1985) also presented a list of his own drawing on previous studies. Thus, to
the above mentioned characteristics he added the following ones: GLLs are capable
of adapting to different learning situations; they are capable of supplementing the
learning derived from direct contact with native speakers with that obtained from their
own study; they are normally an adolescent or an adult rather than a child; and lastly,
they are endowed with a powerful reason for learning the language. Ellis concludes
by saying that:
taken together, the list of good learning characteristics reflects the social,
cognitive and affective factors that have been seen to be important in SLA.
(1985: 123)
Other researchers such as Hosenfeld (1984) have concentrated on the behaviour of

these good language learners with regard to particular skills. Thus she investigated
the strategies used by students in order to understand English texts (see Appendix
1.1).
Good readers are characterised by keeping the passage in mind, identifying the
grammatical category of words. skipping unimportant words, observing illustrations,
reading the title and making inferences from it, referring to the side glossary if there
is one, using the glossary as the last resort to the problem, recognising cognates
(words with a similar spelling and meaning in L1 and L2), using their knowledge of
the world, evaluating and monitoring their guesses and, lastly, having a good self-
image of themselves as readers. In contrast, unsuccessful readers are described
as having a poor self-concept of themselves as readers, restricting themselves to
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the word level, skipping words on few occasions and going to the dictionary almost
mechanically.
The extrapolation of all these findings to the classroom is still a highly debated
question and contrasting views are found. Moreover, if we focus on the qualities of
a good language learner, it might also be interesting to investigate the features of
good and bad language teachers (see Appendix 3.1). This would no doubt give us
some useful insights into our teaching.
3.5. APPENDICES
[1] APPENDIX 3.1: Qualities of good and bad teachers.
[2] APPENDIX 3.2: Research into cognitive styles and their effects on SLA.
[3] APPENDIX 3.3: Research into motivation.

Age
[1] JOHNSON, J. & NEWPORT, E. (1989). Critical Period Effects in Second
Language Learning: The lnfluence of Maturational State on the Acquisition of
English as a Second Language. Cognitive Psychology 21: 60-99.
[2] LONG. M. H. (1990). Maturational Constraints on Language Development.

Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12: 251:85.
[3] PALACIOS, l. M. (1994). The Problem of Age in the Learning of a Foreign

Language Revisited. The New Situation in Spain. English Language Teaching
in Spain 2: 57-64.
Personality
[1] ELLIS. R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford
University Press. Oxford. (pp. 517-22).
[2] STRONG. M. (1983). Social Styles and the Second Language Acquisition of
Spanish-Speaking Kindergartners. TESOL Quarterly 17: 241-58.
The Good Language Learner

[1] HOSENFELD, C. (1976). Learning about Learning: Discovering our Students'
Strategies. Foreign Language Annals 9: 117-29.
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[2] NAIMAN, N., FROHLICH, M., STERN, H. & TODESCO, A. (1978). The Good
Language Learner. The Modern Language Centre, Ontario lnstitute for
Studies in Education. Toronto.
3.7. WEB READINGS

[1] (Bistra, K. 2008) Age as an affective factor. Link to webpage:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/7753203/Age-as-an-Affective-Factor-in-
Second-Lanquaqe-Acquisition
[2] (Cenoz J, 1997) Early introduction to English and its affects. Link
to webpage:
www.ub.edu/ice/portaling/eduling/cat/n_1/cenoz-art icle-n1.pdf
[3] (Kasai C. 2004) The age factor in 2nd l anguage acquisition. Link
to webpage:
http://repository.lib.gifu-u.ac..jp/bitstream/123456789/4577/1/
KJ00004182402.pdf
(Read: December 6, 2010, GMT-5].
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Glossary
Advance organizers/Anticipadores
These were first defined by Ausubel (1964). They are overviews used for
previewing concepts in written material, reviewing concepts, or linking two
sets of concepts.
Anxiety/Ansiedad
This is one of the affective factors that conditions language learning. Anxiety
can have a debilitating (or negative) effect on language learning; this is known
as debilitative anxiety. However, it can also have a positive effect (facilitative
anxiety).
Cloze test/Prueba de rellenar huecos

In cloze tests, a text has a series of blanks which are left for learners to
complete. To create these blanks, usually every seventh word in the text is
removed. Cloze tests aim to test a learner's knowledge of the language in a
holistic way.
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)/ Hipótesis del Periodo Critico

According to the CPH, there is a period during which learners can learn the
L2 very easily. After this period language learning becomes more difficult and
is rarely completely successful. Most researchers believe that this critical
period comes to an end with the onset of puberty.
Factor analysis/Análisis factorial

A statistical method for studying how (hidden) or underlying variables in a
study might affect the correlation of a set of overt variables.
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Frequency distribution/Distribución de frecuencias
This is simply the arrangement of score values from high to low in a table.
GLL/BAL-Buen aprendiz de lenguas

Abbreviation for 'good language learner'.
Group Embedded Test/Prueba de las figuras enmascaradas

This test was designed by Witkin (1962, 1971) to measure the field
dependence/independence dimension of a learner's cognitive style. In this
test learners are asked to find and identify simple geometrical figures within
complex structures.
lds/Dl-diferencias individuales de aprendizaje
Abbreviation for individual differences (which affect language learning).
Language Aptitude Battery (LAB)/ Batería de Aptitud Lingüística

Test designed by Pimsleur (1966) to measure language aptitude. For
Pimsleur, language aptitude seems to consist of a language analytic ability
and an auditory ability.
LISREL/ Relaciones estructurales lineales.

Abbreviation standing for "Linear Structural Relations", which corresponds to
a computer package. This technique allows the researcher to specify chains
of causality which can then be evaluated against data.
Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT)/Test o prueba Moderna de Aptitud

Lingüística (TALM)
Test constructed by Carroll and Sapon (1959) with the purpose of measuring
language aptitude. lt has different formats depending on the age of the
learner, language considered and time available. Carroll and Sapon identified
four main components in language aptitude: phonemic or phonetic coding
ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability and rote
learning ability for language learning materials.
Pearson test/Test o prueba de Pearson

This is a type of statistical test which measures the correlation of two sets of
scores or rankings obtained from two different variables with the same group
of subjects.
Regression analysis/Análisis de regresión

Simple regression is used to predict values on a dependent variable from
those on an independent variable. In multiple variable the process is the same
as in simple regression but several independent variables are taken into
consideration.
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SILL/lnventario de estrategias para el aprendizaje de lenguas

Abbreviation for Strategy lnventory for Language Learning. It was designed
by Oxford (1989) and it consists of 121 items where learners are asked to
report the frequency with which they make use of certain language learning
strategies.
Socio-educational model of L2 learning/Modelo socio-educativo del

aprendizaje de la L2
Model of L2 learning developed by Gardner (1985). According to this, the
social and cultural milieu where learner lives determines the attitude and
motivational orientations they hold towards the target culture, its language
and speakers. These in turn condition learning outcomes.
TL/ Lengua Meta

Abbreviation for target language, that is, the language to be studied.
T-test/Prueba
Used to compare means between two different groups of subjects. It can be
applied regardless of the size of the two samples and because of this, it is
very commonly used in language studies. There are two versions of the t-test.
One is applied for correlated means while the second version is used to
compare independent means.
For further terminological and conceptual information, the following references

may be consulted:
[1] ALCARAZ VARÓ, E. & MARTíNEZ LINARES, M.A. (1997). Diccionario de

lingüística moderna. Ariel. Barcelona.
[2] ELLIS, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford

University Press. Oxford. (Glossary, pp. 692-729).
[3] RICHARDS, J.C., PLATT. J. & PLATT, H. (1992). Longman Dictionary of

Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Longman (There is a recent
Spanish translation of this dictionary in Ariel, by Carmen Muñoz and Carmen
Pérez Vidal). London.
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Bibliography
[1] AL-HAIK, A. R. (1972). Exploring the Auditory Aspects of Aptitude for

lntensive Modern Foreign Language Learning. Unpublished PhD dissertation.
University of California at Berkeley (reviewed in Skehan 1989).
[2] ANISFELD, M. & LAMBERT, W. (1961). Social and Psychological Variables
in Learning Hebrew. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 63/3: 524-
29.
[3] APHEK, E. & COHEN, A. (1981). Easifying Second Language Learning.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition 3/2: 221-36.
[4] ARONSON, H. (1973). The Role of Attitudes about Languages in the Learning
of Foreign Languages. Modern Language JournaI 57/7: 323-29.
[5] ASC HERLEBEN, K. (1980) . La Motivación en la Escuela y sus
Problemas. Ediciones Marova. Madrid.
[6] AUSUBEL, D. (1964). Adults versus Children in Second Language Learning:
Psychological Considerations. Modern Language Journal 48: 420- 24.
[7] AUSUBEL, D. (1976). Psicología Educativa: Un Punto de Vista Cognoscitivo.
Trillas. Mexico.
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1.1:
- Developing reading strategies.
Appendix 1.2:
- Training students in the use of metacognitive strategies.
Appendix 1.3:
- Reflecting upon your learning.
Appendix 1.4:
- Promoting learner autonomy.
Appendix 2.1:
- Basic needs analysis.
Appendix 2.2:
- The way I learn English.
Appendix 2.3:
- Am I a motivating teacher?
Appendix 3.1:
- Qualities of good and bad teachers.
Appendix 3.2:
- Research into cognitive styles and their effects on SLA.
Appendix 3.3:
- Research into motivation.

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APPENDIX 1.1
Developing reading strategies
Aims:
- To make students more aware of the importance of reading strategies and to
initiate them in their use.
- To encourage students' autonomy in their reading and to promote reading out

of the classroom.
Level: Upper-intermediate/advanced.
In class:
a) Learners compare themselves with the profile of the good language reader
(table 1) and question up to what extent they are different.
b) Students then take notes of the main differences they are able to identify.
c) In pairs, they contrast their notes.
d) Students complete a questionnaire (table 2) to find out the type of reading

strategies they use (lt may be necessary for the teacher to clarify some of the
items in the questionnaire).
e) Students make up a list with those techniques or strategies less frequently

used.
f) In groups of four, they compare their lists and exchange views.
g) Guided by the teacher, the class has a general discussion on this topic and
designs a reading programme based on the general findings of the activity.
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TABLE 1
The following list is based on the research conducted by Hosenfeld
(1984) on the strategies used by good or successful language readers.
She asked some learners of Hispanic origin to read texts in English and
tell her the thoughts that came into their minds while they were trying to
understand the text and decode meaning.
Good language readers:
1. Keep the meaning of the passage in mind.

2. Read in broad phrases.
3. Skip inessential words.
4. Guess from context the meaning of unknown words.
5. Have a good self-concept as a reader.
6. Identify the grammatical category of words.
7. Demonstrate sensitivity to a different word order in the foreign
language.
8. Examine illustrations.
9. Read the title and make inferences from it.
10. Use orthographic information (e.g. capitalisation).
11. Refer to the side gloss if there is one.
12. Use the glossary as the last resort.
13. Look up words correctly.
14. Continue if unsuccessful at decoding a word or phrase.
15. Recognise cognates*.
16. Use their knowledge of the world.
17. Follow through with a proposed solution to the problem.
18. Evaluate their guesses.
* cognate: words which have a similar spelling and meaning in L1 and L2.
TABLE 2
Are you a good language reader?
Circle the answer that describes how you approach reading in the
foreign language.
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DO YOU TEND TO…

1. Keep the meaning of the passage in mind? A O S R N
2. Guess from context the meaning of unknown words? A O S R N
3. Skip inessential words? A O S R N
4. Have a good self-concept as a reader? A O S R N
5. Identify the grammatical category of words? A O S R N
6. Demonstrate sensitivity to a different word order in the A O S R N
foreign language?
7. Keep the meaning of the passage in mind? A O S R N
8. Examine ilustrations that go with the text? A O S R N
9. Read the title and make inferences from it? A O S R N
10.Use orthographic information (e.g. capitalisation)? A O S R N
11. Refer to the side gloss if there is one? A O S R N
12. Use the glossary as the last resort? A O S R N
13. Look up words correctly? A O S R N
14. Continue if unsuccessful at decoding a word or phrase? A O S R N
15. Recognise words with similar spellings in English and A O S R N
Spanish?
16. Use your knowledge of the world? A O S R N
17. Follow through with a proposed solution to the problem? A O S R N
18. Evaluate guesses? A O S R N
19. Read according to the type of text you have in front of A O S R N
you (literary passage, letter, dialogue, advertisement, notice,
note, report?
20. Read according to your purpose, that is, to obtain the A O S R N
general idea, to find specific information, pleasure…?
APPENDIX 1.2
Training students in the use of metacognitive strategies
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Aims:
- To train students in the practice of metacognitive strategies.
- To help students organise their own learning.
- To promote learners' autonomy.
- To encourage students' self-assessment.
Level: Low-intermediate to advanced.
In class:
a) Students are asked to think back and complete the questionnaire (table 1) at
the end of the week.
b) Students write a letter to their teacher making reference to the replies given
in the previous questionnaire.
c) If there is time and if possible, the teacher provides feedback to the students'
letters.
TABLE 1
Fill in this questionnaire at the end of the week. Be prepared to show it to the
rest of the students and to your teacher.
1. What did you like best in your English class this week?
2. What did you enjoy the least? Can you think why?
3. Make up a list with all the new words you have learned this week. Explain
briefly their meaning, preferably in English. Use the dictionary if you have
problems with this exercise.
4. What new grammatical areas/functions have you studied this week? In
what way are they different from your mother tongue?
5. What types of texts have you read this week? Have you devoted much
time to them?
6. What new expressions or phrases have you learned to say this week that
you did not know before? Make up a list and explain in what contexts
they can be used.
7. What sort of written practice have you done this week? Have you written
any essays, notes, messages, letters, reports, etc.? What sort of
difficulties did you come across?
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8. Have you done any listening practice? Have you listened to any tapes,
native speakers, songs in English? Think for a little while how you
overcame the problems you found.
9. Think about the new words taught this week according to pronunciation.
lf you feel a bit unsure, check in the dictionary how they are pronounced.
Try to do a bit of pronunciation practice. You can even record yourself on
a cassette to see how it sounds.
10. Plan your learning of English for the next week. Establish priorities,
indicating first those things you inevitably should do and then refer to
more secondary aspects.
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APPENDIX 1.3
Reflecting upon your learning
Aims:
- To make students monitor and reflect upon their own learning.
- To promote students' autonomy in their learning.
Level: Elementary/lntermediate. It may be well adapted for advanced students.
In class:
a) Students may give a reply to this questionnaire at any time during the year.
b) They can even contrast the answers obtained throughout the year.
c) Although it should be preferably used for the student´s own use, it can be
organised as a general classroom activity in the same way as the previous
tasks.
Answer the following questionnaire with regard to your learning of English. Write a
CROSS (X) in the corresponding box. Try to be as honest as possible in your
answers.
OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER

1. Do you ask the teacher when you don´t
understand something, for example, the meaning
of a particular word?
2. Do you generally do your homework for the
English class?
3. Do you use your mother tongue in the English
class?
4. Do you use English when your work in pairs
and/or groups?
5. Do you listen to tapes in English?
6. Do you watch television in English?
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7. Do you read books in English?
8. Do you keep a sort of diary with new English

words?
9. Do you plan what you intend to learn in
English?
10. Do you try to discover the grammar rules on
your own?
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APPENDIX 1.4
Promoting learner autonomy
This sheet can be handed out to the students as a kind of checklist to favour their
autonomy in their learning of English. Some of them can be used directly as
classroom activities.
1. Make a list with the main objectives of the units you are studying for each
month/term/year as regards vocabulary, grammar, different skills.
2. Keep a vocabulary notebook where you note down all the new words and
expressions.
It may be possible for you to keep a word and expression bank under
subject headings.
3. If you like music, listen to English songs, write their lyrics and try
to translate them into your mother tongue.
4. Keep a diary of the things you are doing in the English class. Write your
feelings and opinions.
5. Try to read as much as you can: magazines, newspapers, simplified

readers, bilingual books, goods labels, machinery instructions, etc.
6. Record yourself reading a text in English. Listen to your reading several

times and see up to what extent it differs from a native-reader.
7. Keep all your assignments and corrected homework in a folder. At the

end of the month/term make up a list with the most common errors and
try to learn from them.
8. Try to work with self-study materials such as grammar exercises with an

answer key, listening exercises, reading comprehensions, etc.
9. Listen to the radio in English, trying to understand as much as you can.

It may be useful to have a dictionary and a reference grammar at hand.
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10. Find native speakers in town you can practice with from time to time.
11. Practise your writing skills with an English pen-friend. There are
pen-friend organisation which may provide you with one if you haven't
got one. Think also of the possibility of a cassette or even an e-mail
friend.
12. Copy down examples of English you may find around you: advertising,
goods labels, machinery instructions, etc.
13. Work with good dictionaries. You should also consider using bilingual
glossaries with word distinctions.
14. Record the subtitled English films which are sometimes broadcast on
television. Then pay close attention to how the dialogues have been
translated and when you are not sure about something, check it up with
your teacher or in a dictionary/grammar book.
15. Pay close attention to false friends or words which have a different
meaning in English.
16. At the end of each month/term assess yourself in different skills: listening,
speaking, reading, writing. Identify your weaknesses and find possible
solutions for those problems.
17. Try to form an "English club" with other students of the class/school,
where you can invite a native speaker or several native speakers of
English to talk to.
18. Can you think of other ways of becoming an independent learner?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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APPENDIX 2.1
Basic needs analysis
Aims:
- To make students monitor and reflect upon their own language learning.
- To obtain useful information about students' motivation, interests and

preferences to be introduced in the language syllabus.
- To involve students in the teaching and learning process.
Level: Elementary/lntermediate
In class:
a) This is an activity which should preferably be done at the beginning of the

year. Students are first asked to answer the questionnaire provided
individually.
b) In pairs and then in groups of four, students contrast their results. This is
followed by a general class discussion.
c) The results obtained are written on the board and they may even be copied
on a sheet of paper and stuck on one of the classroom walls for future
reference.
TASK
Number the following 1-14 in order of importance to you as a learner:
1. Learning grammar rules.

2. Talking to the teacher.
3. Improving my pronunciation.
4. Writing correctly.
5. Talking to other students in the class.
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6. Not making mistakes.
7. Getting good marks in tests.
8. Reading books in English.
9. Writing down lots of new words.
10. Finding out about life in English-speaking countries.
11. Learning the meaning of lots of new words.
12. Being able to express my ideas in English.
13. Learning the meaning of new words.
14. Understanding what other people say to me in English.
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APPENDIX 2.2
The way I learn English (adapted from Prodomou, 1992)
This exercise is in fact a refined and more elaborated version of the previous activity.
The aims and organisation in class are pretty much the same. It can be easily
adapted for advanced learners of English.
1. Which of the following do you find the most difficult?

a) listening.
b) speaking.
c) writing.
d) reading.
Could you explain why? ...........................................
2. When you listen or read, do you ...

a) try to understand everything?
b) just try to answer the questions in the book?
c) try to get the general idea first?
d) use the context to get a better idea of what the text is about?
e) try to make connections with other things you are familiar with?
3. How do you like to work in class?

a) in pairs.
b) in groups.
c) on my own.
d) talking to the teacher
4. When do you think the mother tongue should be used in class?

a) never.
b) all the time.
c) to explain grammar.
d) to explain difficult words.
e) when the teacher is giving instructions.
5. When you make a mistake, do you...

a) feel embarrassed.
b) want the teacher to correct you every time.
c) try to correct yourself?
d) try to learn from the mistake?
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6. Out of class, do you do any of the following?
a) read English books and/or magazines/newspapers.

b) listen to songs in English.
c) watch television in English.
d) speak to native speakers of English you know in town.
7. How do you feel about tests?

a) They are important.
b) They are not necessary.
c) They are a useful way of knowing whether l've made any progress or not.
d) They make me work harder.
8. How do you like to learn grammar?

a) by learning the rules first and then practising with examples.
b) by doing exercises first and then working out the rules.
c) by using the language to communicate.
d) by comparing English with my own language.
9. How do you note down new vocabulary?

a) I write it in my textbook.
b) I add it to a list in my notebook with a translation.
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APPENDIX 2.3
Am I a motivating teacher?
The following questionnaire taken and adapted from Ribé and Vidal (1995:63) is intended
to make language teachers reflect upon their own teaching, especially as regards their
motivational nature. It can be used as a self-report to identify the strengths and weaknesses
of our lessons. It could also be interesting to contrast the students' and teacher’s own views.
Thus, most of the questions in the questionnaire can be easily rewritten to adapt them to our
teaching and learning situation and to find out about the students' opinions on these
questions, e.g. Do you enjoy my teaching? (question 1).
YES NO
Do I enjoy teaching?
Do I like my students? Do I show them that I like them?
Am I aware of the individual differences between my students?
Do I respect their different learning styles and learning rhythms?
Do I make space and time in my class for pleasure and fun?
Do I reinforce my students´positive images of themselves as language

learners?
Do I ensure that no student ever looks ridiculous in my class?
Do I use group work?
Do I listen to my students´ ideas and take them seriously?
Do I specifically do class activities which reduce the element of risk

and anxiety for the students?
Do I make objectives clear?
Do I discuss these objectives with the students?
Do I continue to work on my own professional development?
Is my command of English sufficiently competent?
Do I know who my studentsídols are? Do I know what they think

about important issues?
Do I consider my job to be that of teacher or educator?
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APPENDIX 3.1
Qualities of good and bad teachers
The following activities are based on Prodomou (1992). This scholar investigated the
qualities of good and bad teachers according to students' perspectives. The two
questionnaires that follow illustrate some of the replies obtained. In our case they
could be used as a teacher’s self-development exercise to reflect upon our own
teaching activities or they may well be readapted to design a new questionnaire or
interview form for our own students.
ACTIVITY 1
As you read the chart, tick those opportunities for good teaching which you have
already developed in yourself, and those you feel you could develop in the future.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER NOW FUTURE

1.Friendly
2.Explained things?
3.Gave good notes
4.Knew how to treat someone who sits at a desk for six hours
5.Let the students do it by themselves in groups
6.We did the lesson together
7.Got out of us the things we know
8.Talked about her life
9. Talked about problems of the school
10. Talked about other subjects
11.Played games
12.Told jokes
13.She was one of us
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14.Didn´t push weak learners
15.Asked students opinions, there was a dialogue
16.She was like an actress; she pretended a lot
17.She was forceful, but not strict
18.She was educated
19. She knew psychology
20.Used movement to make meaning clear
21.She made sure everyone understood
22.She was funny
23.Read in a tone that made meaning clear
24.She got close to students
25.believed in me,made me believe in myself
26.I wanted him to be proud of me
27.He had a personality of his own.
28.She was very experienced
29.She made grammar clear
30. They tried to communicate
31.She gave advice
32.He talked about personal problems
33.She gave me a lot of books to read
34.She used questions a lot
35.She asked all the students questions
36.Social work - it was their job
37.We cut up animals, (i.e. did experiments/practical work!)
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38.Talked about the lesson
39.She knew mathematics (i.e. her subject)
40.She was more like a comedian
Although you may not agree with their views, tick those features of teaching style
which may apply to you, and tick in the second column if you think that by changing
that aspect of your teaching you might improve it.
QUALITIES OF A BAD TEACHER NOW FUTURE
1.Very strict
2.Didn´t let us speak
3.Gave us a text to learn and checked it
4.Gave marks all the time
5.She was fixed in a chair
6.She had favourite students
7.Always above our heads
8.Shouted for no reason
9.Gave a lot of tests
10.Forced us to do things
11. Didn´t discuss other problems
12.Started the lesson immediately
13. Didn´t smile

14.She stared at you and you couldn´t say a word even if
you wanted to
15.His tests were too difficult
16.We were not prepared for the test
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17.He just showed us a grammar rule and we forgot it
18.Shouted when we made mistakes
19.Very nervous
20.Talked and talked
21.She spoke flat
22.She just said the lesson and nothing else
23.There was a distance from us
24.Believed that students were all the same
25.We didn´t do experiments, (practical things)
26.Believed students all knew the same things
27.Like a machine
28.Not prepared
29.Treated kids like objects
30.She was rigid.
31.Sarcastic and ironic
32.Only lessons- didn´t discuss anything else
33.Avoided answering questions
34.You couldn´t laugh, you couldn´t speak
35.He was the teacher, I was the student
36.He had a blacklist and said,Ýou, you, you´
37. She had a little book with the marks in
38.No communication, nothing
39.She made me feel anxious
40.He said we weren´t well prepared
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APPENDIX 3.2
Research into cognitive styles and their effects on SLA
Below is a summary of some of the most important studies in this field:
Zampogna et al. (1976)
Seem to be the first scholars who carried out a preliminary and tentative study
with regard to the role of learning style in SLA. A sample of 154 boys and girls
who had been exposed to both traditional and individualized environments for a
semester period were asked to complete items concerned with their reaction to
authority, criticism and resolution of doubt. The data collected showed that
teachers interested in individualized instruction should make use of a teaching
method which may account for the individual differences of the learners and it
should also provide varying degrees of structure. Finally, it is argued that
learning style should be considered from a developmental perspective.
The rest of the studies in this area present a similar format. A group of learners are
administered a version of the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) and then correlations
are calculated between the scores obtained in this test with scores on tests
measuring the learner's proficiency level in the different language skills.
Tucker et al. (1976)
Set out to study affective, cognitive and social factors to see whether changes
took place according to the teaching programme students were involved in.
Three groups (early immersion, late immersion and an English control group)
of grade seven learners were administered a series of tests to obtain
measures of the various variables. These scholars (1976) did not find a
relationship between field independence and performance on reading
comprehension, listening comprehension or oral production tests. In contrast,
a direct correlation was detected with an achievement test of general
language skills. These researchers concluded by claiming that the study of
individual variation should play an important role in the evaluation of
immersion programmes.
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Naiman et al. (1978)
Intended to study the correlations of field independence on a French oral

production test and on a French listening comprehension test. Several tests
including the EFT were passed to seventy-two students of three different
grades (eight, ten and twelve) who were studying French as a foreign
language. It was found that the cognitive style of grade twelve students had a
certain influence on imitation and listening comprehension tests. On the
contrary, the proficiency of students from grades eight and ten was not at all
influenced by cognitive style.
Bialystok & Frohlich (1978)
Investigated the variables affecting classroom achievement in second

language learning. They selected a sample of 157 students of three grade ten
schools (average age fifteen years old) and three grade twelve (average age
seventeen) who were studying French as a second language in Montreal.
They particularly focused on the study of aptitude, attitude, motivation and
cognitive style. The test for aptitude was the short form of the MLAT while
attitudes and motivation were assessed by Gardner and Smythe's national
test battery (1981). As before, cognitive style was assessed by the EFT test.
As far as the latter variable was concerned, the results obtained indicated that
there was only a very indirect relationship between field independence and
academic achievement. In contrast, field independence correlated in a more
direct way with language aptitude.
Genessee and Hamayan (1980)
Studied the correlations existing between EFT and performance on three

different tests (general achievement, listening comprehension and oral
production) for a group of young children who were participating in a French
immersion programme. The results revealed that the correlations were
significant in the case of the general achievement and listening
comprehension tests, but the opposite was true for the oral production test.
Hansen & Stansfield (1981)
Also administered the EFT to a group of three hundred college students of

Spanish together with tests of linguistic, communicative and integrative
competence. On this occasion, significant correlations were found for the
three variables considered. One year later, Hansen and Stansfield (1982)
carried out a new study in which they intended to discover the correlations
between students´-teacher' cognitive styles and foreign language
achievement. This study introduced a small change as it put teacher's
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cognitive style side by side with that of students´. The EFT was administered
to 236 students enrolled in an introductory course at the University of
Colorado. The group of students was proportionally divided between males
and females and ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) was used for the analysis of
data. The results showed the existence of a statistically significant difference
between field dependent and field independent college students. The field
independent group of learners obtained the highest scores in all cases and
significant correlation was not found between student’s-teacher's cognitive
style and achievement in Spanish. It was concluded that student's cognitive
style should be considered as an educationally significant factor in second
language achievement. Hansen (1984) replicated his first study (1981) with
students who were still in their teens from six Pacific lsland cultures. On this
occasion, the correlations seemed to be weaker than before.
Reid (1987)
In a more recent study, presents the results of a questionnaire that asked

1.338 students to identify their perceptual learning style preferences. This
researcher was more concerned with the implications of the students'
preferences for learning styles rather than with the correlations between
cognitive style and language achievement. Reid identifies six major style
preferences. The first four are preferences for visual, auditory, kinaesthetic
and tactile styles of learning; the last two are preferences for individual or
group differences. The results obtained show that ESL students from different
backgrounds sometimes differ from one another in their learning style
preferences. Korean learners were the most visual while Arabic and Chinese
proved to be the most auditory. Furthermore, graduate students appear to
favour visual and tactile learning while undergraduates seem to prefer
auditory learning. Several variables such as sex, age, TOEFL score (see
glossary for explanation), field of study, level of education seem to be related
to differences in learning styles. Finally, it is argued that students of a second
or foreign language should be exposed to the concept of learning styles and
that curriculum design should take into account the students' learning styles
differences. In Reid's view, learning is best achieved when there is a match
between learning opportunity and the learner's preferences.
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APPENDIX 3.3
RESEARCH INTO MOTIVATION
Below we detail Gardner and Lambert's early and later research work in the area of
motivation (Sections A and B), as well as other relevant studies, such as those that
gave rise to the Resultative Hypothesis (Section C), and the issue of measuring
motivation (Section D):
A.- Early research studies
The first studies in second language learning and motivation were conducted by
Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1961) with English-speaking high school students who
were studying French in Montreal. A factor analysis showed that aptitude and
intelligence constituted one factor, which was statistically independent of a second
factor. This second factor included indices of motivation, type of orientation and
social attitudes toward French-Canadians. Success in French was dependent on
aptitude, intelligence and a sympathetic orientation to the other linguistic and cultural
group. The results also indicated that integrative motivation was more relevant than
instrumental motivation with regard to language learning achievement.
In 1960, Gardner concluded his doctoral dissertation on the role of attitudinal and
motivational variables in SLA. The data collected by this scholar revealed that the
learner’s family environment was particularly important in the student’s orientation
toward second language achievement. It was made clear that students with an
integrative orientation possessed parents who were also integrative toward the
French community. However, the students' orientations had nothing to do with their
parents' skill in French nor with the number of French acquaintances their parents
had.
Anisfeld & Lambert (1961) worked with samples of six classes from three different
parochial schools in different settings in Montreal. The sample was formed by
seventy- six students who were all attending classes of Hebrew. Learners were
administered tests of verbal intelligence and language aptitude together with other
tests measuring their orientation toward learning Hebrew and their attitudes toward
the Jewish community and culture. The results obtained from these tests were
compared with measures of achievement in Hebrew at the end of the academic year.
The results show that intelligence and language aptitude are stable predictors of
success while attitudes tend to vary from one school to another and from class to
class. It is also claimed that for learners to do well in a foreign language, they need
to possess intelligence, aptitude and a proper attitude toward the language group.
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Two years later, in 1963, Lambert & Gardner focused on the question of changes
in attitudes and they administered tests to students who were following an intensive
French Summer course at McGill University. It was found that as students
progressed in their knowledge of the target language, they also showed a feeling of
anomie (the ability to stand back from, or criticise, social norms) and social upset.
As a result, the research team noticed that learners made use of a series of
mechanisms to overcome this problem.
Feenstra (1969) studied the role of parents' and teachers' attitudes in SLA. The
importance of the integrative and instrumental motivational orientations is
demonstrated along with the parents' attitudes toward the foreign culture. The results
also reveal that young children and students in the final grades do not experience
important cultural barriers which conflict with their wish to learn English. The role of
the teacher as representative of the foreign community is also emphasized
especially in cases where it is really difficult to have direct contact with the community
whose language is being learned.
Spolsky (1969) also investigated the attitudinal aspects of second language

learning. He was specially concerned with finding out more about the integrative
motivation by developing an instrument which could easily compare this motivational
orientation with the learner's proficiency in the foreign language. Three hundred and
fifteen students from eighty different countries who were attending language courses
at the Universities of Indiana and Minnesota participated in the survey. According to
the results obtained, 20% of the total number of students could be considered
integratively motivated while the rest gave instrumental reasons for studying in the
USA. In contrast, at least 30% of the students had a strong desire to identify
themselves with the foreign language community. Furthermore, a comparison of
integrative motivation and English proficiency showed a high correlation. Spolsky
(1969) concludes by reaffirming the importance of attitude in learning a second
language. According to him, a person learns a language better when s/he wants to
become a member of the group speaking that language.
Gardner & Lambert (1972) intended to study in close detail some of the points
envisaged in preliminary studies and investigated the motivational variables in SLA
of four different groups of learners in their respective settings. Each of these four
pieces of research gave rise to four different studies which are usually known in this
order as the Louisiana, Maine, Connecticut and the Philippines studies. The size of
the sample selected varied from one study to another but the instruments for the
collection of data did not differ in great measure. These consisted of an orientation
index test, attitude scale, motivational intensity scale, language aptitude measures
and foreign language achievement. In some cases, these instruments were also
supplemented with an IQ (lntelligence Quotient) test. The first orientation test and
the next two, attitude and motivation scales, are generally known as the Attitude
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Motivation lndex (AMI). The AMI varies in content and format from one study to
another according to the particular characteristics of the subjects involved and the
setting selected. In most cases it consists of fourteen measures which can be
described as follows:
- Orientation index: Students were presented with four alternative reasons for
learning French and were asked to rate them as to their personal relevance.
- Integrative orientation: Students were asked to rate, using seven-point

scales, the extent to which each of the four given integrative reasons for
studying French was descriptive of their own feelings.
- Instrumental orientation: The same as before but supplying four

instrumental reasons for the study of French.
- Audience sensitivity scale: lt is a measure of the typical anxiety responses

made by the student in a variety of social situations.
- Attitude scale: Twenty statements about French-Canadians were presented.

Students were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement on a seven-
point scale.
- Motivational intensity scale: Eight multiple choice statements were

constructed to measure intensity of motivation in terms of work done for
assignments, opportunities taken to improve speaking and reading French,
future plans to study or use the language and importance ascribed to the
knowledge of the language.
- Desire to learn French.
- Social inquisitiveness: eight different statements were presented in which

two individuals were contrasted. One of the subjects was socially active while
the other was passive. Students were asked to indicate in each case which
character was most like themselves.
- Sensitivity to others: This consisted of eight statements describing how

much or little attention was given to the feelings of others.
- Parental encouragement to learn French: Students rated to what degree

their parents encouraged them to study French.
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- Parents' French friends: Students were asked whether their parents

possessed any close friends who were speakers of French.
- Students' French acquaintances friends: Students were asked whether

they knew any French people and whether they had any French friends.
- Evaluation of the French course.
- Evaluation of French teaching and teacher.
- Broadly speaking, Gardner and Lambert were particularly concerned with the
study of three basic questions: the interrelationships existing between
aptitude and motivational variables; the correlations between motivation,
attitudes toward the learning of the foreign language and academic
achievement and, thirdly, the effects of the instrumental and integrative
orientations on academic achievement.
- In the first study, the Louisiana study, a total number of ninety-six subjects
were surveyed. The results indicated that in this setting intelligence had little
to do with the learner's ability to speak French properly, read fluently or
acquire a characteristic accent. In contrast, academic achievement correlated
with the learners' motivation to learn the language. Finally, it was also shown
that motivation derived from a strong parental encouragement and student's
personal satisfaction. The integrative orientation toward learning French
played only a small role in academic success.
- A total number of 145 students of three different levels of French participated

in the second study usually referred to as the Maine study. In this case, oral
production skills were associated with achievement in French, reading and
vocabulary. In contrast, aptitude measures did not appear to be high
indicators of achievement in French. In this case, motivation did not emerge
from parental encouragement as in the previous study but out of the French
teacher and a sensitivity for the feelings of others.
- The third study was carried out in the American state of Connecticut. A
hundred and forty-two students in a large urban centre were surveyed. As
before, attitudinal and motivational factors seemed to be independent of
intelligence and language aptitude. However, the strong motivation to learn
French seemed to stem from the learner's integrative orientations towards the
study of the language as well as from a realization of the potential usefulness
of the language.
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The fourth study was carried out in the Philippines. Gardner and Lambert
consciously chose a foreign language environment because they first wanted
to see whether the results obtained in this case confirmed the findings of the
previous studies and, secondly, because they believed that the conclusions
reached out of this survey could possibly be applied to other developing
nations. The subjects on this occasion were 103 senior high school students
who were living in the suburbs of Manila. The test materials, which included
scales of aptitude and motivation, language aptitude and a test of English
achievement, were all written in Tagalog. Pearson correlation coefficients
were calculated among the forty-seven variables. The results found indicated
that those students with an instrumental orientation and who received
parental support were more successful in developing language proficiency
than those who did not take this orientation. On the other hand, it was
concluded that in settings where the language is studied as a foreign
language rather than as a second language, the value of instrumental
orientation seemed to prevail over the integrative one and, as a result both
approaches to language learning should be promoted. Finally, Gardner and
Lambert claimed in a categorical way that it is possible to become bilingual
without losing one's identity.
STUDY SUBJECTS DATA COLLECTION MAIN FINDINGS

- Language aptitude test - Success correlated with
Montreal Secondary - French achievement test intelligence
(1959) school pupils of - Motivation and attitude and achievement
French scale - Integrative motivation did not
prevail over instrumental
motivation
- Language aptitude test - Intelligence did not correlate with
Louisiana 96 students of - French achievement test oral ability
(1972) French - Attitude scale - Integrative motivation was not
important
- Language aptitude test - Aptitude did not correlate with
Maine 145 students - French achievement test achievement
(1972) of French - Attitude scale
- IQ - Attitudes and motivation did not
Connecticut 142 students of - Aptitude test correlate with intelligence
(1983) French - French achievement test - Motivation emerged from both
- Attitude scale integrative and instrumental
orientations
- English achievement test - Instrumental motivation and
Philippines 103 students of - Language aptitude test parental encouragement correlated
(1972) English - Study-habits question. highly with achievement
- Attitude scale - Instrumental motivation
- was more important than
integrative
Summary of Gardner and Lambert early research.
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B.- Later studies
The early studies carried out by Gardner and Lambert gave rise to an enormous
amount of research which was intended to expand, clarify and give a conclusive
answer to some of the questions still at issue. These were mainly the distinction
between integrative and instrumental motivation, the effect of integrative motivation
on SLA, variables affecting motivation (sex, method of instruction, teacher, teaching
materials and age), the interrelationship between motivation and attitudes toward
second language learning, motivation as cause or effect and, finally, the correlation
existing between motivation and academic success. At the same time, other
researchers were particularly concerned with the validity and reliability of the
research instruments used for the collection of data in the study of the motivational
factor.
Mueller (1971) studied learners' attitudes in the basic French courses at the
University of Kentucky. Three hundred and seventy-five learners of basic French
took part in the survey. The questionnaire used was an adaptation of that used by
Gardner and Lambert. It consisted of bi-polar adjectives referring to attitudes on a
five-point scale together with a series of multiple choice questions. The data was
processed and analysed through the Nucross Computer Programme.
The results obtained allowed Mueller (1971) to claim that senior students had a much
less favourable attitude towards the course than freshmen and sophomores and both
the integratively and instrumentally oriented students made good language students.
Contrary to what was expected, the best students appeared to have a neutral or
negative attitude toward the French courses. Mueller (1971) concludes by exploring
the implications of the previous findings for language teaching. In his view, the
objectives of studying a foreign language should be made clear to the students,
classroom techniques should be more flexible, team-teaching should be promoted
and, lastly, teaching materials should be revised.
Lukmani (1972) investigated the correlations existing between motivation and

language proficiency. The subjects who participated in this survey were sixty lndian
girls from a high school class in Bombay. The research instruments were a set of
papers on "My reasons for studying English" together with the questionnaires
previously used by Spolsky (1969), that is, a direct and an indirect questionnaire.
Students' language proficiency was measured by means of a cloze test (see glossary
for definition). In addition, an experiment was also carried out on a group of lndians
in the USA as this was the only group which could be compared to that of the study.
The results confirmed the hypothesis that instrumental motivation ranked
significantly higher than integrative motivation. On the other hand, cloze test scores
correlated significantly with instrumental motivation but not with integrative
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motivation. This contrasted with most of the previous studies by Gardner and
Lambert where the integrative motivation seemed to prevail over the instrumental
one.
The reasons suggested by the lndian students for the study of English were as
follows: getting a good job, coping with university classes, travelling abroad,
acquiring new ideas, becoming more modern, reading advanced technical literature,
getting access to international books, acquaintance with people in contact with the
latest trends in thought and behaviour in the west, becoming friendly with English-
speaking lndians and thinking and behaving like English-speaking lndians.
Gardner & Smythe (1975) initiated a research programme to study the motivational
variables associated with the acquisition of French as a second language in Canada
and with the effects of incentive programmes. The data collected revealed that the
aptitude variable was completely independent of attitudinal measures although both
were related to academic success. It was also found that motivation was more easily
modifiable than aptitude. In the light of these results, incentive programmes such as
bicultural excursions are recommended as they favour positive attitudes towards the
learning of the second language, French in this case.
Ganguly & Ormerod (1981) investigated the ego-attitudes of 230 bilingual boys and
233 bilingual girls of Asian origin. These researchers mainly focused on sex-related
differences. Attitude scales were constructed on the basis of taped and informal
discussions with pupils of a similar origin. The data collected were factor analysed
revealing five distinct aspects, which included anxiety about self-image when using
English, the use of English in the community outside the family, the suitability of
English when praying (a religious factor), perception of interest in the use of English
at home (a home factor), an "own language factor" and a Linguistic Motivation Scale
(LMS). The latter consisted of items related to the value of English for future
advancement in life and social integration.
As far as anxiety and suitability of English for praying were concerned, no significant
sex differences were found. The second factor, the value of English in the wider
community, was positively related to the use of English at home in the case of the
boys, and to an increasing skill in the use of English, in the case of the girls. Attitude
four, perception of home interest in the use of English, ranked significantly positive
in the male group with a high appreciation of the value of English in the wider
community and for advancement in society while the opposite tendency was
detected in the case of the girls. Finally, the appreciation of the use of English for
social advancement correlated significantly high with the boys' high value of their
own language and with the girls' low aspirations for academic advancement.
Ganguly and Ormerod conclude by saying that the knowledge of the attitudes of
learners with particular linguistic problems may be very valuable and they also claim
that it is possible that boys and girls may respond to different emphases on teaching.
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Ludwig (1983) also investigated attitudinal and motivational sex-differences toward
the learning of a foreign language. A test known as the Language Learning Profile
was administered to a total number of 609 English boys and girls who were studying
French, German and Spanish at college. The results indicate that most of the
students decided to study a foreign language because they wanted to rather than
because it was a requirement. For both female and male students, spoken
communication was the main aim of foreign language study. The main attitudinal
and motivational differences found in this study can be summarized as follows:
- Female learners preferred French or Spanish, males preferred German.
- Males more than females referred to teacher-related factors rather than to

languege-related factors as primary reasons for liking the course.
- Girls tended to be more integratively oriented than male learners, who

appeared to be more instrumentally moved.
- Women, in general, were not completely satisfied with their ability to express
themselves orally in the foreign language while their male peers reported
more difficulty in the understanding of the foreign language.
Vijchulata & Lee (1981) conducted a survey of students' motivation for learning
English in the University of Pertanina Malaysia (UPM). Approximately a thousand
undergraduate students participated in the survey. The data collected was
processed and analysed according to several tests such as the Pearson's Product
Correlation and t-test. Frequency distributions and cross tabulation were also
calculated (see glossary for definition). The results revealed that students were
slightly more integratively than instrumentally oriented. The learners of more
advanced levels were more motivated than those of basic English courses. Most of
the students also perceived their lecturers as encouraging in their learning of
English. About half of these students considered their parents as encouraging in the
same respect. Finally, students rated themselves as average in their various English
language skills.
C.- Motivation: cause or effect?
Quite a large number of studies have been concerned with the cause or effect
question in the study of motivation. For some researchers, motivation is the cause
of achievement, while for others the opposite is true: motivation is the result of
achievement. The Resultative Hypothesis - the idea that motivation is the result of
achievement - was supported by the studies carried out by Savignon, Burstall,
Herman and Strong. These are detailed below, along with other important studies
into this question.
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Savignon (1972) found correlations between measures of the learners' desire to
learn French and achievement. The latter increased as the learner's course of study
progressed.
Burstall (1975) started by investigating Gardner and Lambert's hypothesis that

integrative motivation correlated more highly with academic success than
instrumental orientation did. This hypothesis was tested in the course of the NFER
(National Foundation of Educational Research, in Britain) evaluation of the teaching
of French in primary schools. The results of this evaluation did not fully prove the
previous hypothesis. Motivation and language success were closely related but
learners did not seem to be either integratively or instrumentally oriented. Integrative
and instrumental motivations did not appear as mutually exclusive. As far as
attitudinal sex-differences are concerned, female students tended to have more
positive attitudes towards the study of French than their male peers. Significantly
more girls than boys agreed that they would like to speak many languages, go to
France and meet French people. More girls than boys also maintained that all
children should start with the study of French at primary school and that French
would be useful for them in their future life. In contrast, a significantly larger number
of boys believed that the study of French was a waste of time and that they should
concentrate on other subjects which were more important for them.
The socioeconomic status of the learners also turned out to be an important variable
affecting students' attitudes towards the learning of a foreign language. Positive
attitudes towards learning French and high scores on the French achievement tests
correlated with high economic status. On the contrary, negative attitudes and low
scores in achievement tests correlated highly with low socio-economic status. A
close association was also found between teacher's attitudes and expectations, and
pupils´ attitudes and achievement. Burstall (1975) finally claims that learners'
attitudes do not always remain constant over time as personality and, above all,
maturational factors may have a considerable effect on the development of learner's
attitudes. According to her, favourable attitudes may reach their highest point at the
age of ten declining in enthusiasm after that.
Herman (1979) also supports the so called Resultative Hypothesis. She investigated
two German groups of learners of English. The members of one group were absolute
beginners while in the other group the students were already in their fifth year of
English language study. Once the motivational survey was conducted, the results
indicated that the fifth-year students showed more positive attitudes toward the
foreign language community than the beginners. In addition, the learners who were
the most proficient in the language did not seem to be integratively oriented. The
previous findings allowed Herman to claim that the motivational hypothesis could not
fully account for the interrelationship between attitudes and success or failure in the
second language acquisition process. According to her, the degree of academic
achievement obtained in the language instruction brought about the different
motivational orientations.
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Strong (1984) took as his starting-point Herman's (1979) hypothesis that the act of
learning a foreign language may affect learners' attitudes rather than vice versa. He
examined the correlations existing between integrative motivation and language
proficiency among a group of twenty-one Spanish speaking children and twenty-four
monolingual English speakers. The data collected allowed the researcher to come
up with a series of sociogrammes which revealed students' relationships. The
children's proficiency level was calculated on the basis of a series of spontaneous
language samples gathered in the last period of the school year. Correlations
between children's language proficiency and their preferences for playmates were
measured by means of the Kendal's Tau Test (see glossary for definition). The
results obtained revealed a correlation between integrative orientation and language
proficiency. However, it was found that the advanced children showed significantly
more integrative orientation to the TL group than the beginners. This led Strong
(1984) to conclude that the Resultative Hypothesis, which claimed that integrative
attitudes followed a degree of proficiency, was as valid as the motivation-as-cause
hypothesis formulated by Gardner and Lambert.
One year later in 1985, Gardner adduced supporting evidence for his original
position. The data collected did not show a clear correlation between achievement
and positive attitudes toward the foreign language culture. Furthermore, the
aptitude-motivation correlations were not higher when the aptitude-achievement
correlations were higher. This means that the Resultative Hypothesis defended by
Herman, Savignon, Burstall and Strong cannot be accepted without being
questioned.
Skehan believes that given the deficiencies of the research conducted by the
defenders of the Resultative Hypothesis:
the quality of research evidence is slightly in support of the casual

interpretation of motivation (1989:67).
However, he believes that more longitudinal and ethnographic research should be

carried out in the future. These types of studies would allow researchers to control
students’ progress over time and would certainly once and for all clarify whether we
can speak of cause or effect in the students' motivation for second language
learning.
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STUDY SUBJECTS DATA COLLECTION MAIN FINDINGS

Anisfeld 76 Canadian -Verbal Inteligence test - Intelligence and aptitude
and Lambert students of - Aptitude test correlated with success
(1961) French -Attitude and motivation
scale
Spolsky 315 students - Indirect and direct -Integrative motivation correlated
(1969) from 80 questionnaires with proficiency
countries
Mueller 375 students of -Questionnaire adapted - Older students had more positive
(1971) French from Gardner and Lambert attitudes than younger students
Lukmani 60 Indian - “My reasons for studying -Cloze test correlated with
(1972) students of English” questionnaire instrumental motivation
English -Spolsky´s questionnaire-
Cloze test
Naiman et al. -Observation - Positive attitudes appeared to be
(1978) 72 Students - Gadner and Lambert a necessary but not a sufficient
scale factor for success
- Interview
Chastain 200 beginners -Attitude scale - Correlation was not found
(1975) -Self-rating questionnaire between the affective factor and
achievement
Ervin- Tripp 36 Japanese - Interview - Number of years rather than
(1976) women living in attitude correlated with fluency
the USA
Herman 750 German -Achievement was the cause of
(1980) students of -Motivation scale motivation
English
Ganguly & 233 bilingual -Attitude scales -Attitudinal sex-related differences
Ormerod students of -Taped and informal emerged in some of the factors
(1981) Asian origin discussions studied
Vijchulata 1,000 -A 30-item questionnaire -Students were more integratative
(1981) Malaysian than instrumentally oriented
students of
English
Ludwig 609 students of -“Language Learning -Girls were more integratively
(1983) French,German Profile” questionnaire oriented than boys
and Spanish -Boys referred more than girls to
T-related factors than to
language-related ones
Strong 45 young -Sociometric measures -Achievement was the cause of
(1984) children motivation
Summary of key attitudinal and motivational studies till 1985.
Source: Gardner and Lambert's earty research is not included.
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D.- Measuring motivation
Early attitudinal and motivational research was followed by a large number of studies
which particularly focused on the validity and reliability of the methods used to collect
data and gather conclusions. Gardner himself had opened paths for this when he
claimed at the end of one of his main studies that more experimental research was
necessary as:
many of the measures were not pretested, item analysed or checked

for reliability and validity.
(1972:142)
Up to the 1980's most of the research on the role and effects of the motivational and
attitudinal variables in SLA had been based on survey studies and particularly on
Gardner & Lambert's attitude scales. Ervin-Tripp's (1974) study may be an
exception to this general tendency as interviews were used as a research
instrument.
As early as 1979, Backman investigated the validity and reliability of different

questionnaires and attitude scales which had been used to study attitude and
motivation in adult SLA. According to him, an interview technique may yield more
insights into the motivational and attitudinal variables than a written attitude scale.
With this hypothesis in mind, he carried out his research at Boston University over a
six- month period. The sample selected was formed by twenty-one Venezuelan men
and women. Their socio-economic background was relatively homogeneous and all
of them had studied English for a few years at high school. The interviews conducted
were focused on three main areas: attitude towards American people, intensity and
type of motivation to learn English and amount of cultural shock. The interviews were
conducted in English and had an average duration of about thirty minutes. Attitudes,
motivation and culture shock did not correlate with progress in language learning.
On the basis of these results. Backman concludes by saying that the interview
technique may provide a more reliable method of assessing affective factors.
However, it is admitted that further interview research on the attitude and
motivational variables should be carried out in the future to reach a conclusive
statement in this respect.
The research studies of Oller and his associates clearly stand out as they show a
high concern with the validity of the research instruments used to measure the
motivational and attitudinal variables in SLA. According to Oller.
there is no doubt that the task of measuring affect is the most difficult ever
undertaken by psychometricians.
(1981:277)
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However, their findings do not provide a conclusive answer to this controversial

question.
In their three main studies, Oller and his team made use of Gardner and Lambert's
attitude scales together with Spolsky's indirect questionnaire. They concluded that
although self-report data may not be very reliable as a measure for investigating
attitudinal and motivational variables in SLA, it is the only real and practical source
for data of that nature.
In the first study, Oller, Hudson & Liu (1977) started by questioning the direct and
indirect questionnaires used by previous researchers, such as Gardner and
Lambert, Spolsky, etc. In their view, both types of questionnaires may be subject to
a great deal of variable interpretation by respondents. With this hypothesis in mind
they set out to study the correlation between attitude measures and English
proficiency, the interrelationships between the different attitudinal variables and the
type of orientation shown by the subjects selected. The sample selected was formed
by sixteen female and twenty eight male native speakers of Chinese origin who were
studying ESL at the University of New Mexico and at the University of Texas (El
Paso). Two main research instruments were used: a cloze test with fifty blanks and
an attitude questionnaire containing four identity scales. The results obtained
indicated that the traditional distinction between integrative and instrumental
motivation can be maintained. In addition, it is found that the indirect methods of
measuring attitudes seem to be more reliable than the direct ones. Furthermore, the
decomposition of the integrative and instrumental motives into different components
or dimensions is also advocated. As can be seen, the original question on the validity
and reliability of the motivation and attitude scales remains, no conclusive reply
being obtained.
In a second study, Oller, Baca & Vigil (1977) conducted a research study similar to
the previous one with a group of sixty Mexican female learners of the Job Corps
Vocational School in Albuquerque. New Mexico. The materials used were on this
occasion a cloze test to measure English and Spanish proficiency, as well as an
attitude questionnaire divided up into seven different parts. The results obtained
revealed that the correlation between attitudes and proficiency was as strong for this
group of Mexicans as for the previous group of learners of Asian origin. However,
the Mexican students seemed to have more negative attitudes toward American
culture than the Chinese subjects although they were instrumentally oriented as well.
As far as research instruments are concerned, it can be concluded that indirect
scales concerning subjects´ attitudes towards themselves, their native language
group and the target language group provide more reliable insights and information
than scales which directly ask learners about their motives for learning English.
Finally, Chihara & Oller (1978) selected a population of Japanese students who
were learning English as a foreign language at Osaka University in Japan. The
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results did not differ to a large extent from those obtained in the previous studies.
There seemed to be no significant differences between learning English as a second
language as in the case of the Chinese and Mexican students, and learning English
as a foreign language as in the case of these Japanese learners. As a result, these
scholars questioned the attitudinal and motivation research instruments used as they
did not show the differences as far as affective factors were concerned between a
second and a foreign language setting.
Consequently, they believed that the attitudinal and motivational tests could not be
considered valid for three main reasons:
- First, it may be possible that subjects are prone to give responses that are
self- flattering according to their system of values.
- Secondly, learners seem to provide responses that are socially acceptable.
- Thirdly, students tend to give consistent responses, that is, answers that do
not contradict one another.
As can be gathered from the previous account, the findings reported by Oller and
associates question the empirical basis on which attitudes and motivation theories
are based, although they do not question the validity of the theories as such. Gardner
and Lambert' s models of motivation and attitudes may be criticised for their lack of
empirical validity, but this does not mean that they are not reasonable and
comprehensive theories to account for the role of motivation in SLA.
E.- Contemporary research into FL motivation
Contemporary research into the role of attitudes and motivation in SLA has not
introduced important innovations in the socio-educational model proposed by
Gardner. It has been particularly concerned with determining the motivational and
attitudinal factors in foreign language environments. However, the integrative-
instrumental duality has been called into question and other types of motivational
orientations have been discovered. We turn now to review the most representative
of these studies.
Ely (1986) set out to determine the types of motivation present among first year
university students of Spanish in the USA. He also intended to investigate the
relationship between type and strength of motivation. The research setting was a
university in Northern California. In a preliminary study, students were asked to
indicate their reasons for studying the second language. Then, a second group of
learners with the same characteristics rated the reasons which had been previously
identified according to their own interest. Three types of motivation clusters were
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found. Clusters A and B were, on the whole, equivalent to the integrative and
instrumental motivation scales respectively.
However, both clusters included reasons which did not appear in either the
integrative or the instrumental motivational scales, such as the belief in the
importance of studying a foreign language and the desire to engage in conversation
with Spanish speakers in the USA. Lastly, cluster C represented the requirement
orientation which had not been accounted for in either the integrative or instrumental
motivational scales. Ely (1986) concludes by saying that teaching materials should
be designed to appeal to both clusters of motivation, integrative and instrumental.
Svanes (1988) aimed to test the hypothesis of the correlation between attitudes and
language proficiency in Norwegian by foreign students at the University of Bergen.
He also intended to investigate whether attitudes towards the target people and
towards one's own people were different in groups of students with different cultural
backgrounds. The sample selected was formed by 167 students who were taking
classes of Norwegian as a foreign language during the period 1981-1983. The
students came from twenty-seven different countries. Norwegian was important for
them because they had to use it for further study at university but it would be
completely irrelevant for them when they returned to their own country. Students'
attitudes were measured by asking them to complete three questionnaires. The
students in the questionnaires were asked to indicate how well a series of given
adjectives respectively described Norwegians, their fellow countrymen and an ideal
person. The questionnaires were actually an adapted version of those used by
Spolsky (1969) and Oller (1977). For the analysis of data, the SPSS (Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences) was used together with factor analysis, Pearson
correlation and regression analysis (see glossary for definition). A close analysis of
the data collected allowed Svanes to claim that there was a significant difference in
means between the groups on nine of the twenty-four attitude measures. In general,
Asian students had the most favourable attitude toward the Norwegians while the
Westerners tended to be more critical not only of the Norwegians but of their fellow
countrymen as well. Furthermore, there seemed to be a negative relationship
between grades and all attitude variables. A negative correlation was also found
between grades and cultural distance. This means that the more proficient in
Norwegian the learners were, the less favourable they were towards Norwegian
people and towards the speakers of their own language. On the other hand, the
greater the cultural distance shown by the students, the more positive the attitude.
In Svanes' opinion, the previous findings do not call into question the whole picture
of the effects of attitude and motivation in SLA. He believes that the negative
correlation which existed in the subjects of his study between language proficiency
and attitude may be explained on account of the following hypothesis. It may be
possible that those individuals who possessed a deep knowledge of the language
understood the target culture better, and consequently, were able to judge it more
critically than those students with a lower level.
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The model of second language learning proposed by Spolsky (1989) does not show
important differences with respect to that designed by Gardner. According to
Spolsky, the social context leads to various kinds of attitudes which appear in the
learner, such as motivation. This factor joins together in its turn with other personal
characteristics such as age, personality, capabilities and previous knowledge. All the
previous elements explain the use learners make of the available learning
opportunities in formal and informal settings available to them. Finally, the interplay
between the learner and the situation will determine the linguistic and non-linguistic
results.
Dörnyei (1990) attempted to describe the motivational motives of 134 young

students of English in Hungary. The results obtained revealed that instrumentality
and instrumental language use had a highly significant relationship. The need for
achievement also appeared to be a general motivation component. The traditional
view that the integrative motivation correlated more highly than the instrumental one
with language achievement was also partly confirmed by the results. Furthermore, it
was found that the integrative motivational subsystem was less homogeneous than
the instrumental one. Finally, Dörnyei concludes by saying that an adequate
motivation construct should also incorporate a time factor as the nature of motivation
varies in conformity with the level of the TL to be mastered.
110

I3 Psicolingüística II Factores Individuales Del Aprendizaje Anthology

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UNIVERSIDAD DE INNOVACIÓN PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL

INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE

As explained in the subject Second Language Acquisition, the process of learning

*Attitudes towards language learning

Table 1. Factors influencing individual learner differences in language learning.

1.2. INTELLIGENCE OR TH E "G " FACTO R

Obviously, the importance of intelligence in second language learning depends on

Gardner (1985) reformulated previous theories of intelligence and referred to seven

1.2.1. WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT THE EFFECT OF INTELLIGENCE ON

...intelligence seems to be a strong factor when it comes to learning second languages in

1.3. LANGUAGE APTITUDE

Researchers have been interested in aptitude as a predictor for successful language

Early attempts to come up with reasonable and comprehensive definitions of the

- Grammatical sensitivity. In other words, the ability, to recognise the different

- Inductive language learning ability, which consists of the ability to identify

- Rote learning ability, which involves the ability to make associations

Pimsleur's LAB, specially devised for persons aged thirteen to nineteen, is

...researchers have set out from the identification of a few basic

- Some scholars, such as Bialystok and Frohlich (1978), or Krashen (1981),

1.3.1. APTITUDE: CONCLUSION

As a general conclusion to this section on aptitude, several points can be raised.

- Secondly, new versions of the already existing aptitude tests should be

- Fourthly, aptitude relates to the rate of a learner's acquisition rather than to

- Finally, it would be interesting to know to what extent aptitude is connected

Cognitive style is considered by Brown (1973) as a combination of affect and cognition

FIELD DEPENDENCE FIELD INDEPENDENCE

4. Socially sensitive 4. Not so socially aware

Thus, Reid distinguishes between four perceptual learning tendencies:

- Auditory learning (learning by hearing words spoken and from oral

- Kinaesthetic learning (learning by experience, by being involved physically

- Tactile learning (hands-on learning, learning by doing, working on

- Concrete learning style: people-oriented, emotional and spontaneous;

- Analytic learning style: object-oriented, high capacity for making

- Communicative learning style: quite autonomous, prefers social learning,

Look at this learner's description of how she learnt a foreign language.

1. How would you characterise her learning style?

1.4.1. COGNITIVE STYLE: CONCLUSION

In general, studies on cognitive style appear to demonstrate that a close relationship

1.5. LEARNING STRATEGIES

Learning strategies are defined by Oxford and Crookall as:

Characteristics or features of language learning strategies

- Language learning strategies...

1. ...contribute to the main goal: communicative competence.

- Cognitive strategies are essentially operations used by the learner to obtain

- Memory strategies correspond to the specific techniques which help the

- Compensation strategies are behaviours adopted by students to

- Metacognitive strategies are concerned with how to learn or with learning

- Social strategies have particularly been explored by Wong-Fillmore (1979):

- Affective strategies are techniques which help learners achieve better

- Communication strategies (see table 1.3) are almost exclusively restricted

Paraphrase, avoidance, restructuring, code-switching, foreignising, literal translation

a. Formal reduction: avoidance of rules the leaner is not sure of.

1.5.1. STRATEGY TRAINING

Appendix 1.1 shows an activity to develop students' reading strategies. Appendix

1.5.2 OUT-OF-CLASS LEARNING STRATEGIES

Reading 1.1 describes a study by Nigel Pickard into a group of German-

1.5.3. LEARNING STRATEGIES: CONCLUSION

2. The strategies used by students of advanced levels seem to be

3. The number of years spent in studying the language stands out as

4. Strategy use seems to be directly connecte.d with the complexity

5. Motivation and the learner's attitudes towards the learning of the

6. Sex and ethnic differences influence the choice of strategies.

7. People with different personalities, learning styles and