UNDERSTANDING THE SELF REVIEWER
Module 1: Philosophical Perspective of the Self 1. Socrates (Greek Philosopher)
“Know Thyself”
The Self can be viewed in 3 ways:
➢ Self is innate.
➢ Self is emergent.
➢ Self is integrated and developing.
Self is innate.
• The self is an important quality of humans that is
present upon birth and that self-awareness is
natural.
• This view of self includes the philosophies of
Socrates, Plato, Augustine, and Rene
Descartes.
Self is emergent.
• The self is an outcome of interaction with the physical as
well as the social world.
• The empiricist perspectives of Aristotle, John Locke, and
David Hume belong to this view of self.
Self is integrated and developing.
• The self has various components that undergoes
change through time.
• Immanuel Kant, Gilbert Ryle, and Maurice
Merleau-Ponty’s The Phenomenology of
Perception may fall under this view of self.
Different Philosophical Views of the Self:
• He inspired the youth of Athens to “know
thyself” and discover the importance of
their souls by continuous questioning called
as the Socratic Method.
• He equates knowledge with virtue and
ignorance with vice.
• For him, “an unexamined life is not worth
living.”
2. Plato (Greek Philosopher)
• Student of Socrates
• Theory of Forms:
o The world of Forms (nonphysical ideas)
o The world of Sense
• 3 Basic Elements of the Soul
o Reason
o Spirit (Passion)
o Appetite (Desire)
3. Aristotle (Greek Philosopher)
• Student of Plato
• He suggests that anything with life has a
soul.
• Threefold nature of man:
o Vegetative (physical body)
o Sentient (sensation & emotion)
o Rational (intellect)
4. Augustine (Early Christian Philosopher)
• Regarded as a saint in the Catholic Church
• Integrated the ideas of Plato and the
teachings of the Catholic Church
• Contemplated that the soul is an essential
element which governs and defines the
human person.
• “Knowledge can only come by seeing the
truth that dwells within us.”
5. Rene Descartes (French Philosopher)
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• Father of Modern Philosophy ▪ Contains repressed memories and

• Considered as a Rationalist emotions, and instinctual drives
• Mind-Body Dualism • The goal of psychoanalysis is to release
o Mind and body are distinct entities and repressed emotions and experiences to
co-existent overcome self-defeating behavior.
• Cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore, I am.)
10. Gilbert Ryle (British Philosopher)
6. John Locke (English Philosopher) • The Concept of Mind
• He postulated that the human mind at birth o The mind and body are intrinsically
is a blank slate or tabula rasa. linked; mental states and bodily actions

• Sensory experience is the source of all are one and the same.

knowledge. • “I act, therefore, I am.”

• Personal identity is made possible by being o It is through one’s behavior that the self
aware of the world that our senses is revealed.”

perceived.
11. Paul Churchland (Canadian Philosopher)

7. David Hume (Scottish Philosopher) • Proponent of Eliminative Materialism

• Bundle Theory (Lack of Self) o Materialism maintains that the self is

o The self is nothing but a bundle or inseparable from the brain and the

collection of interconnected and physiology of the body.

continually changing sense impressions • The self is the brain.

of what a human person is all about. o The physical brain and not the

• Self-knowledge depends on one’s conscious imaginary mind, gives us our sense of

experience and perception. self.

8. Immanuel Kant (German Philosopher) 12. Maurice Merleau-Ponty (French

• He harmonized the contradicting ideas of Phenomenological Philosopher)

rationalists and empiricists. • The Phenomenology of Perception

o Knowledge can be drawn form the o The consciousness, the world, and the
integration of sensory experience human body are intricately intertwined

and conceptual understanding. in perceiving the world.

• The human mind is an active shaper of • The self is embodied subjectivity.

experience. o Perception is not merely a

• The self transcends experience. consequence of sensory experience;

rather, it is a conscious experience.

9. Sigmund Freud (Austrian Psychoanalyst)

• The self is multilayered:
o Conscious
o Preconscious
o Unconscious
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Reflect:

There are different views of prominent philosophers

regarding the nature of the self. For some philosophers,
the self has an immortal soul, while for others, it is the
physical brain and a thinking thing. Other philosophers
regard the self as one’s consciousness, sensory
experience, and behavior, or a combination of these
elements.

Module 2: Sociological Perspective: The Self as a
Product of Society
“The Looking-Glass”
➢ Sociological perspective of the self is based on the
assumption that human behavior is influenced by
group life. A particular view of oneself is formed
through interactions with other people, groups,
or social institutions.
➢ Sociology as a scientific study of social groups and
human relationships, generates new insights to the
interconnectedness between ourselves and other
people. Hence, sociologists offer theories to explain
how the self emerges as a product of social
experience.
THE PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF WELL-
KNOWN SOCIOLOGISTS
• Charles Horton Cooley introduced the phrase
looking-glass self to highlight that the people whom
we interact become a mirror in which we view
ourselves.
• George Herbert Mead Mead’s theory of the social
self, explained that the self has two divisions: the “I”
and the “me”.
• Jean Baudrillard posits that in the postmodern
society the self is found in the prestige symbols of
goods consumed by man.
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY’S LOOKING-GLASS
Our self-identity or self-image is achieved through a
threefold event:
1. We conceive an idea of how we present ourselves
to others.
2. We analyze how others perceive us.
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF REVIEWER
3. We create an image of ourselves.
MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SOCIAL SELF: THE “I”
AND THE “ME”
• The “I” is the subjective element and the active
side of the self. It represents the spontaneous,
and unique traits of the individual.
• Whereas the “me” is the objective element of the
self. It represents the internalized attitudes and
demands of other people and the individual’s
awareness of those demands.
• The full development of the self is attained when
the “I” and the “me” are united.
• According to Mead, the self is not present at birth.
• It develops only with social experience wherein
language, gestures, and objects are used to
communicate meaningfully.
• Since there is meaning in human actions, we infer
people’s intention or direction of action, which may
lead us to understand the world from others’ point
of view – a process that Mead labeled as role-
taking.
• Then we create our own roles and anticipate how
others will respond.
• When we perform our own particular role, we
become self-aware.
• The self continues to change along with our social
experience
MEAD DETAILED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF
IN A THREE-STAGE PROCESS:
1. THE PREPARATORY STAGE (0-3 YEARS OLD)
• Children imitate the people around them
especially family members with whom they
have daily interaction. But they copy behavior
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without understanding underlying intentions, IN MODERN SOCIETIES THE ATTAINMENT AND

and so at this stage, they have no sense of self. STABILITY OF SELF-IDENTITY IS FREELY CHOSEN.
• During this stage, children are just preparing for
• It is no longer restricted by customs and traditions.
role-taking.
• While this newfound freedom offers infinite
possibilities for self-cultivation, problems such as
alienation and dehumanization of the self also
2. THE PLAY STAGE (3 TO 5 YEARS OLD)
appear which hinder the full development of human
• Children start to view themselves in relation to
potentials.
others as they learn to communicate through
• Hence, there is a need to discover the “authentic
language and other symbols.
core” of the self for the individual to freely work
• At this stage, role-taking is exhibited, however,
towards self-realization.
children do not perceive role-taking as
something expected of them.
• The self emerges as children pretend to take
IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES, SELF-IDENTITY
the roles of specific people or significant others,
CONTINUOUSLY CHANGE DUE TO THE DEMANDS
those individuals who are important agents of
OF MULTITUDE OF SOCIAL CONTEXTS, NEW
socialization. In this stage, the self is
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES, AND
developing.
GLOBALIZATION.

• Whereas the dissolution of traditional values and

3. THE GAME STAGE (BEGINS IN THE EARLY
SCHOOL YEARS; ABOUT 8 OR 9 YEARS OLD)
• Children understand not only their own social
position but also those of others around them.
• At this stage children become concerned
about and take into account in their behavior
the generalized others which refer to the
communities in modern society has led the individual
to construct a solid and stable self-identity, the
postmodern individual welcomes all possibilities for
self-improvement.
JEAN BAUDRILLARD EXPOSES THE NEGATIVE

attitudes, viewpoints, demands and CONSEQUENCES OF POSTMODERNITY TO

expectations of the society which include INDIVIDUALS IN THE SOCIETY
cultural norms and values we use as
• The postmodern individuals achieve self-identity
references in evaluating ourselves.
through prestige symbols that they consume.
• This time, they can have a more sophisticated
• The cultural practices of advertising and mass media
look of people and an ability to respond to
greatly influence individuals to consume goods not
numerous members of the social environment.
for their primary value and utility but to give them a
• During this stage, the self is now present.
feeling of goodness and power when
compared with others.
• The self may be a never-ending search for prestige
THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN AND
in the postmodern society.
POSTMODERN SOCIETIES
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Module 3: An Anthropological Conceptualization of develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward
the Self: The Self Embedded in Culture life.”

“My Biocultural Self”

The concept of culture has its impact on the

concept of man.
Anthropology holds a holistic view of human nature.
- Geertz agrees with Max Weber, that “man is an
- It is concerned with how cultural and biological
animal suspended in webs of significance he
processes interact to shape human experience.
himself has spun,” wherein those webs were
Contemporary anthropologists believe that culture
taken as symbols of culture.
and self are complementary concepts that are to be
- Man is defined by his genetic potentials shaped
understood in relation to one another. Anthropology
into actual accomplishments which is made
compared with other disciplines possesses a holistic
possible by culture.
and integrated approach to examine human nature.

Geertz emphasized that human nature is

According to a distinguished anthropology professor interdependent with culture:
James L. Peacock,
“Without men, no culture, certainly; but equally,
- “Anthropology encroaches on the territory of the and more significantly, without culture, no men.”
sciences as well as the humanities, and
transcends the conventional boundaries of both
while addressing questions to the distant past Social Identities
and the pressing present – perhaps with
- People have their own and others’ positions in
implications for the future”.
society.
- This definition of anthropology emphasizes that
- Individuals seek confirmation from others that they
it is an academic field for understanding the
occupy the positions on the social landscape that
interconnections and interdependence of
they claim to occupy.
biological and cultural aspects of the human
experience in all times and places.

How do societies distinguish individuals from one

another?
The Self as Embedded in Culture
- By using criteria such as age, gender, kinship,
- Clifford Geertz (1973), an American anthropologist,
ethnicity, and language.
offered a reformulation of the concept of culture
- Differences and similarities in characteristics
which favors a symbolic interpretative model of
among individuals are used to construct social
culture.
landscapes on which each person’s place or
- He defines culture as “a system of inherited
identity is indicated.
conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means
of which men communicate, perpetuate, and
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Identity Toolbox

- Features of a person’s identity (such as gender, age,

or personal appearance) that he or she chooses to
emphasize in constructing a social self.

Identity Struggles

- A termed coined by Anthony F.C. Wallace and

Raymond Fogelson
- Characterized the interaction in which there is a
discrepancy between the identity a person claims to
possess and the identity attributed to that person by
others.
- Individuals must be able to defend their identities if
they are threatened.

At present times, the most important philosophical task

of the postmodern man is to “work on yourself” just like
in the Socratic message “know thyself”.

- This is because the postmodern man has stopped

striving to become an autonomous and active part of
the process of self-determination and a particular
identification with one’s own community.
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Module 4: The Psychological Perspective of the Self • The real self consists of all the ideas, including the
awareness of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’.
• This module presents the psychological theories that
• The ideal self is the person’s conception of what one
influence the way people understand the self and the
should be or wanted to be that includes one’s goals
process to live life to the fullest.
and ambitions in life.
• Understanding of the self is successful when the
different parts of the self becomes united.
• An important aspect of understanding the self is self-
• The closer (congruent) the ideal self is to the real
awareness.
self, the more fulfilled and happy the individual
becomes. The farther (incongruent) the ideal self is
to the real self leads to unhappy and dissatisfied
WILLIAM JAMES' CONCEPT OF SELF: THE I-SELF
person.
AND THE ME-SELF

• The self is divided into two categories: the "I-Self"

and the "Me-Self".
• The "I-Self" refers to the self that knows who he or
she is and what he or she has done in his or her life.
• The "Me-Self" is the empirical self. It refers to
describing the person’s personal experiences and
further divided into sub-categories: material self,
social self, and spiritual self.

• The material self consists of things that belong to a

person.
• The social self refers to whom and how a person
acts on social situations.
• The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and
important part of the self. James believed that the
path to understanding the spiritual self is through
self-introspection.
CARL ROGERS’ SELF THEORY: REAL AND IDEAL
SELF
MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF
• Self-understanding in adolescents also includes
conceptualizing the self as multiple or unified and
true or false.
• The construction of multiple selves varies across
different roles and relationships.
• Coping with different aspects of the self constitutes a
difficult task among adolescents. Thus, this
contributes heavily to the young person’s struggle for
a unified self.

• Another aspect of self-understanding is self-concept.

Self-concept refers to the image of oneself.
TRUE VERSUS FALSE SELF
• Rogers suggests that there are two components of
self-concept: real self and ideal self.
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• Winnicott suggests that the self is composed of the
true self and the false self.
• The function of the false self is to hide and protect
the true self.
• People tend to display a false self to impress others.
The self tends to change depending on situations.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
• Albert Bandura suggests that humans have the
ability to act and make things happen.
• In his theory of the self, people are viewed as
proactive agents of experiences.
• Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency.
• Self-efficacy refers to the individual’s belief that he or
she is capable to perform a task.
THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE
• The id, ego, and superego develop in a series of
stages. Freud called these the psychosexual stages
of development which progress through five stages:
oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY IN UNDERSTANDING THE
SELF
• Another important aspect of self-understanding
involves views of identity development of the self.
• In Erik Erikson’s theory, adolescence stage is a
period of identity development.
• Identity formation is usually viewed as a process that
requires adolescents to distance themselves from
the strong expectations imposed by parents and
other family members.
• Erikson proposes that individuals go through eight
psychosocial stages of development.

• According to Jung, the psyche continues to develop

Psychosocial Stages of Development
throughout life, but the psyche starts to show a
definite form during adolescence.
• Jung conceived the structure of personality (psyche)
as a complex network of interacting systems that
strive toward harmony.
• Central to Jung’s theory of the self is the concept of
archetype. The archetype represents the hidden
potentialities of the psyche. There are four major
archetypes: persona, shadow, animus/anima, and
self.

SIGMUND FREUD’S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND

PERSONALITY

• According to Sigmund Freud, there are three

structures of personality: id, ego, and superego
which are often in conflict with each other. If this
constant state of conflict is unresolved, personality
problems may arise.
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Module 5: The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self THE SELF IN FOUR GREAT SYSTEMS OF EASTERN
THOUGHT
“Individualistic Self versus Collective Self”
1. Hinduism
• The Hindus concept of self is expounded in
ASPECTS OF THE WESTERN SELF Vedanta, a major school of Indian thought,
and is based on Upanishads, the classical
1. Western Self as Analytic
Indian philosophical treatises. It has been
• Western way of thinking is analytic-
stated that Brahman is an Absolute Reality,
deductive with emphasis on the causal links
and Atman (soul or spirit), the true
(part-to-whole relationships). The whole is
knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman.
understood when differentiated into parts.
• Vedanta characterizes human suffering as
One must categorize and make distinctions
result of failure to realize the distinction
to pursue cause.
between the true self (permanent and
unchanging) and the nontrue self
2. Western Self as Monotheistic
(impermanent and changes continually).
• The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting
with the universe condensed the
• “The true self to be realized is the
supernatural and human capabilities into
passive, uninvolved self-as-witness, not
bipolarity of both qualities of existence (e.g.,
an active ego with a sense of sovereignty
beautiful/ugly, kind/cruel, sacred/profane,
to know, to act, and to enjoy/suffer.”
strong/weak, etc.) and categories of identity
o The goal of man is to have a knowledge
or experience (e.g., God/Satan, body/soul,
of the true reality – Brahman.
love/lust, sinner/saint, etc.)
o Self-realization is being united to all-
embracing Brahman. But the realization
3. Western Self as Individualistic
of the true selfhood will result to a
• Western individualism exhibits the
complete dissolution of individual
coexistence of favorable and unfavorable
identity.
conditions inherent in personal freedom.
Although the right for individual freedom -----o-o-o-----
provides opportunities for self-fulfillment, it
also increases the likelihood to experience
alienation and frustration. 2. Buddhism
Siddharta Gautama – Buddha “The
4. Western Self as Materialistic and Awakened One”
Rationalistic • Nothing exists independently of anything
• Western way of thinking is focused on else.
material “things” and favors a rational- • The self is the center of relationships.
empirical approach over magical and • The self as a dynamic process of spiritual
superstitious explanation of immaterial development.
“things”.
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In Buddhist philosophy • Confucianism

o Confucian doctrines are found in the
• Man is just a title for the summation of the
Analects (Conversations of Confucius).
five parts (matter, sensation, perception,
o The core of Confucian thought is the
mental constructs, and consciousness) that
Golden Rule or the principle of
compose the individual, however each of the
reciprocity: “Do not do to others what
parts distinctly is not man.
you would not want others to do to you”.
• Man has no self (or no-soul). There is only
o The basic virtue or proper conduct is
nothing and all else is an illusion. There is
knowing how to act in relation to others.
nothing permanent, but change. The
ignorance of the impermanence of
• The most important of relationships are
everything may lead to an illusion of
the Five Cardinal Relationships: between
selfhood. This primal ignorance is the cause
ruler and minster, between father and
of life’s misery, births and rebirths.
son, between husband and wife, between
brothers, and between friends.
The perfect moral-intellectual knowledge
o Hence, the self is known as a
becomes powerful in the sense that it
relational self.
eliminates the cause of one’s misery and
being awakened from the illusion of
o Another important feature in Confucian
selfhood.
thought is the individual’s greatest
o The ideal is to experience Nirvana
mission of attaining self-realization
(literally, “blowing out,” as of a lamp), a
wherein self-cultivation is instrumental.
state of transcendence devoid of self-
Self-cultivation could be accomplished
reference. This state of transcendence
by knowing one’s role in the society and
can be achieved through meditation.
act accordingly.

-----o-o-o----- • The self is a subdued self:

o Moral character is perfected through
continuously taking every opportunity to
3. Confucius is believed to have lived from c. 551
improve oneself in thought and action.
to c. 479 BCE in the state of Lu.
There will be harmonious relationship
• Chief among his philosophical ideas is the
when individuals follow the rules of
importance of a virtuous life, filial piety and
proper social behavior. The individual is
ancestor worship. Also emphasized is the
set to respond to what is socially
necessity for benevolent and frugal rulers,
required rather than to one’s personal
the importance of inner moral harmony and
needs and goals.
its direct connection with harmony in the
physical world and that rulers and teachers -----o-o-o-----

are important role models for wider society.

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among opposing elements: the Yin and

Yang.
The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example
of the value of harmony with the environment.

- It is also applied to the concept of health for -----o-o-o-----

energy (qi/chi), balance for disease
COMPARISON: WESTERN AND EASTERN
prevention, healing, and the development of
CONCEPTS OF SELF
human potential.
- WESTERN EASTERN
4. Taoism THOUGHT THOUGHT
• Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists Frame of • There is a • Religion and
rejects the Confucian idea of a relational Reference separation philosophy are
self. To them, the self is an extension of the between intertwined.
cosmos, not of social relationships. philosophy and
• The self is described as one of the limitless religion/spirituali
forms of the Tao. ty.
• The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature Source of • Has made use • Has trusted
that is the foundation of all that exists. Knowledg of reason rather intuition and is
• It is not bounded by time and space. The e than faith to often associated
ideal is to identify with the Tao. The perfect pursue wisdom. with religious
man has no self. beliefs.
Emphasis • Distinctions and • Commonalities
• Selflessness is attained when the oppositions and harmonies
distinction between “I” and “other” View of • Linear • Circular
dissolves. the
Universe
o Consequently, the individual may and Life
behave spontaneously, just going with
View of • Egocentric • Sociocentric
the flow of the Tao.
Self
o The selfless person leads to a balanced
Ideal • Self- • Self-
life, in harmony with both nature and
(Goal in actualization actualization
society.
Life) through through
personal growth personal growth
• There is oneness of the Tao.
Cultural • Individualism • Collectivism
o Taoists believe that simplicity,
Framewor
spontaneity, and harmony with nature
k
should govern one’s life. Individuals
must seek to understand and act in
accordance with the natural order.
There should be unity and harmony
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Individualism

• The self is a distinct and autonomous entity; it is an

independent part of the universe and the society.
• Independence and self-reliance are core values.
• Prioritize personal goals over group goals.

• Characterized by exchange relationship

• Uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose and volition
are the acknowledged features of self.
• Personal success is important

Collectivism

• The self is an integrated part of the universe and the

society.
• Interdependence and connectedness are core
values.
• No distinctions between personal and group goals,
or if there is a distinction, the personal goals are
subordinate to the group goals.

• Characterized by communal relationship

• Conformity and obedience are essential social
behaviors.
• Duty towards all others is important.