Matemáticas Chinas

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Historia Mathematica ••• (••••) •••–•••
www.elsevier.com/locate/yhmat
Two problems in the 筭數書 Suanshu shu (Book of Mathematics):

Geometric relations between circles and squares and methods for
determining their mutual relations
Zhou Xulin (周序林)
School of Chinese Languages and Literatures, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
Abstract
Much research has been devoted to two problems, Yi yuancai fang (From a circular timber [find] a square) and Yi fangcai yuan
(From a square timber [find] a circle), both of which appear in the Suanshu shu, an early Han dynasty mathematical work written on
bamboo slips, excavated from tomb 247 at Zhangjiashan in Hubei Province, China. In this article, the geometric relations between
circles and squares and the methods for determining their mutual relations in these two problems are interpreted in a different way,
and an alternative approach is offered for reconciling these two problems.
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
摘要
較多學者研究了漢簡《筭數書》“以圜材方”“以方材圜”二算題。其中, 有學者所理解的圓與正方形的幾何關係與其計
算結果是矛盾的;有學者修改了原題數字, 以使圓與正方形的幾何關係與其計算結果相符; 有學者所理解的圓與正方形的
幾何關係與依算題術文計算所得結果不一致, 並認為這是由於古人對算題理解錯誤和計算錯誤所致。本文提出了理解二
算題的新思路, 闡釋了確定二算題圓與正方形之間幾何關係的新方法, 並給出了它們之間新的幾何關係。
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
MSC: 01A25
Keywords: Yi yuancai fang; Yi fangcai yuan; The Suanshu shu; Geometric relation of circles and squares; Method for determining
the relations between circles and squares
E-mail address: 124145811@qq.com.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hm.2021.05.003
0315-0860/© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
JID:YHMAT AID:3071 /FLA [m3SC+YHMAT; v1.346] P.2 (1-23)
Zhou X.L. Historia Mathematica ••• (••••) •••–•••
1. Preliminaries
1.1. About the 筭數書 Suanshu shu, and discussion of the two problems of the circular and square timbers
The site of Han dynasty tomb 247 excavated at Zhangjiashan is situated on the grounds of the Jiangling
Brick and Tile Factory in Jiangling County (now the Jingzhou district of Jingzhou municipality), Hubei
Province, China. It was discovered in December of 1983, and the excavation of the tomb lasted into January
of 1984. Besides other grave goods, a trove of 1,236 bamboo slips (excluding fragments) came to light again
after being cleaned, cataloged, and preserved. The slips, which had originally been tied together and rolled
into scrolls, later became disarrayed when the interconnecting cords disintegrated. The texts on the slips
were found to be long lost and previously unknown writings on medical, legal, military, and mathematical
matters. These are priceless historical documents for understanding the social and scientific development of
the early Western Han period (西漢 Xihan, 206 BCE−9 CE) (see (Barbieri-Low and Yates, 2015: 6−12),
(Cullen, 2004: 1−3), and (Dauben, 2014: 27)).
As an authentic mathematical work from ancient China, the mathematical text, entitled 筭數書 Suanshu
shu (Book of Mathematics), is at present unique among such works and thus of great importance in the
history of world mathematics (see (Cullen, 2004: 1) and (Dauben, 2008: 92)). This work consists of 190
slips numbered 1−190, ranging from 29.6 to 30.2 cm in length (see (Zhangjiashan, 2001: 249)), and com-
prising 69 distinct sections or problems. The problems fall into five broad categories dealing respectively
with fractions, arithmetic, ratios and proportions, surplus and deficiency, areas, and volumes (see (Cullen,
2004: 3−5) for more details).
The two problems discussed here fall into the categories of geometry and calculations from different but
related initial premises. In the one case, given a circular timber of known circumference, one is asked to find
the length of the side of the square timber to be cut from the circular one; in the other, given a square timber
of known side-length, one is asked to find the circumference of the circular timber needed from which the
square one may be cut. The methods applied to solve the two problems were popular among ancient Chinese
mathematicians, but are quite foreign to modern mathematical thinking. Likewise, the language used in the
two problems would have been clear to ancient Chinese mathematicians, but seems vague and obscure to
contemporary readers today. The purpose of this article is to determine the geometric relations between the
circles and squares in the two problems, and the ancient methods for determining their mutual relations
by best understanding the language employed in the Suanshu shu. It also highlights important factors that
must be kept in mind in order to interpret best the text of a given problem, including the best sequence of
the bamboo slips, the proper reading of each character on the slips, the social and mathematical contexts in
which the text must be situated, and even determining the best punctuation of the transcribed text to make
it easier to read. Some scholars, when the original text cannot be easily understood, have resorted to variant
readings, suggesting alternative characters and in some cases entirely different numbers from those clearly
found in the received text, but here the principle has been followed of changing as little as possible, letting
the original texts stand on their own merits whenever possible.
Photographs of the original bamboo slips on which the two problems discussed here were scribed appear
in Figure 1.
1.2. Details about the slips
Slip numbers
Each excavated slip has two types of numbers: excavation numbers assigned by the archeologists, and
collation numbers assigned by the original transcribing researchers. When the bamboo slips were first un-
earthed from tomb 247 at Zhangjiashan, the archeologists grouped the slips and numbered them according
2
Figure 1. Above are the four bamboo slips on which the two problems under discussion here appear, from Han dynasty tomb 247
at Zhangjiashan, from right to left. The problem on slips 153 and 157 outlines 以圜材方 Yi yuancai fang (From a circular timber
[find] a square); on slips 154 and 155, 以方材圜 Yi fangcai yuan (From a square timber [find] a circle). (a) indicates the title of each
problem, 以圜材方 Yi yuancai fang, and 以方材圜 Yi fangcai yuan, which are written above the first binding string; (b), (c), and
(d) point out the marks left by the binding strings that originally would have tied these slips together; (e) indicates the numbers (in
Chinese) used to identify each slip; (f) points to a black dot, which was used on this bamboo slip as a punctuation mark to separate
individual paragraphs. Slips 153 and 157 read: 以材方以圜材為方材曰大四韋二寸廿五分寸十四為方材幾何曰方七寸五分
寸三術曰因而五之為實令七而一四153 一即成157 . Slips 154 and 155 read: 以方材以方為圜曰材方七寸五分寸三為圜材幾
何曰四韋二寸廿五分十四•術曰方材之一面即154 圜材之徑也因而四之以為實令五而成一155 . Photographs of bamboo slips
from the Suanshu shu, courtesy of 文物出版社 Wenwu chubanshe (Cultural Relics Publishing House) (see (Zhangjiashan, 2001:
95–96)).
3
Figure 2. Diagram of the placement of bamboo slips of the Suanshu shu in situ in the tomb, and the excavation numbers, courtesy
of 文物出版社 Wenwu chubanshe (Cultural Relics Publishing House) (see (Zhangjiashan, 2001, Appendix II)).
to their placement as they were found in situ in the tomb itself. As far as the two problems under discussion
here are concerned, the excavation numbers for the slips containing the problem 以圜材方 Yi yuancai fang
are H103, and H102, and those for the slips of the other problem 以方材圜 Yi fangcai yuan are H101, and
H93, as indicated in the diagram in Figure 2. The archeologists carefully recorded the exact location of
every slip as they initially appeared, the strings originally holding them together having disintegrated over
the centuries.
This diagram is of considerable help in showing which slips were in close proximity to others, and in
some cases this helps in identifying which slips may originally have belonged together. After the slips were
excavated, had been cleaned, and the first steps in their preservation taken, paleographic experts began
collating the slips and renumbered them, as indicated by (e) at the bottom of Figure 1. The purpose of
renumbering was to group those slips that presumably belong together. However, this is a difficult under-
taking, one requiring many interdisciplinary factors of considerable complexity, so occasional mistakes in
suggested regroupings are unavoidable. For example, the experts renumbered slip H102 as 157, and slip
H74 as 156, and grouped slip H102 after slip H74 in their earliest publications in 2000, 2001, and 2006
(Jiangling, 2000; Zhangjiashan, 2001: 269; Peng, 2001: 113; Zhangjiashan, 2006a: 153). It was not until
2008 that Liu Jinhua (presently Associate Professor of History, Huazhong University of Science and Tech-
nology, Hubei Province, China) suggested that this order of the four slips in question was mistaken, and he
argued that slip H102 should come directly after H103 in terms of the contents of the two slips (Liu, 2008:
148−149). In 2014, Wu Zhaoyang (now Associate Professor of Mathematics, Nanjing University, Jiangsu
Province, China) provided additional support for Liu Jinhua’s position regarding the correct sequence of the
slips in question (Wu, 2014: 145–146). Only after establishing the correct order of the slips can the matter
of studying and transcribing the texts begin. In the transcriptions of the text of the 筭數書 Suanshu shu
provided here, the numbers for each slip assigned by the Zhangjiashan research team are given in Arabic
numerals in a smaller font following the transcribed text, to the right of the transcription, as follows:
一即成 157
4
Figure 3. Photograph of the black square followed by the title of the Suanshu shu, courtesy of 文物出版社 Wenwu chubanshe
(Cultural Relics Publishing House) (see (Zhangjiashan, 2001)).
Marks on the slips and transcribed text

The scribes who copied the text of the 筭數書 Suanshu shu sometimes made various marks on the slips
as they were copying them, such as the large black square that appears at the top of the verso of slip
no. 6, which indicates the beginning of the overall title of the entire book (Figure 3).
Generally speaking, the texts written on unearthed bamboo slips were not punctuated. However, occa-
sionally scribes did make some marks, called scribal marks, which partially function as punctuation marks.
In terms of the two problems discussed in what follows, a black dot • appears on slip 154 as indicated
by (f) in Figure 1. Black dots seem to function in different ways, sometimes to indicate the separation of
paragraphs, at other times possibly to indicate emphasis. The black dot on slip 154 serves as a full stop, and
in the punctuated versions of the bamboo slips in this article, the black dot is transcribed as 。.
Although texts were transcribed without punctuation, it is now standard practice in editing Chinese texts
to introduce punctuation to facilitate reading and make the meaning of texts clearer. Most of the punctuation
marks used in the texts transcribed here are all familiar from modern usage, including periods, commas,
colons, and question marks. The only exception is the introduction of a symbol not common in English
typesetting, the 。 just mentioned:
。 This mark indicates a full stop used to mark the end of a sentence or paragraph.
Since contemporary scholars are often slightly and sometimes sharply divided over the meaning of the
transcribed texts, the ways in which they punctuate their transcriptions also differ. As for the two problems
under discussion in what follows, differences in punctuation, as long as they do not interfere with a correct
interpretation of the texts, will not otherwise be mentioned.
It should also be noted that the characters that appear in the original texts on the bamboo slips are
sometimes variant forms of the characters no longer in use. In such cases it is not always easy for modern
readers to understand the ancient characters unless recognizable equivalent forms are also given. Thus to
enable a clearer reading of the text, modern variants of ancient characters are given parenthetically, as
follows:
( ) The character in parentheses is the character familiar to modern readers, whereas the preceding charac-
ter is the ancient variant found on the bamboo slips. For example, (圜) yuan and 韋 (圍) wei mean
that 圜 and 圍 are the standard characters recognizable today for their ancient counterparts written as
and 韋, respectively.
5
Other collation marks are also used in transcribing the bamboo slips for different purposes, as follows:
【】 Characters in boldface square brackets are assumed to be something inadvertently omitted in the
original text, but which the transcriber adds based upon context, such as 【而】一 on slip 157, and
因而【七之】 on slip 155.
〔〕 Characters in braces are advertently omitted, such as 〔圜材之徑即方材之一面也〕 in Problem 1.
Traces of decayed interconnecting cords

To tie a group of bamboo slips together as a continuous document, cords were used to bind them together,
much in the fashion of a Venetian blind. For the slips comprising the 筭數書 Suanshu shu, there were three
interconnecting cords used to tie the slips together, one at the top, another in the middle, and a third cord
opposite the first at the bottom of each slip. After having been entombed underground for more than two
thousand years, those cords have disintegrated. However, traces of the cords are still evident, as indicated
by (b), (c), and (d) in Figure 1.
Reading the slips

Reading starts from the slip on the far right, from top to bottom, and then proceeds to the next slip on
the left.
Dating
It is always a challenge to date ancient Chinese bamboo slips since they were in most cases not dated by
the original author or the scribes who copied the texts. However, there are some helpful clues the archaeolo-
gists excavating the tombs at Zhangjiashan discovered that make it possible to date the 筭數書 Suanshu shu
fairly accurately. Found in the same tomb with the 筭數書 Suanshu shu was a 歷譜 lipu (calendar record), a
monthly diary of sorts that turns out to be an important source for dating the texts excavated from tomb 247
at Zhangjiashan. This calendar lasted from 漢高祖五年四月 Hangaozu wunian siyue (lunar April, Fifth
Year of Emperor Hangaozu, namely lunar April, 202 BCE) until 呂后二年後九月 Lühou ernian houjiuyue
(intercalary September, Second Year of Empress Lü), namely from lunar April, 202 BCE, until intercalary
September, 186 BCE (Zhangjiashan, 2006a: 3). Thus the tomb occupant most likely died and was buried
in intercalary September, 186 BCE, or very soon thereafter, when the tomb would have been sealed. It thus
can at least be determined with fair certainty that intercalary September, 186 BCE, is the terminus ante
quem before which the 筭數書 Suanshu shu must have been written.
1.3. Format of the two problems under discussion
Each of the two problems considered here has a given title written above the first interconnecting cord
that tied the individual slips together, as indicated by (a) in Figure 1. Then comes the question setting,
followed by the question, the answer introduced with 曰 yue (says), and the method indicated with 術曰
shu yue (literally, the method says).
1.4. Technical terms involved in the two problems
(圜)材 yuancai Circular timber, whose cross-section is a circle

方材 fangcai Square timber, whose cross-section is a square
寸 cun A measure of length, approximately 2.31 centimeters in the Western Han dynasty
韋(圍) wei 10 寸 cun in circumference, approximately 23.1 centimeters in the Western Han dynasty
方 fang The side-length of the square timber, as in 方七寸五分寸三 on slip 153, and 材方七寸
五分寸三 on slip 154
6
徑 jing Diameter
因 yin Multiply
實 shi Dividend
術曰 shuyue The method says, serving to introduce the mathematical method by which the problem
can be solved
1.5. Multiplication, division, and fractions in the two problems
Ancient Chinese mathematicians devised a specific vocabulary and special expressions for dealing with
multiplication, division, and fractions. Those that appear in the two problems to be discussed here are the
following:
For numbers collocating with 之 zhi (pronoun, lit. “it” or “them”), the collocation expresses multiplying
it/them by the number. For example, 五之 wu zhi, and 四之 si zhi, mean to multiply “it/them” by 5, and to
multiply “it/them” by 4, respectively. Besides, 因而 yin er (multiply and) plus a number collocating with
之 zhi (pronoun) means the same thing. For example, 因而五之 yin er wu zhi, and 因而七之 yin er qi zhi,
mean to multiply “it/them” by 5, and multiplying “it/them” by 7, respectively.
For numbers collocating with 而一 er yi, or with 而成一 er cheng yi, these express division. For example,
七而一 qi er yi, 四而一 si er yi, and 五而成一 wu er cheng yi, mean to divide by 7, to divide by 4, and to
divide by 5, respectively.
Fractions are expressed in these two problems by a number b (denominator), then 分 fen (part) with a
measurement word (mw, for short), followed by a number a (numerator), in general, the fraction a/b is
usually expressed as b 分 mw a; here, 分 fen is the fraction indicator. For example, 廿五 nianwu (25) 分
fen 寸 cun 十四 shisi (14) means 14/25 cun (lit. 14 parts of 25), and 五 wu (5) 分 fen 寸 cun 三 san
(3) means 3/5 cun. An integer plus mw placed before the above mentioned collocation indicates a mixed
number. For example, 四韋(圍) si wei (40 寸 cun) 二寸 er cun (2 寸 cun) collocating with 廿五分寸十四
nianwu fen cun shisi (14/25 寸 cun) means 42 14/25 cun, and 七寸 qi cun (7 寸 cun) followed by 五分寸
三 wu fen cun san (3/5 寸 cun) is 7 3/5 cun.
2. Review and analysis
In 2000, a group of scholars, 江陵張家山漢簡整理小組 Jiangling Zhangjiashan Hanjian zhengli

xiaozu (Editorial Group for Collating and Arranging the Bamboo Slips from Jiangling Zhangjiashan Han
Dynasty Tombs), published the first transcription of the Suanshu shu: 江陵張家山漢簡《算數書》釋
文 Jiangling Zhangjiashan Hanjian Suanshu shu shiwen (Transcription of the Bamboo Suanshu shu or A
Book of Arithmetic from Jiangling) in the academic journal, 文物 Wenwu, hereafter referred to as (Jiangling,
2000). This was really a preliminary version of this group’s work, to make known the basic contents of the
mathematical text itself.
In the same year, a group of fifteen scholars in Taiwan, China, published a version of the text in HPM
通訊 HPM Tongxun (HPM Newsletter): 算數書校勘 Suanshu shu jiaokan (Collation of the Suanshu
shu), hereafter (HPM Group, 2000). They interpreted 以圜材方 Yi yuancai fang, hereafter referred to
as Problem 1, as follows: On the premise of the known circumference (c = 42 14/25 cun) of a circle, the
problem is to find the side-length (a) of the inscribed square, and in order to do that, ancient mathematicians
made a mistake, extending the rule of 方五斜七 fang wu xie qi (the approximate ratio of the side-length
(a) of a square to its diagonal (d) is a:d = 5:7), hereafter the rule of fang wu xie qi (a:d = 5:7), to the ratio
of the perimeter of the square (4×a) to the circumference (c) of its circumscribed circle. Mistakenly taking
4a:c = 5:7, ancient mathematicians calculated as follows:
a = c × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.
7
Proceeding with these assumptions in mind, the calculation is exact. Given a circular timber 4 wei
2 14/25 cun in circumference, the edge of the inscribed square is calculated as 7 3/5 cun in length. The
HPM Group did not carry out the calculation, but pointed out that the correct ratio of the perimeter of the
square (4×a) to the circumference (c) of its circumscribed circle is 20:7π (π≈3), which implies that if
Problem 1 were calculated on these terms, the result would be as follows:
a = c × 20 ÷ 21 ÷ 4 = 42 14/25 cun × 20 ÷ 21 ÷ 4 = 10 14/105 cun.
Clearly, the calculation and answer provided in the Suanshu shu fall considerably short of what the
side of a square inscribed in a circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun should be, based on the mathematics
alone. To account for this discrepancy, the HPM Group suggested it arose from the wrong assumption that
4a:c = 5:7.
The HPM Group then went on to interpret the second problem, 以方材圜 Yi fangcai yuan, hereafter
Problem 2, as follows: On the premise of the known side-length (a = 7 3/5 cun) of a square, the problem
is to find the circumference (c) of the inscribed circle, and in order to do that, ancient mathematicians made
a second mistake in regarding Problem 2 as the inverse version of Problem 1, so ancient mathematicians
calculated as follows:
c = a ÷ 5 × 7 × 4 = 42 14/25 cun.
The HPM Group did not carry out the calculation for Problem 2. However, according to its interpretation
of the correct geometric relation as the inscribed circle in a square of known side-length 7 3/5 cun, the
calculation can be provided as follows:
c = πa = 3 × 7 3/5 cun = 22 4/5 cun.
It is clear that the calculation given in the Suanshu shu results in a circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun,
much too large to have been inscribed in the given square.
The HPM Group did not provide any geometric diagrams to illustrate these two problems, but Figures 4
and 5 are based on the group’s statement of the two problems and its interpretations of the relations between
the circles and squares in Problems 1 and 2:
Figure 4. HPM diagram for Problem 1. Figure 5. HPM diagram for Problem 2.
In 2001, the Editorial Group for Collating and Arranging the Bamboo Slips from Zhangjiashan Han
Dynasty Tomb 247 published 張家山漢墓竹簡[二四七號墓] Zhangjiashan Hanmu zhujian [Ersiqi hao
mu] (Bamboo Slips from the Han Dynasty Tomb at Zhangjiashan [Tomb 247]), hereafter (Zhangjiashan,
2001). This version contains infrared photographs of the bamboo slips, as well as the transcriptions and
annotations of all the bamboo slips excavated from Tomb 247. Five years later in 2006, this same group
published a revised version of the entire Zhangjiashan corpus, hereafter (Zhangjiashan, 2006a). This book
again contains the transcriptions and annotations of all the bamboo slips from Tomb 247, but without the
infrared photographs. In these two versions, the scholars changed the answer to Problem 1 from 7 3/5 cun
to 10 14/105 cun, the answer to Problem 2 from 42 14/25 cun to 43 8/25cun, and the numbers that appear
8
in the method for solving Problem 2 from 4 and 5 to 3 and 4, respectively. They did not explain their reasons
for making any of these changes, nor did they say how they calculated their results. Also, they offered no
diagrams and made no indication of what they took the geometric relations to be between the squares and
circles in the two problems.
In 2001, 彭浩 Peng Hao (currently Research Professor, Jingzhou Museum, Hubei Province, China, one
of the leading scholars involved in the production of (Jiangling, 2000), and (Zhangjiashan, 2001, 2006a)),
published 張家山漢簡《算數書》註釋 Zhangjiashan Hanjian Suanshu shu zhushi (Annotation of the
Suanshu Shu from Zhangjiashan Han Dynasty Bamboo Slips), hereafter (Peng, 2001). This book only
provides a transcription and annotations of the mathematical text. As for the two problems under discussion,
besides all the changes made by Zhangjiashan, 2001, 2006a, Peng (Peng, 2001: 110−113) made one further
change, that is, the number 4 in the method of Problem 1 was changed to 3. He interpreted Problem 1 as
follows: On the premise of the known circumference (c = 42 14/25 cun) of a circle, the problem is to
find the side-length (a) of the inscribed square, according to the rule of fang wu xie qi (a:d = 5:7). Since
a:d = 5:7, and c=πd (π≈3), then
a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 3 = 10 14/105 cun.
Peng did not think that Problem 2 was the inverse version of Problem 1, but he thought that the side (a)
of the square was the diagonal (d) of the circle, that on the premise of the known side-length (a = 7 3/5
cun) of the square, Problem 2 was to find the area (S1 ) of the inscribed circle, and that since π≈3, the ratio
of the area (S2 ) of the square to that of the circle was 4:3. Thus, since S2 : S1 = 4:3, then
S1 = (38/5 cun)2 × 3 ÷ 4 = 43 8/25 square cun.
Peng provided the following geometric diagrams (Figures 6 and 7):
Figure 6. Peng’s diagram for Problem 1. Figure 7. Peng’s diagram for Problem 2.
In 2001, 郭世榮 Guo Shirong (presently Professor of History of Science and Technology, Inner Mongo-
lia Normal University, Inner Mongolia, China), hereafter (Guo Shirong, 2001), published his interpretation
of the two problems. He believed that on the premise of the known difference (d − a = 2 24/25 cun) be-
tween the diagonal (d) of the circle and the side-length (a) of its inscribed square, Problem 1 was to find
the side-length (a) of the square based on the rule of fang wu xie qi (a:d = 5:7), and to do that, he changed
42 14/25 cun to 2 24/25cun, 7 3/5 cun to 7 2/5 cun, and 一yi (1) 四 si (4) to 十四 shisi (14). Since
d − a = 2 24/25 cun, and a:d = 5:7, Guo calculated as follows:
a = 2 24/25 cun × 5/2 = 2 24/25 cun × 5 × 7 ÷ 14 = 7 2/5 cun.
He thought that Problem 2 was the inverse version of Problem 1, and that on the premise of the known
side-length (a = 7 2/5 cun), Problem 2 was to find the difference (d − a) between the diagonal (d) of the
square and its inscribed circle’s diameter, which was also the side (a) of the square. To do that, he changed
7 3/5 cun to 7 2/5 cun, 42 14/25 cun to 2 24/25 cun, and 四 si (4) in the method to 二 er (2). Since
a = 7 2/5 cun, and a:d = 5:7, namely d = 7a/5, Guo calculated as follows:
9
d − a = 7 2/5 cun × 2/5 = 2 24/25 cun.
Based on his interpretation of the two problems, the geometric figures can be drawn as follows (Figures 8
and 9):
Figure 8. Guo Shirong’s diagram for Problem 1. Figure 9. Guo Shirong’s diagram for Problem 2.
In 2001, 郭書春 Guo Shuchun (now Research Professor of History of Mathematics in China, the Institute
for History of Natural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China), hereafter (Guo Shuchun,
2001), followed Guo Shirong, 2001 except that he changed some of the numbers in different ways. For the
two problems, Guo Shuchun changed 42 14/25 cun to 2 14/25 cun instead of 2 24/25 cun, and 7 3/5 cun
to 6 2/5 cun instead of 7 2/5 cun, with the rest of the numbers remaining the same as Guo Shirong, 2001.
So Guo Shuchun calculated Problem 1 as follows:
a = 2 14/25 cun × 5 × 7 ÷ 14 = 6 2/5 cun,
and Problem 2 as follows:
d − a = 6 2/5 cun × 2 × 1/5 = 2 14/25 cun.
In 2003, 段耀勇 Duan Yaoyong (currently Professor of History of Science, China People’s Police
University, Hebei Province, China) and 鄒大海 Zou Dahai (presently Research Professor of History of
Mathematics in China, the Institute for History of Natural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Bei-
jing, China), hereafter (Duan and Zou, 2003), supported the viewpoints of the HPM Group, 2000, and
pointed out that the interpretation of the two problems by the HPM Group, 2000 was acceptable because if
they were interpreted this way, the two problems could be dealt with without changing any of the numbers
given in the two problems, as Peng Hao, Guo Shirong, and Guo Shuchun had done.
In 2004, Christopher Cullen, generally speaking, regarded the two problems and how they might be
related as a “confusion” (Cullen, 2004: 104). On the one hand, he felt the numbers were consistent with
one another based on the following calculations: with the circumference being 1064/25 cun and the square
being 38/5 cun, 1064/25 cun×5÷7÷4=7 3/5 cun, and 38/5 cun×7×4÷5=1064/25 cun. On the other
hand, he wondered what the point of this calculation might have been.
In 2006, a group of Japanese scholars based in Osaka, hereafter referred to as (Zhangjiashan, 2006b),
stated (Zhangjiashan, 2006b: 25−28) that given a known circumference (c) measured to be 42 14/25 cun
of the circle, Problem 1 was to determine the side-length (a) of the square inscribed in this circle. To do
that, it was first necessary to determine the diameter of the circle, and the usual practice was to divide
the circumference of the circle by 3, the approximation of π, but the diameter obtained this way would be
too large. So it would have to be shortened, and this could be done by dividing the circumference by 4,
simply for practical purpose. Once the diameter/diagonal had been determined, the rule of fang wu xie qi
(a:d = 5:7) was followed to find the side-length of the square inscribed in the circle. Based on the above,
they calculated as follows:
a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.
10
Problem 2 was the inverse version of Problem 1. On the premise of the known side-length (a = 7 3/5
cun) of a square, Problem 2 was to determine the circumference (c) of the circumscribed circle on the
condition that the diagonal of the square was also the diameter of the circle. Thus,
c = 7 3/5 cun × 4 ÷ 5 × 7 = 42 14/25 cun.
Thus the geometric diagram they provided for both problems is the same, and can be depicted as follows
(Figure 10):
Figure 10. Japanese diagram for Problems 1 & 2.
In 2008, Joseph W. Dauben assumed (Dauben, 2008: 160−161) that on the premise of the known di-
ameter (d = 42 14/25 cun) of a circle, Problem 1 was meant to obtain the side-length (a) of the inscribed
√
square, with 2≈ 7/5. However, he pointed out that 42 14/25 cun×5÷7 does not produce the desired
result 7 3/5 cun, and that, although a further division by 4 yields the given answer 7 3/5 cun, the physical
significance of doing so is problematic. As for Problem 2, after analyzing some possible solutions to the
problem, he concluded that the solution suggested by Peng, 2001 was the closest to the data. The geometric
graphs he provided are as follows (Figures 11 and 12):
Figure 11. Dauben’s diagram for Problem 1. Figure 12. Dauben’s diagram for Problem 2.
In 2008, 劉金華 Liu Jinhua, hereafter (Liu, 2008), believed (Liu, 2008: 149−153) that Problem 1 was
meant to determine the side-length (a) of a square circumscribing a circle of circumference (c) 42 14/25
cun on the condition that the diameter of the circle was also the side of the square. He regarded Problem 2
as the inverse version of Problem 1 meant to find the circumference (c) of a circle inscribed in the square of
side-length 7 3/5 cun on the condition that the side-length of the square was also the diameter of the circle.
He calculated the two problems as follows:
a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun,
and
c = 7 3/5 cun × 4 × 7 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.
Liu seemed to have realized that in Problem 1 it is impossible to cut a circular timber into a square timber
under the geometric relation as he interpreted it. As a result, he explained that Problem 1 was no more than
a formal mathematical problem, not a realistic one.
11
Based on Liu’s interpretation of the two problems, the corresponding geometric figure can be drawn as
follows (Figure 13):
Figure 13. Liu’s diagram for Problems 1 & 2.
In 2014, 吳朝陽 Wu Zhaoyang, hereafter (Wu, 2014), stated that the two problems should be understood
realistically, as reflecting practical physical problems. Problem 1, he suggested, was to find the side-length
(a) of a square timber that might be cut from a round timber of given circumference (c = 42 14/25 cun).
To leave adequate space for practical purposes, the circumference (c) was divided by 4, not 3 (the usual
approximate value for π at that time), and then the rule of fang wu xie qi (a:d = 5:7) was applied to find the
side-length (a) of a square timber. The calculation he provided is as below:
a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.
As for the geometric relation of the circle and the square in Problem 1, Wu opposed the idea of regarding
it as a circle circumscribing a square. However, he did not define what the geometric relation of the circle
and the square should be, not to mention providing a diagram or specifying the method for determining this
relation. Problem 2, assumed to be the inverse version of Problem 1, was to find the circumference (c) of
a round timber from which a square timber of given side-length (a = 7 3/5 cun) might be cut. Wu did not
compute the solution to this problem, but based on his assumption that these two problems were inverse
versions of each other, the calculation could be presumably provided as follows:
c = 7 3/5 cun × 4 × 7 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.
Wu thought the geometric relation of the circle and the square in Problem 2 was that of a square inscribed
in a circle, but again, he did not mention how he determined this relation or provide a diagram to show
this relation (Wu, 2014: 145−151). As can be seen from the above, Wu’s interpretations of the geometric
relations of the circles and the squares in the two problems are contradictory, and thus confusing.
In 2018, 韓厚明 Han Houming (now Lecturer of History, Harbin Normal University, Heilongjiang
Province, China), hereafter (Han, 2018), compiled as part of his doctoral thesis most of the research on
the meaning of the characters and phrases of these two problems published by scholars in mainland China.
In addition, he interpreted 面 mian as the diagonal of the square, and provided a formula for calculating
Problem 1 as below:
√
a = c ÷ (π × 2),
√
saying that π=4, and 2≈ 7/5. This thesis did not cover the geometric relations of the circles and squares
in these two problems, and the methods for determining their mutual relations (Han, 2018: 246).
The above scholars and their research can be divided into three groups. Group one consists of Peng, 2001,
Guo Shirong, 2001, Guo Shuchun, 2001, and Dauben, 2008 (Problem 2); group two includes the HPM
Group, 2000, and Duan and Zou, 2003; and group three, Zhangjiashan, 2006b, Dauben, 2008 (Problem 1),
and Liu, 2008. This grouping neither includes Jiangling, 2000, Zhangjiashan, 2001, 2006a, Cullen, 2004,
or Han, 2018, because they did not specifically discuss the geometric relations of the circles and squares,
12
nor includes Wu, 2014 because his interpretations of the geometric relations of the circles and squares were
“contradictory, and thus confusing.”
As has been made clear in the above analysis, group one changed the numbers of the original texts
slightly or drastically so that their calculations would be in accordance with the geometric relations of the
circles and squares, although they may have interpreted them differently. However, as further discussion
below will argue, there is nothing wrong with the given numbers that appear in these two problems, and in
fact, the two problems can be solved without recourse to changing any of the numbers from those given in
the original bamboo text.
Group two justified the geometric relations between the circles and squares by asserting that ancient
Chinese mathematicians committed mistakes in interpreting and calculating the two problems. However,
as later discussion below will argue, based upon several plausible assumptions, it is possible to see these
problems as inversely related, such that the numbers conform to the calculations given under certain basic
assumptions that will finally reconcile the two problems with a consistent interpretation of how they are to
be understood.
The calculations of the problems as treated by those in group three cannot conform to the geometric
relations of the circles and squares as those scholars have interpreted them. For example, Liu, 2008 defined
the geometric relation of the circle and square in Problem 1 as a circle inscribed in a square (see Figure 13).
In this case, Problem 1 was to determine the side-length (a) of the square circumscribing the circle of cir-
cumference (c) 42 14/25 cun. Noting that a = d, c=πd = 42 14/25 cun, and 3 as the usual approximation
of π at the time of the Suanshu shu, then
a = c ÷ π = 42 14/25 cun ÷ 3 = 14 14/75 cun.
That is to say, given a circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun, the side of a square circumscribed around
this circle must have a side-length of 14 14/75 cun, not 7 3/5 cun. The geometric relation between a circle
of circumference 42 14/25 cun and a square of side-length 7 3/5 cun should look more like Figure 14:
Figure 14. Geometric relation between a circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun and a square of side-length 7 3/5 cun.
The rest of group three defined the geometric relation between the circle and square in Problem 1 as that
of a square inscribed in a circle. Dauben, 2008 had realized that the geometric relation of the circle and
square he defined in Problem 1 did not conform to his calculation (see above). Zhangjiashan, 2006b believed
that Problem 1 was to determine the side-length (a) of the square inscribed in a circle of circumference
(c = 42 14/25 cun). Noting that given c = 42 14/25 cun, a:d = 5:7, π≈3, and d = c/π , then
a = c/π × 5/7 = 42 14/25 cun × 5/7 ÷ 3 = 10 2/15 cun.
That is to say, given a circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun, the side-length of an inscribed square is
10 2/15 cun, not 7 3/5 cun. The geometric relation between a circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun and
a square of side-length 7 3/5 cun is that as shown in Figure 14. Zhangjiashan, 2006b from group three
interpreted the geometric relation between the circle and square in Problem 2 as a square inscribing a circle
(see Figure 10). In this case, Problem 2 was to determine the circumference (c) of the circle circumscribing
a square of the side-length (a) 7 3/5 cun. Noting that a = 7 3/5 cun, a:d = 5:7, π≈3, and c=πd, then
13
c = πa × 7/5 = 3 × 7 3/5 cun × 7/5 = 31 23/25 cun.
That is to say, a square of side-length 7 3/5 cun inscribes a circle of circumference 31 23/25 cun, not
one of 42 14/25 cun. The geometric relation between a square of side-length 7 3/5 cun and a circle of
circumference 42 14/25 cun ought to be as indicated in Figure 14.
What are the methods used by the above three groups of scholars for determining the geometric relations
between the circles and squares? The method used by Liu, 2008 (Liu, 2008: 149) for determining the
geometric relation between the circle and square in Problem 1 was 圜材之徑即方材之一面也 (The
diameter of the circular timber is also the side-length of the square timber).1 So the geometric relation
he interpreted was a circle inscribing a square (see Figure 13). The method used by the other scholars for
determining the geometric relation between the circle and square in Problem 1 was 以圜材為方材 (Cutting
a circular timber into a square timber). So the geometric relation they interpreted in this case was that of a
circle circumscribing a square. As for Problem 2, the method that all scholars have used for determining the
geometric relation between the square and circle was 方材之一面即圜材之徑也 (one 面 mian of a square
timber is the diameter of a circular timber), and depending on their different interpretations of 面 mian,
they are divided into two groups. Group one including the HPM Group, 2000, Peng, 2001, Guo Shirong,
2001, Guo Shuchun, 2001, Duan and Zou, 2003, Dauben, 2008, and Liu, 2008 interpreted 面 mian as the
side-length of the square, and the geometric relation between the square and circle they determined was a
square circumscribing a circle, as indicated in Figure 13. Group two including Zhangjiashan, 2006b (and
Han, 2018) interpreted 面 mian as the diagonal of the square, and the geometric relation Zhangjiashan,
2006b determined was that of a square inscribed in a circle, as indicated in Figure 10.
3. New interpretation
The methods provided in the original texts for determining the geometric relations of the circles and
squares in the two problems discussed here are vague in meaning and so far unique to the Suanshu shu.
Therefore, it is necessary to look more closely at the methods and their textual contexts. Table 1 compares
the texts of the two problems to see if it is possible to ascertain whether they are meant to be inverse versions
of the same problem or not.
From Table 1, it is clear that the title, question settings 1 and 2, the question, and the answer for Problem 1
are all inverse versions of the title, question setting 1, answer, question, and question setting 2 for Problem 2,
respectively, and a sound conclusion can be drawn that the two problems are meant to be inverse versions
of each other, with Problem 1 to find the side-length (7 3/5 cun) of a square timber from a circular timber
of circumference 42 14/25 cun, and Problem 2, the reverse. One part (A) of the method for Problem 1 is
missing, and one part (B) of the method for Problem 2 is missing. A simple calculation will reveal what
(B) should be. According to the method for Problem 1, to find the side-length of the square timber,
42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.
And according to the method for Problem 2, to find the circumference of the circular timber,
7 3/5 cun × 4 (B) ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.
Obviously, (B) should be 七之 qi zhi (multiply it by 7), that is,
7 3/5 cun × 4 × 7 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.
1 Liu, 2008 interpreted 面 mian as the side-length of the square timber.
14
Table 1
Comparisons between the texts of Problems 1 and 2.
Problem 1 Problem 2
Title 以 (圜) 材方以方材 (圜) Title
From a circular timber [find] a square timber. From a square timber [find] a circular timber.
Question 以圜材為方材以方為圜 Question
setting 1 From the circular timber find the square timber From the square [timber] find the round [timber] setting 1
Question 大四韋 (圍) 二寸廿五分寸十四四韋(圍) 二寸廿五分十四 Answer
setting 2 [It is] 42 14/25 cun in circumference. [It is] 42 14/25 cun in circumference.
Question 为方材幾何为圜材幾何 Question
How large is the square timber? How large is the circular timber?
Answer 方七寸五分寸三材方七寸五分寸三 Question
[It is] 7 3/5 cun in side-length. The timber is 7 3/5 cun in side-length. setting 2
Method / 方材之一面即圜材之徑也 Method
(A) If the diagonal of the square timber is the
diameter of the circular timber,
因而五之為實令五而成一
Multiply it by 5 as the dividend. Divide by 5.
令七而一 /
Divide by 7. (B)
四一即成因而四之以為實
Divide by 4. Multiply it by 4 as the dividend.
All of the numbers in the two problems, as well as the calculations prescribed by the two methods for
solving these problems, indicate that Problems 1 and 2 are inverse versions of the same situation, and it
seems reasonable therefore to say that (A) ought to be the inverse statement of 方材之一面即圜材之徑
也 (If the diagonal of the square timber is the diameter of the circular timber), namely, 圜材之徑即方材
之一面也 (If the diameter of the circular timber is the diagonal of the square timber). Based on the above
comparisons, and drawing upon the related research of other scholars, the characters on slips 153, 157, 154,
155 may now be transcribed and properly collated as follows:
Problem 1: 以 (圜)材方以圜材為方材,曰大四韋(圍)二寸廿五分寸十四,為方材幾何? 曰: 方七寸

五分寸三。術曰: 〔圜材之徑即方材之一面也,〕因而五之為實,令七而一,四153 【而】一,即
成。157
Problem 2: 以方材 (圜) 以方為圜,曰材方七寸五分寸三,為圜材幾何? 曰: 四韋(圍)二寸廿五分十
四。 •術曰: 方材之一面即154 圜材之徑也,因而【七之,】四之以為實,令五而成一。155
The methods for determining the geometric relations between the circles and squares for Problems 1 and
2 are:
Problem 1: 圜材之徑即方材之一面也,因而五之為實,令七而一,四而一,即成。
Problem 2: 方材之一面即圜材之徑也,因而七之,四之以為實,令五而成一。
The character 即 j i is used as a conjunction and means “supposing” or “if”. For example, 即戎寇至,传
鼓相告 ji rong kou zhi, chuangu xianggao (If the Rong People invaded, the drums would be struck to send
the alarm signal) (Zhai, 2005: 1050, 1051). The character 面 mian here refers to the side of a geometric
figure, as in this definition for the parts of a right triangle: 短面曰句,长面曰股,相与结角曰弦 duanmian
15
yue gou, changmian yue gu, xiang yu jiejiao yue xuan (the short side is called gou (base), the long side is
called gu (altitude), and that which mutually ties the corners [formed by the gou and gu] together is called
xian (hypotenuse) (Dauben and Xu, 2013, vol. 3: 1037). Therefore, 面 mian can be used to refer to xian
(hypotenuse) of a right triangle, which turns out to be the diagonal of the square in Problems 1 and 2. The
two methods may then be translated as follows:
Problem 1: If the diameter of the circular timber is the diagonal of the square timber, multiply it by 5 as
the dividend, and dividing by 7 and dividing by 4 produces the result.
Problem 2: If the diagonal of the square timber is the diameter of the circular timber, multiply it by 7,
multiply it by 4 as the dividend, and divide by 5.
To understand the above methods correctly and thoroughly, first of all, it is necessary to point out that
the two problems are real problems “which apply to specific situations and are directly usable” (Martzloff,
2006: 54). After analyzing the whole corpus of the Suanshu shu, Peng Hao (Peng, 2001: 6) believed that
most of the problems in the Suanshu shu were closely related to the managerial responsibilities of county
governmental officials in the Qin and Han dynasties in such fields as finance, trade, transport, excavation,
architecture, etc., that the book was meant to serve. Likewise, Zou Dahai (Zou, 2001) after carefully scru-
tinizing all of the problems in the Suanshu shu also drew the same conclusion that the Suanshu shu used
rule-of-thumb mathematical methods and actual socioeconomic norms to solve real problems, and that it
was compiled for low-level officials to help them in conducting their daily managerial work. The owner of
the Suanshu shu (namely the occupant of Han dynasty tomb 247 at Zhangjiashan) must have had a good
mastery of mathematics, and his primary responsibility, besides assisting the county officials in their work,
may well have been to manage the finances and materials of the county government (Peng, 2001: 12). So it
is imaginable that this official might have applied the examples and methods he would have at hand from
the Suanshu shu to the management of materials. In Problem 1, suppose he had available a circular timber
of circumference 42 14/25 cun, and he needed to calculate the practical side-length of a square timber that
his carpenters could produce from the given timber. In Problem 2, suppose our magistrate needed a square
timber whose side-length was 7 3/5 cun, and he therefore needed to calculate the size of timber the car-
penters would need, namely the circumference of a circular timber that was large enough when cut to result
in a square timber of the required dimensions. By providing appropriate raw materials to his craftsmen
for production through rule-of-thumb calculations, the manager could minimize waste and ensure quality,
which was part of the function of the Suanshu shu, to provide examples and instructions to help carry out
the work of the local magistrates and bureaucrats.
Secondly, one of the prime characteristics of ancient Chinese mathematics is practicality. That is, ancient
Chinese mathematicians applied practical mathematical methods to solve real problems. As for Problem 1,
according to the stated problem: “if the diameter of the circular timber is the diagonal of the square timber,”
the geometric relation between the circle and square may be represented as follows (Figure 15):
Figure 15. Geometric relation of the circle and square showing the diameter of the circular timber is the diagonal of the square
timber.
In this case, to find the side-length (a1 ) from the circumference (c) 42 14/25 cun of its circumscribing
circle, since a1 :d = 5:7, and π≈3, then
16
a1 = c ÷ π × 5/7 = 42 14/25 cun ÷ 3 × 5/7 = 10 2/15 cun.
That is to say, when the side-length is 10 2/15 cun, this result is nearly exact and gives the maximum
length of the side of a square timber that could be cut from a circular timber 42 14/25 cun in circumference.
Although nearly ideal, this is for all day-to-day purposes unacceptable due to a number of factors. The first
would be the errors resulting from the approximations of π and the ratio of the diagonal to the side of
a square taken as 3 and 7/5 respectively in the process of calculation. As a result, the actual geometric
relation between the circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun and square of side-length 10 2/15 cun is as
Figure 16. Actual geometric relation between the circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun and square of side-length 10 2/15 cun.
Other factors include the uneven quality of the circular timber, the craftsmen’s imperfect mastery of
production techniques, etc. So in order to make the actual production practical, the side-length of the square
timber must be reduced. The method that the Suanshu shu suggested for this purpose is “multiplying it by
5 as the dividend, and dividing by 7 and dividing by 4.” So,
a = c × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.
In this case, the geometric relation of the circle and square is as follows (Figure 17):
Figure 17. Geometric relation of the circle and square for practical purposes.
However, the Suanshu shu did not further explain the meaning of the numbers 5, 7, and 4. Based on the
calculation prescribed by the method of Problem 1, three assumptions have been made by recent research.
Since the side-length of the square can be obtained by dividing the perimeter of the square by 4, it seems
that in 42 14/25 cun × 5/7÷4=7 3/5 cun, 42 14/25 cun × 5/7 stands for the perimeter of the square. And
based on the rule of fang wu xie qi (a:d = 5:7), it seems that ancient Chinese mathematicians, as stated
above by the HPM Group, may have extended the rule of fang wu xie qi (a:d = 5:7) to the ratio of the
perimeter of the square and the circumference of the circumscribed circle. If this was the case, then the 4
meant the four sides of the square, and the 5/7 referred to the ratio of the perimeter of the square and the
circumference of the circumscribed circle. If mathematicians at the time of the Suanshu shu indeed did so,
they had successfully solved Problem 1 for practical purposes in a way that the HPM Group believed to be
a mistake (see above). Zhangjiashan, 2006b, and Wu, 2014, made another assumption that the 5 and 7 came
from the rule of fang wu xie qi (a:d = 5:7), and the circumference
√ was divided by 4 to find the diameter of
the circle for practical purposes. Han, 2018 assumed that 2 and π approximated 7/5, and 4 respectively,
for practical purposes.
17
As for Problem 2, according to the problem as stated: “If the diagonal of the square timber is the
diameter of the circular timber,” the geometric relation of the square and circle may be represented as
Figure 18. Geometric relation of the circle and square with the diagonal (d) of the square serving as the diameter of the circular
timber.
In this case, to find the circumference (c1 ) of the circle from the side-length (a = 7 3/5 cun) of its
inscribed square, since a:d = 5:7, and π≈3, then
c1 = π × 7/5 × a = 3 × 7/5 × 7 3/5 cun = 31 23/25 cun.
However, because of errors caused by taking π as 3, and the ratio of the diagonal to the side of a square
as 7/5, the actual geometric relation between the square and circle is as follows (Figure 19):
Figure 19. Actual geometric relation between the square of side-length 10 2/15 cun and circle of circumference 42 14/25 cun.
Since the circumference of 31 23/25 cun for the circular timber from which the square timber was to
be cut of side-length 7 3/5 cun does not leave enough space for practical purposes, the circumference of
31 23/25 cun would have to have been enlarged by “multiplying it by 7, multiplying it by 4 as the dividend,
and dividing by 5.” Namely, c = 7 3/5 cun×7×4÷5=42 14/25 cun.
In this case, the geometric relation of the circle and square is as follows (Figure 20):
Figure 20. Geometric relation of the square and circle for practical purposes.
Thirdly, ancient Chinese mathematicians would make suppositions and then calculate to see if the sup-
position would enable them to solve a given problem. For example, in problems of the category of 盈不足
ying bu zu (surplus and deficiency), also known as “The Rule of False Position” (Lam, 1994: 30–34), two
suppositions are made, one resulting in a surplus, the other in a deficiency, from which a method is given
whereby an intermediate solution is produced. Problems 1 and 2 make suppositions, too. The supposition
in Problem 1 is: if the diameter of the circular timber is also the diagonal of the square timber. Under this
supposition, the geometric relation between the circle and square is as follows (Figure 21):
18
Figure 21. Geometric relation of the square and circle under supposition of the diameter of the circular timber being the diagonal
of the square timber.
As a result of this supposition, the side-length of the inscribed square is too large, so it should be reduced
by “multiplying it by 5 as the dividend, and dividing by 7 and dividing by 4”. Similarly, the supposition in
Problem 2 is: if the diagonal of the square timber is also the diameter of the circular timber. This supposition
means that the geometric relation between the square and circle is as follows (Figure 22):
Figure 22. Geometric relation of the square and circle under supposition of the diagonal of the square timber being the diameter of
the circular timber.
The result of this supposition is that the size of the circumference of the circle is too small, so it should
be enlarged by “multiplying it by 7, multiplying it by 4 as the dividend, and dividing by 5”.
Last but not least, advertent omission is a usual practice in the statement of the methods of ancient
Chinese mathematics. As J.-C. Martzloff has pointed out:
Resolutory rules are dogmatic “stratagems of action,” which if followed mechanically should lead automat-
ically to the expected result, but which in practice may permit a certain degree of freedom of action, since,
not all the stages of the calculations are rigorously specified, as they should be in the case of true algorithms.
For example, the Chinese Ruffini-Horner methods always leave the mathematician to evaluate the order of
magnitude of the root. But the same remark also holds for all medieval mathematics, whether Chinese or
not (Martzloff, 2006: 58−59).
The methods for the two problems under discussion here are no exception. Based on the above analysis
of practicality and the suppositions in Problems 1 and 2, it is clear that there is something missing right
after “If the diameter of the circular timber is the diagonal of the square timber.” What was omitted is to
the effect that the size of the side-length of the square timber is too large and should be reduced. There is
another omission after “If the diagonal of the square timber is the diameter of the circular timber,” to the
effect that the size of the circumference of the circular timber is too small and should be enlarged.
Such omissions would have posed no difficulty for ancient Chinese mathematicians in comprehending
the realities of a given problem because those omitted methods were ready-made ones and would have made
common sense to them. As Zou Dahai has pointed out, such partially omitted statements in the Suanshu
shu indicated that they must have been long-existing methods (Zou, 2001). That is why in Problem 1 the
supposition is completely omitted and in Problem 2, partially omitted.
With the above in mind, a new interpretation of Problem 1 takes the following form:
From a circular timber finding the square timber, the circular timber is 42 14/25 cun in circumference.
How large is the square timber? The answer says: It is 7 3/5 cun in side-length. The method says: If the
19
diameter (d) of the circular timber is the diagonal (d) of the square timber (Figure 23):
Figure 23. Geometric relation of the square and circle under supposition of the diameter of the circular timber being the diagonal
of the square timber.
Since a1 :d = 5:7, and π≈3, then
a1 = c ÷ π × 5/7 = 10 2/15 cun.
The side-length (a1 ) of the square timber is too large and should be reduced. Multiply it by 5 as the dividend,
and dividing by 7 and dividing by 4 produces the result. Namely,
a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.
The geometric relation of the circle and square in this case may be depicted as (Figure 24):
Figure 24. A new interpretation of the geometric relation of the circle and square.
A corresponding new interpretation of Problem 2 would read as follows:
From the square timber finding the circular timber, the timber is 7 3/5 cun in side-length. How large
should the circular timber be? The answer says: It is 42 14/25 cun in circumference. The method says: If
the diagonal (d) of the square timber is the diameter (d) of the circular timber (Figure 25):
Figure 25. Geometric relation of the square and circle under supposition of the diagonal of the square timber being the diameter of
the circular timber.
Since a:d = 5:7, and π≈3, then
c1 = a × 7/5 × π = 31 23/25 cun.
20
The circumference (c1 ) of the circular timber is too small and should be enlarged. Multiply it by 7, multiply
it by 4 as the dividend, and divide by 5:
c = 7 3/5 cun × 7 × 4 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.
The geometric relation of the square and circle in this case may be depicted as (Figure 26):
Figure 26. New interpretation of the geometric relation of the square and circle.
It should be kept in mind that any bureaucrat who might have been faced with making calculations of
the sort involved in these two problems would not have been preoccupied with mathematical exactness,
but already knew that any computations involving the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter as 3
or the ratio of the diagonal to the side of its square as 7/5 both fell short. Hence, computations would be
correspondingly too small if involving multiples of either, or too large if involving divisions. Compensating
for these rough approximations would have come naturally in practice, and in the cases of the two problems
involving a square and its corresponding circumscribed circle, might well have been inspired by real-life
examples of a round log of circumference 42 14/25 cun, and a roughly hewn timber 7 3/5 cun on the side.
4. Conclusions
Firstly, the two problems discussed above reveal that it is a great challenge to work with excavated
Chinese mathematical texts written on bamboo slips due to many factors. If not carefully treated, these
will result in incorrect interpretations of the problems. To begin with, the bamboo slips must be grouped
in their proper sequence by placing slip 157 directly after slip 153. Then, the meanings of each character
and every term in the two problems must be correctly interpreted, such as 即 j i (supposing) and 面 mian
(the diagonal of a square). Omitted information in the methods of the two problems must be surmised by
reading carefully between the lines, such as the omission between the two inconsistent statements: 圜材之
徑即方材之一面也 (if the diameter of the circle is the diagonal of the square) and 因而五之為實,令七而
一,四而一 (multiply it by 5 as the dividend, divide by 7, and divide by 4).
Secondly, on the one hand, today’s readers of the Suanshu shu and other excavated mathematical texts
should have due confidence in ancient Chinese mathematicians’ ability to solve mathematical problems in
their own way. Whenever we are confronted with data in problems that look inconsistent, or with problems
that seem to have incorrect solutions, it is always wise to resist the temptation to change the data, or to
assert the ancient mathematicians were wrong, although there are indeed cases where they did make scribal
mistakes in the Suanshu shu. On the other hand, it is advisable to be cautious when we draw any conclusions
about problems in the Suanshu shu and other excavated mathematical texts. It would be better to reexamine
the conclusions to be drawn more carefully in all aspects to see if the problems have been truly and fully
understood.
Thirdly, the geometric relations between the circles and squares in the two problems, and the methods
for determining them, are at present unique to the Suanshu shu. They are to be found nowhere else, whether
in traditional or excavated texts, and thus are of great interest in the history of Chinese mathematics. It is
thanks to the excavation of the Suanshu shu nearly forty years ago and all the efforts devoted subsequently
21
to analyzing the two problems discussed here by numerous scholars that they may be better appreciated
today. Ancient Chinese mathematics was meant to be applied, and those who used it did so to solve practical
problems effectively more than two thousand years ago.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund of China 國家社會科學基金 (Grant number:
18XTQ004), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, Southwest Minzu University (Grant
number: 2020SYB24).
I would like to express my thanks to Professor Joseph W. Dauben for discussing with me the two problems pre-
sented in this article during my visit to the Graduate Center of the City University of New York as a visiting scholar
in the spring and fall semesters of 2020, and for his suggestions about various ways of improving it. I also would like
to give my thanks to the editors of Historia Mathematica for their efforts spent on improving this paper, and to the
two anonymous reviewers for their additionally helpful comments and suggestions that have also led to improving
this article.
References
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mentary. Arch. Hist. Exact Sci. 62, 91–178.
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bamboo texts to the Nine Chapters on the Art of Mathematics. Not. Int. Congr. Chin. Math. 2 (2), 24–51.
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Fang” and “Yi Fang Cai Yuan” in the unearthed mathematics book Suanshu Shu). Ziran kexue shi yanjiu 自然科
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276–285.
Guo, Shuchun (郭書春), 2001. “Suanshu shu” jiaokan 《筭數書》校勘 (The collation of Suanshu shu (A Book of
Arithmetic)). Zhongguo keji shiliao 中國科技史料 22 (3), 202–219.
Han, Houming (韓厚明), 2018. Zhangjiashan hanjian zi ci jishi 張家山漢簡字詞集釋 (The variorum on words and
expressions of Zhangjiashan bamboo slips). Jilin daxue boshi xuewei lunwen 吉林大學博士學位論文.
Jiangling Zhangjiashan Hanjian Zhengli Xiaozu (江陵張家山漢簡整理小組), 2000. Jiangling zhangjiashan hanjian
“suanshu shu” shiwen 江陵張家山漢簡《算數書》釋文 (Transcription of bamboo Suanshu shu or A Book of
Arithmetic from Jiangling). Wenwu 文物 9, 78–84.
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Guangxi shifan daxue chubanshe 廣西師範大學出版社, Guilin.
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247 at Zhangjiashan). Wenwu chubanshe 文物出版社, Beijing.
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Slips — The Most Ancient Book of Mathematics of China). Pengyou shudian 朋友書店, Tokyo.
Zou, Dahai (鄒大海), 2001. Chutu “suanshu shu” chutan 出土《算數書》初探 (A Preliminary Research on the
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Zhou Xulin is Associate Professor from the School of Chinese Languages and Literatures, Southwest Minzu
University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China. His research is centered on the excavated Chinese mathematical texts
written on bamboo slips and wooden boards. In the past four years, he published 5 articles, and directed 3 research
projects. Both the articles and projects were devoted to the detailed study of the 筭數書 Suanshu shu (Book of
Mathematics) excavated from Han dynasty tomb 247 at Zhangjiashan, Hubei Province, China, and of the 數 Shu
(Mathematics) housed by Yuelu Academy, Hunan Province, China.
23

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JID:YHMAT AID:3071 /FLA [m3SC+YHMAT; v1.346] P.

Two problems in the 筭數書 Suanshu shu (Book of Mathematics):

E-mail address: 124145811@qq.com.

1.2. Details about the slips

Marks on the slips and transcribed text

Traces of decayed interconnecting cords

Reading the slips

1.3. Format of the two problems under discussion

1.4. Technical terms involved in the two problems

(圜)材 yuancai Circular timber, whose cross-section is a circle

1.5. Multiplication, division, and fractions in the two problems

2. Review and analysis

In 2000, a group of scholars, 江陵張家山漢簡整理小組 Jiangling Zhangjiashan Hanjian zhengli

a = c × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.

a = c × 20 ÷ 21 ÷ 4 = 42 14/25 cun × 20 ÷ 21 ÷ 4 = 10 14/105 cun.

c = πa = 3 × 7 3/5 cun = 22 4/5 cun.

a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 3 = 10 14/105 cun.

S1 = (38/5 cun)2 × 3 ÷ 4 = 43 8/25 square cun.

Peng provided the following geometric diagrams (Figures 6 and 7):

a = 2 24/25 cun × 5/2 = 2 24/25 cun × 5 × 7 ÷ 14 = 7 2/5 cun.

d − a = 7 2/5 cun × 2/5 = 2 24/25 cun.

a = 2 14/25 cun × 5 × 7 ÷ 14 = 6 2/5 cun,

and Problem 2 as follows:

d − a = 6 2/5 cun × 2 × 1/5 = 2 14/25 cun.

a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.

c = 7 3/5 cun × 4 ÷ 5 × 7 = 42 14/25 cun.

Figure 10. Japanese diagram for Problems 1 & 2.

a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun,

c = 7 3/5 cun × 4 × 7 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.

Figure 13. Liu’s diagram for Problems 1 & 2.

a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.

c = 7 3/5 cun × 4 × 7 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.

a = c ÷ π = 42 14/25 cun ÷ 3 = 14 14/75 cun.

a = c/π × 5/7 = 42 14/25 cun × 5/7 ÷ 3 = 10 2/15 cun.

c = πa × 7/5 = 3 × 7 3/5 cun × 7/5 = 31 23/25 cun.

42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.

7 3/5 cun × 4 (B) ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.

Obviously, (B) should be 七之 qi zhi (multiply it by 7), that is,

7 3/5 cun × 4 × 7 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.

1 Liu, 2008 interpreted 面 mian as the side-length of the square timber.

Problem 1: 以 (圜)材方 以圜材為方材,曰大四韋(圍)二寸廿五分寸十四,為方材幾何? 曰: 方七寸

a1 = c ÷ π × 5/7 = 42 14/25 cun ÷ 3 × 5/7 = 10 2/15 cun.

a = c × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.

c1 = π × 7/5 × a = 3 × 7/5 × 7 3/5 cun = 31 23/25 cun.

Since a1 :d = 5:7, and π≈3, then

a1 = c ÷ π × 5/7 = 10 2/15 cun.

a = 42 14/25 cun × 5 ÷ 7 ÷ 4 = 7 3/5 cun.

A corresponding new interpretation of Problem 2 would read as follows:

Since a:d = 5:7, and π≈3, then

c1 = a × 7/5 × π = 31 23/25 cun.

c = 7 3/5 cun × 7 × 4 ÷ 5 = 42 14/25 cun.

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Problem 1: 以 (圜)材方以圜材為方材,曰大四韋(圍)二寸廿五分寸十四,為方材幾何? 曰: 方七寸