MATHEMATICS HANDOUTS

GCF and LCM

Greatest Common Factor (GCF) - the largest factor that the two or more numbers have in common.
Least Common Multiple (LCM) – the smallest number that is a multiple of two or more numbers.
Illustration: Find the GCF of 45 and 60.
We can write the prime factorization of each:
Now write all of the factors they have in common:
The GCF is 15.
Illustration: Find the LCM of 45 and 60.
We can write the prime factorization of each:
Now write all of the factors they have (if they have a common factor and is repeated more than once, choose the highest number of repetition):
Since 45 has two 3’s, I’ll write two 3’s in the LCM. 3x3x5x2x2 = 180
The LCM is 180.
Trick: Using your calculator you can easily solve for the gcf and lcm by trial and error. To find the GCF, choose the largest number out of the four
choices then use it as a divisor of the numbers given in the question. If it can divide the given numbers it’s the GCF. If it cannot, choose the next
largest number. Continue the process until you arrive to the answer. For the LCM, choose the smallest number out the four choices then use it as a
dividend of the numbers given in the question. If it can be divided by the given numbers it’s the LCM.
Recall: Dividend ÷Divisor = Quotient + Remainder
Let’s try!
1. Find the GCF of 18, 28, and 32.
A. 4 C. 6
B. 2 D. 8
You will start at option D since it is largest number. If you’ll try to divide 18 by 8 it will not produce a whole number. This means that 8 cannot
divide 18. Continue to do this using numbers 6, 4, and 2 (try it!). Observe that only 2 can divide 18, 28, and 32, so the GCF is 2!
2. Find the LCM of 18, 28, and 32.
A. 2015 C. 2017
B. 2016 D. 2018
You will start at option A since it is the smallest number. You can see that 18 can’t divide 2015. And of you’ll try 2016 it can be divided by 18, 28,
and 32. Hence, 2016 is our LCM.

Percentage Problems
Remember:

Here P – percentage, B – base, and R – rate.

Formulas:
Percentage = Base x Rate P
Base = Percentage/Rate
Rate = Percentage/Base x 100 B R
Trick:
“OF” number is always behind the word of (“OF” number = BASE)
“%” number is the number with the percent sign (“%” number = RATE)
“IS” number will be in front of the word is or behind the word is (“IS” number = PERCENTAGE)

Example:
1. What number is 70% of 45?
Here R = 70%, B =45, “is” number or Percentage (P) is missing.
P = BxR
P = 45x70%
P = 31.5
2. What percent of 70 is 7?
Here P = 7, B =70, “%” number or Rate (R) is missing.
R = P/R x 100
R = 7/70 x100
R = 10%
3. 15 is 25% of what number?

Here R = 25%, P =15, “of” number or Base (B) is missing.

B = P/R
B = 15/.25
B = 60

1. In a basket of apples, 12% of them are rotten and 66 are in good condition. Find the total
number of apples in the basket.
Solution:            

Let the total number of apples in the basket be m

12 % of the apples are rotten, and apples in good condition are 66

Therefore, according to the question,

88% of m = 66

⟹ 88/100 × m = 66

⟹ m = (66 × 100)/88

⟹ m = 3 × 25

⟹ m = 75

Therefore, total number of apples in the basket is 75.

2. There are 50 students in a class. If 14% are absent on a particular day, find the number of
students present in the class

Solution:            

Number of students absent on a particular day = 14 % of 50

                                          i.e., 14/100 × 50 = 7

Therefore, the number of students present = 50 - 7 = 43 students.

3. In a class 60% of the students are girls. If the total number of students is 30, what is the
number of boys? B = 12; g =18

Assignment: for Tuesday February 01, 2022

4. Emma scores 72 marks out of 80 in her English exam. Convert her marks into percent.

Answer: 90%

5. A cow gives 24 liters milk each day. If the milkman sells 75% of the milk, how many liters of
milk is left with him?

Answer: 6 l
Interest problems
Simple Interest
I=Prt
I = Interest
P = Principal
r = rate
t = time

Compound Interest
F = P(1+r/n)nt
F = compounded amount
P = principal
r = rate
t = time
n = 4 (quarterly), 1 (annually), 2 (semi-annually), 12 (monthly)
Remember: Make sure that rate and time should be on the same unit (e.g. Rate = 5% annually, t = 2 yrs). If it is not (e.g. Rate = 5% monthly, t = 2
yrs), time should be converted to the unit used in rate. Thus, (e.g. Rate = 5% annually, t = 2 yrs = 24 months)

WORD PROBLEMS
In solving word problems, remember the following: Literal Comprehension, Picture the problem, decide your Tactic (Coincidentally, it’s
why you’re reading this!). It’s is very important to understand the problem before actually solving the problem. In line with that, visualizing the
problem is a test whether you understand the problem or not. After all that, you are to decide what tactic you’ll use. On this part, it’s really up to
you on what to do next. Decide base on how you understood the problem. You can think of the formula, use trial and error, use the four choices,
or and most of the time you’ll represent values with a variable.
Representing a value using a variable (x)
Tip: If you’re given a word problem, usually, it involves two variables. Your task is to solve one or both of them. Now, if your tactic is
to represent a missing value by x (or any variable), represent the value that doesn’t have a clue in the problem.
Illustration:
Problem: Nena is 2 yrs older than Job. The sum of their ages is 26. Find the age of Nena.
Here, there are 2 values involved; the age of Nena and the age of Job. Observe that the problem is giving us a clue about the age of Nena. So,
represent the age of Job as x. Since Nena is 2 yrs older than Job you can say that her age is x + 2.
Age of Job = x
Age of Nena = x + 2
So, x + x + 2 = 26
2x = 26-2
2x/2 = 24/2
x = 12
Thus, Age of Nena = 12 + 2 = 14

Age Problem
Basic Idea: You’re given a problem regarding ages of people. The information given about the ages of people involve is in present, past, or future
time. Your task is to solve their ages.
Tactic: Most of the time you’ll have to represent an age by a variable.
Illustration: (Try it, before looking to the answer!)
Problem: Joey’s age is twice of that of Ana. Five years ago the sum of their ages is 14. Find the age of Joey.
Age of Joey (present) = 2x Age of Joey (Five years ago) = 2x-5
Age of Ana (present) = x Age of Ana (Five years ago) = x-5

2x - 5 + x – 5 = 14
3x – 10 = 14
3x = 14+10
3x = 24
x = 8 (By dividing both side by 3)
Remember: After solving for x, always go back to the question and your representation.
Age of Joey (present) = 2x = 2(8) = 16 yrs old

Distance Problem
Basic Idea: You’re given a problem regarding two or more objects in motion (usually cars) and your task is to solve for the distance, rate, or time.
Tactic: Representing a value by a variable and remember the formula Distance = Rate x Time.
Illustration: (Try it, before looking to the answer!)
Problem: Car A travels at 30kph due North. After two hours, Car B follows Car A and overtakes it in three hours. What is the rate of Car B?
Rate of Car A = 30 kph Travel time of Car A = 5hrs Distance of Car A = 30x5 = 150 km
Rae o Car B = x kph Travel time of Car B =3hrs Distance of Car B = 3x km

Explanation for travel time:

Since Car A traveled two hours before Car B follows, it’s already travelling for 5 hrs (2hrs plus 3 hrs, the time Car B overtakes Car A).
Solution: Now, since Car B overtakes Car A, the distances covered by the two cars should be equal!
Thus,
3x = 150
 x = 50 (By dividing 3 from both sides)
Hence, Car B is traveling at the rate of 50 kph.

Work Problem
Basic Idea: Two or more people are working on a job. Your clues are the rate of the people involve. Your task is usually to solve for the time
specific people involve can do the job alone or can be the time all of them can finish the job when they work together to finish the job.
Tactic: Representing a value by a variable
Illustration: (Try it, before looking to the answer!)
Problem: Joaquin can do a job for 8 days. But when Job is helping her, they can finish the Job for 2 days. How long would it take Job to finish the
job alone?
Rate of Joaquin = 1 job / 8 days = 1/8
Rate of Job = 1 job / x days = 1/x
Rate when they are working together = 1 job / 2 days =1/2
Solution: In work problems, working together implies that you need to add their individual rates.
Rate of Joaquin + Rate of Job = Rate when they are working together

Hence, Job can do it in 8/3 or 2 2/3 days.

Mixture Problem
Basic Idea: Most of the time there are three containers involve. The first one is the original container, the second contains the amount that will be
added to the original container, and the third container represents the result after you add the second container to the first. Your task is to know
how much of the second container should be added.
Tactic: Draw the containers involve, representing a value by a variable
Problem: How much water will you add to a 50 grams 20% solution to obtain a mixture of 10% solution?

20% sol’n 0% sol’n 10% sol’n

80% water 100% water 90% water
50 grams x grams (50 + x) g

Explanation:
The first container is the original container. The problem suggests that it has 20% solution so it follows that it has 80% of water.
The second one is the water. It has 100% of water and 0% solution. And we represent the amount that should be added as x.
The third container is the resulting container. Observe that same concept applies that if it has 10% solution it has 90% water. For the
weight, observe that I added the weight o the original container and the weight of the water. (Remember: Weight is the same thing as the amount)
Solution:
80% (50) + 100%(x) = 90%(50+x)
40 + x = 45+ 0.90x
x-0.90x =45-40
0.10x = 5
x = 50 g
Hence, you need to add 50 grams of water.

Factoring
Review: Greatest Common Factor (GCF)
Ex: Find the GCF of 45 and 60.
Recall: The GCF is the largest factor that the 2 numbers have in common.
We can write the prime factorization of each:
Now write all of the factors they have in common:
The GCF is 15.
Ex: Find the GCF of and .

Write out each term as a product of factors:

Write all of the factors they have in common:

Factoring Using the Distributive Property

Ex : Factor the polynomial .
Step One: Find the GCF of the terms. GCF =

Step Two: Use the distributive property to factor the GCF out of the polynomial.

Ex : Factor the polynomial .

Step One: Find the GCF of the terms. GCF =

Step Two: Use the distributive property to factor the GCF out of the polynomial.

***Note: You can check your answers by multiplying using the distributive property.

Factoring by Grouping
Ex: Factor the polynomial .

Step One: Group the first two terms and last two terms.

Step Two: Factor the GCF from both sets of terms.

Step Three: Factor the common factor using the distributive property.

Ex : Factor the polynomial .

Step One: Group the first two terms and last two terms.

Step Two: Factor the GCF from both sets of terms.

Step Three: Factor the common factor using the distributive property.

***Note: Use this method in solving cubic equations.

Factoring a Quadratic Polynomial

Multiply using FOIL.

To factor into two binomials, , we must find values for p and q such that , and .

Ex: Factor .

Step One: Find values for p and q such that and .

We will list all of the factors of 4:

The two factors that have a sum of 5 are 1 and 4, so and .

Step Two: Write each factor

***Note: Because multiplication is commutative, we could also write our answer as

Ex: Factor .

Step One: Find values for p and q such that and .

We will list all of the factors of 24:

 The two factors that have a sum of −10 are −4 and −6, so and .

Step Two: Write each factor

Check your answer using FOIL!

Ex: Factor .

Step One: Find values for p and q such that and .

We will list all of the factors of −9:

The two factors that have a sum of −8 are −9 and 1, so and .

Step Two: Write each factor

Check your answer using FOIL!
Factoring Quadratic Trinomials in the Form
Ex: Factor the trinomial .
Step One: Multiply ac. Find values for p and q such that , and

The two factors that have a sum of 11 are 1 and 10.

Step Two: Split the middle term (bx) into two terms .

Step Three: Factor by grouping.

Check your answer using FOIL!

Ex: Factor .
Step One: Multiply ac. Find values for p and q such that , and

The two factors that have a sum of −11 are 1 and −12.
Step Two: Split the middle term (bx) into two terms .

Step Three: Factor by grouping.

Check your answer using FOIL!

Ex: Factor .
Step One: Multiply ac. Find values for p and q such that , and

The two factors that have a sum of −9 are −4 and −5.

Step Two: Split the middle term (bx) into two terms .

Step Three: Factor by grouping.

Check your answer using FOIL!

Ex: Factor the trinomial .
Step One: Multiply ac. Find values for p and q such that , and

The two factors that have a sum of 19 are 4 and 15.

Note: Because 60 has so many factors, we did not list all of them. b is positive, so we only need to list the positive factors and stop when we find
the two that add up to 19.

Step Two: Split the middle term (bx) into two terms .

Step Three: Factor by grouping.

***Note: Use this method in solving quadratic equations.

Special Product
Recall: Sum and Difference Pattern

Square of a Binomial Pattern:

Special Factoring Patterns

Difference of Two Perfect Squares:

Perfect Square Trinomial:

Systems of Linear Equation

Note: There are three possible types of solutions to a system.
1)  There is only one point of intersection.  This occurs when the two lines intersect at one point.
2)  There is no solution.  This occurs when the two lines are parallel and don't intersect at any point.
3)  There is an infinite number of solutions.  This occurs when the two lines are graphed on top of each other and so they intersect at every point on
the line.
Steps:
1)   Choose one equation to solve for one variable. 
2)   Substitute the chosen equation into the unused equation and solve.
3)   Substitute the value found in step 2 into any one of the original equations and solve for the remaining variable.
4)   The solution can be written as an ordered pair, (x, y).
Illustration:
Solve   x - y = -4
        7x + 5y = -28
step 1:     choose x - y = -4 and solve for x;   x = y - 4.
step 2:     substitute into unused:     7(y - 4) + 5y = -28
               solve:                              7y - 28 + 5y = -28
                                                         12y - 28 = -28
                                                             12y = 0
                                                               y = 0
step 3:      substitute y = 0 into  x = y - 4  then   x = 0 - 4
                                                                           x = -4
The solution is (-4, 0); a unique solution.
Solving Systems of Linear Equation, Quadratic Equation and Cubic Equation using CALTECH
Note: In solving systems of linear equation, quadratic equation and cubic equation it’s advisable to use a calculator. Preferably fx-991 es plus or
fx-570 es plus. Although there are other calculators that have the same function, so if your calculator is neither the above mentioned I’ll leave it to
you to discover.

1. Find the larger root of the equation .

This problem requires you to factor the expression, and then get the roots. To find the roots using calculator,
Mode, 5(equation), 3( ), 1, =, -1/6, =, -1/3, =, =
2. Find the point of intersection of 2x+5y=37 and 3x+6y=48

Mode, 5(equation), 1(anx+bny=cn), 2, =, 5, =, 37, =¸ 3, =, 68, =, 48, = (x coordinate), = (y coordinate)

3. What are the factors of the polynomial P(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 10x -24?
This problem requires you to factor the expression. You can get the roots of this function first then equate every to x. To find the roots using
calculator,
Mode, 5(equation), 4( ), 1, =, 3, =, -10, =, -24, =, =, =

PROBABILITY
Experiment
An experiment is a process by which an observation is made; an observation is referred to as an outcome, and an outcome of an experiment cannot
be predicted with certainty.
Sample Space
The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
Event
An event is a set of outcomes of an experiment or a subset of the sample space. Note, a Simple Event or element is an event that cannot be
decomposed.
Independent/Dependent Events
Two events, A and B, are independent if the occurrence of A does not affect the probability of the occurrence of B; otherwise the events are said
to be dependent.
Conditional Probability
The probability of an event given another event has already occurred.

Probability of an Event:
Classical

P(E) = =

SEQUENCE AND SERIES

Sequence – a function whose domain is the set of positive integers. Numbers separated by commas.
Series – represents the sum of the terms in a sequence.
Fibonacci Sequence – a sequence defined by for , where .
Illustration: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,...
Arithmetic Sequence – a sequence in which each term after the first is obtained by adding a constant (called common difference) to the
preceding term.
Illustration: 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ...
TO FIND ANY TERM:

an = the term in the sequence you are trying to find (n represents the desired term number)
a1 = the first term in the sequence
d = the common difference

Example: What is the 10th term of the following sequence?

1, 5, 9, 13, …

So the 10th term of this sequence is 37.

TO FIND THE SUM:

Sn – sum of n terms
n – number of terms
a1 – first term
an – last term to be added
Geometric Sequence – a sequence in which each term after the first is obtained by multiplying a constant (called common ratio).
Illustration: 1, 4, 16, 64, ...
TO FIND ANY TERM:

an = the term in the sequence you are trying to find (n represents the desired term number)
a1 = the first term in the sequence
r = the common ratio
Example: Find the 7th term in the following sequence: 6, 18, 54, 162, …
Finding the common ratio can be harder than finding the common difference. One way to find it is the divide each term by the term before it.

, , So the common ratio is 3.

So the 7th term of the sequence is 4, 374.

TO FIND THE SUM:

Finite: Sum of first n terms: Infinite , where

Sn – sum of n terms
n – number of terms
a – first term
r – common ratio

Harmonic Sequence – a sequence with nth term , where is an arithmetic sequence. Simply, a sequence whose reciprocal is an

arithmetic sequence.
Illustration: ½, ¼, 1/6, 1/8, ...

GEOMETRY
Area
Figure Formula
Square S2
Rectangle L x w1
Triangle bh/2
Circle πr2
Trapezoid h(b1+b2)/2
Rhombus d1d2/2

Volume
Figure Formula
Cube S3
Rectangle Prism Lxwxh
Cone

Cylinder πr2h
Pyramid

Sphere

Surface Area
Figure Formula
Cube 6s2
Rectangle Prism 2L + 2w + 2h
Cone

Cylinder 2πr(r+h)
Pair of Angles
Adjacent – two or more angles that shares a common side and vertex.
Supplementary – two angles whose measure sums up to 180.
Complementary – two angles whose measure sums up to 90.
Linear Pair – adjacent angles that forms a line
Vertical Angles – angles formed by two interesting lines that share a common vertex and are always equal.
ColLINEar Points
- Two or more points that lie on the same LINE.

CoPLANAR Lines
- Two or more lines that lie on the same PLANE.

Skew Lines
- Non-coplanar lines that don’t intersect.

Pythagorean theorem

Distance Formula

Midpoint Formula

Slope Formula

Equation of the line

Two-point Form:

Point-slope Form:

Intercept Form:

Slope-intercept Form:
Perpendicular Lines
Definition: Intersecting coplanar lines that form four right angles.
Trivia: Slopes of two perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals. Meaning, their product is always equal to -1.
Problem: What is the equation of the line through (5, 1) perpendicular to 3x+4y-5=0?

Trick: 1. Copy the equation and change the constant to C.

3x+4y-5=0 → 3x+4y=C
2. Swap the numerical coefficients of x and y.
3x+4y=C → 4x+3y=C
3. Change the operation into its opposite.
4x+3y=C → 4x-3y=C
4. Substitute the point to get C. (5, 1)
4x-3y=C →4(5)-3(1)=C→ 17=C
5. Replace C from the 3rd step by the value you solved at 4.
4x-3y=C →4x-3y=17 or 4x-3y-17=0.

Parallel Lines
Definition: Coplanar lines that do not intersect.
Trivia: Slopes of two parallel lines are always equal.
Problem: What is the equation of the line through (1, -1) parallel to 2x-3y-7=0?

Trick: 1. Copy the equation and change the constant to C.

2x-3y-7=0 → 2x-3y=C
2. Substitute the point to get C. (1, -1)
2x-3y=C →2(1)-3(-1)=C→ 5=C
5. Replace C from the 1st step by the value you solved at 2.
2x-3y=C →2x-3y=5 or 2x-3y-5=0
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Conic Sections

Circle
- When the plane is horizontal.
Parabola
- When the plane intersects only one cone to form an unbounded curve.
Ellipse
- When the tilted plane intersects only one cone to form a bounded curve.
Hyperbola
- When the plane intersects both cones to form two unbounded curves.

EQUATIONS OF CONIC SECTIONS

Circle
- Set of points in a plane that has a fixed distance from a fixed point. The fixed distance is called radius. The fixed point is called center.

,
where (h,k) is the center, r is the radius and .

PARABOLA
- Set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point (F) and fixed line (L) not containing F. The fixed point is called focus. The
fixed line is called directrix.
Equation Graph Focus Directrix Axis of Symmetry

(h, k+a) y=k-a x=h

(h, k-a) y=k+a x=h

x=h-a y=k
(h+a,k)
 (h-a,k) x=h+a y=k

ELLIPSE
- Set of points in a plane that the sum of whose distances from two fixed points and is a constant. Each of the two fixed points and

is a focus (plural foci) of the ellipse.

- The line through the foci of an ellipse is called Principal Axis.
- The two points of the ellipse that lie on the principal axis are called vertices.
- The line segment joining them is called major axis.
- The midpoint of the major axis is called the center.
- The distance from the major axis or rather from the center to a focus is called the focal distance.
- The line segment through the center perpendicular to the major axis and whose endpoints are on the ellipse is called minor axis. Its
endpoints are called co-vertices.

HYPERBOLA

- Set of points in a plane such that the absolute value of the difference of whose distances from two fixed points and is a constant.

Each tow fixed points and is a focus (plural foci) of the ellipse.
Standard Equations and Properties

Form

Center (h, k) (h, k)

Opens Opens left and right Opens up and down
Vertices (h + a, k) ad (h-a, k) (h, k+b) ad (h, k-b)
Slopes of ± b/a ± b/a
Asymptotes
Equation of
Asymptotes

HOW TO IDENTIFY A CONIC SECTION GIVEN THE GENERAL EQUATION:

We may write the equations of conic sections we discussed in the general form;

Some terms may vanish, depending on the kind of conic sections.

1) Circle: both and appear, and their coefficients are the same

Example:
Degenerate case: a point, and the empty set
2) Parabola: exactly one of and appear

, (D≠0, opens upward or downward)

, (C≠0, opens to the right or left)

Example:
Degenerate case: a point, and the empty set
3) Ellipse: both and appear, and their coefficients A and B have the same sign and are unequal

Example: (horizontal major axis)

(vertical major axis)

Degenerate case: a point, and the empty set
4) Hyperbola: both and appear, and their coefficients A and B have different signs

Example: (horizontal transverse axis)

Pythagorean Theorem
(vertical transverse
B axis)
Degenerate case: two intersecting lines a2 + b2 = c2
Hypotenusee
Trigonometry

c
Angles are labeled with a
capital letters (A, B, C) while
the sides opposite them are
labeled with the
corresponding lower case
C
letters (a, b, c). b A
Legs
hypotenuse – the longest side of a right triangle; the side
opposite (across) from the right angle
legs – the shorter two sides opposite the acute angles
adjacent – means to be next to or touching
opposite – means to be across from

Name Symbol Definition

Trigonometric Ratios sine θ sin θ opposite side
hypotenuse hypotenuse

opposite
cosine θ cos θ adjacent side
θ
hypotenuse
tangent θ tan θ opposite side adjacent
adjacent side

The hypotenuse is always the same regardless which acute angle you label as θ. The adjacent and opposite sides will switch depending which acute
angle you label as θ.
SOH – CAH – TOA: mnemonics device for remembering right triangle trig ratios
SOH – CAH - TOA

Sine is Opposite over Hypotenuse Cosine is Adjacent over Hypotenuse Tangent is Opposite over Adjacent

Note: SOH CAH TOA only applies in right triangles while Law of Cosines and Law of Sine applies to every triangle.
B

c
C
A
b
Law of Cosines
a2 = b2 +c2 – 2bc cosA
b2 = a2 +c2 – 2ac cosB
c2 = a2 +b2 – 2ab cosC
Law of Sines

Trigonometric Identities
Reciprocal
Quotient Identities Pythagorean Identities

sin2Ө + cos2Ө = 1

1+ tan2Ө = sec2Ө

1 + cot2Ө = csc2Ө

Cofunction Identities

Reflections Across the X-Axis: Negative Angle Identities

sin(-x) = - sin x cos(-x) = cos x tan(-x) = - tan x
csc(-x) = - csc x sec(-x) = sec x cot(-x) = - cot x
Reflections Across the Y-Axis: Angles Involving

Sum and Difference Formulas

sin(u + v) = sin u cos v + cos u sin v sin(u – v) = sin u cos v – cos u sin v
cos(u + v) = cos u cos v – sin u sin v cos(u – v) = cos u cos v + sin u sin v

Double Angle Identities cos(2u) = cos2u – sin2u

sin(2u) = 2 sin u cos u cos(2u) = 2cos2u – 1
cos(2u) = 1 – 2 sin2u
Power-Reducing Identities

sin2u = cos2u = tan2u =

Half Angle Formulas

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
- Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a constant c which the value of x will approach (c may or may not be in the domain
of f). The limit, to be denoted by L, is the unique real value that f(x) will approach as x approaches c. In symbols, we write this process
as

This is read, “The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L”.

Properties of Limits
Let b and c be real numbers; and let n be a positive integer

1.

2.

3.
Theorems on Limits
Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer. If the limits of f(x) and g(x) exist as x approaches c then the following equations are
valid.
1. CONSTANT MULTIPLE

2. ADDITION

3. MULTIPLICATION
 4. DIVISION

5. POWER

6. RADICAL

RULES FOR DIFRENTIATION

1) Power rule:

2) Exponential rule:

3) Natural Exponential rule:

4) Logarithmic rule:

5) Natural Logarithmic rule:

6) Sine function rule:

7) Cosine function rule:

8) Tangent function rule:

9) Cotangent function rule:

10) Secant function rule:

11) Cosecant function rule:

12) Product rule:

13) Quotient rule:

14) Chain rule:

RULES OF INTEGRATION
1. 2.

3. 4.

5. ; 6.

7.
8.

9. 10.

11. 12.

13. 14.

15. 16.
17. 18.