Frames Cinema Journal

Screenwriting 2.0 in the Classroom?

Teaching the Digital Screenplay
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By Andrew Kenneth Gay

“A principle says, ‘This works . . . and has through all remembered

time.’” (Robert McKee) (1)

“It’s very hard for people brought up in one era with one set of
principles to come into a new era where the old principles don’t
work.” (Anonymous Academic) (2)

Despite the ‘digital revolution’, the contemporary screenplay is still

conspicuously analog in design and use, “a document that exists as a
carry-over from a pre-digital era.” (3) Given access to a time machine, a
Hollywood screenwriter working half a century ago would encounter little
difficulty adjusting to the conventions of professional screenwriting in
2012. Sure, he would need to learn how to use his PC’s spellchecker and
how to enable his word processor’s autosave functions, but this should
end his brief orientation. Today’s master scene format — the standard
formatting convention for Hollywood screenplays — was already
described in detail by Lewis Herman in 1952: “No camera angles have
been indicated. Only a scene description, character action, and the
accompanying dialogue have been attended to.” (4) Screenwriting
instructors have little incentive to change the way they teach because, in
spite of the advent, indeed the proliferation of screenwriting software
programs in the last fifteen years, the screenplay itself has hardly
changed in sixty years. “This works . . . and has through all remembered
time.” (5)

As the industry goes, so goes institutional instruction. The problem with

this whole line of reasoning is that it rests on the prime assumption that
professional screenwriting is a vocation a student may reasonably hope to
enter after graduating from university or college with a degree in that
field, an assumption that is absurd on its face. Screenwriting is a vocation
like playing professional football is a vocation. Most university programs
in screenwriting teach students how to write a spec script to be sold on
the open market in Hollywood. Box Office Mojo tracked just 120 new
feature films released by the six major Hollywood studios in 2011, (6) but
the Writers’ Guild of America (WGA) boasts more than 12,000 members
and registers more than 65,000 new screenplays every year. (7) Only
4,244 of the Guild’s members reported any income from screenwriting in
2010. (8) These odds make taking a university screenwriting course a
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studying to win the lottery. “This is why the craft of teaching the
craft of the screenplay is for many more lucrative than the craft of the
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screenplay,” writes Howard Rodman. (9) Given these harsh realities, it
may be time for screenwriting instructors to rethink our pedagogical
principles. In my essay, I will engage in a little speculation about whether
it may indeed be time for ‘Screenwriting 2.0’ and the digital screenplay.

As filmmaker, essayist and academic Kathryn Millard writes, “The rise of

new technologies and networks means that writing now happens
primarily in digital environments: on screens, personal computers,
netbooks and myriad mobile devices. We compose digital texts for
websites, blogs, wikis and interactive media, opening up alternative
practices to those established around print.” (10) Teaching Screenwriting
2.0, for me, would mean integrating this technological fluency into the
craft and study of the screenplay. Not only would this enrich the learning
environment of our classrooms and offer students valuable skills for a
variety of career paths, it might revolutionize the practices of
screenwriting, just as Web 2.0 revolutionized our experience of the Web.

The term Web 2.0 was first coined by Web designer Darcy DiNucci in
1999. DiNucci envisioned a Web “understood not as screenfuls of text and
graphics but as a transport mechanism, the ether through which
interactivity happens.” (11) Her predictions have since come true, but her
term for this present-future — Web 2.0 — only gained traction in public
discourse when Tim O’Reilly launched his first Web 2.0 Conference in
2004. (12) O’Reilly more than anyone has been responsible for defining
the core principles of Web 2.0. Together, he and John Musser have
defined eight core principles, but here I will look only at the five most
easily applied to screenwriting: harnessing collective intelligence,
perpetual beta, rich user experiences, software above the level of a single
device, and leveraging the Long Tail. (13)

As O’Reilly and John Battelle report, “Many people now understand this
idea [harnessing collective intelligence] in the sense of ‘crowdsourcing,’
namely that a large group of people can create a collective work whose
value far exceeds that provided by any of the individual participants.” (14

) When students and teachers think of crowdsourcing, Wikipedia is

probably the first example that comes to mind, but “[t]he Web as a whole
is a marvel of crowdsourcing, as are marketplaces such as those on eBay
and craigslist, mixed media collections such as YouTube and Flickr, and
the vast personal lifestream collections on Twitter, MySpace, and
Facebook.” (15)

The process of making a motion picture is inherently collaborative in

nature, but the conventional screenplay has sometimes been viewed as an
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to collaboration, resulting in a close identification of
collaborative film authorship with unscripted improvisation. For example,
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according to Maria Viera, “All of [John] Cassavetes’ films following
Shadows have well-thought-out, fully-formed, carefully detailed scripts
with all lines of dialogue in place. Yet this end title card (‘the film you
have just seen was an improvisation’) clings to the rest of Cassavetes’
works.” (16) For Cassavetes, this claim to improvisation was closely
linked to collaboration: “I’m always aware that somebody else on the set
may have some good ideas. For instance, I sincerely think that Ben
Gazzara [star of Husbands] knows a lot of things about acting and film
making that I don’t know, and I want them if he’s got them.”
(17)Collaboration of this sort conflicts with the “shoot as written” (18)
notion of the script as blueprint, a view that suggests “a fixed, single
moment of control over the filmmaking process — leading to the
implication that filmmaking is a mere process of assembly.” (19) This
implication stands in direct opposition to the principle of harnessing
collective intelligence. Screenwriting 2.0, on the other hand, might
actually enhance the opportunity for collaboration and improvisation in
filmmaking, since it would invite collaborators into the writing process
long before shooting begins and allows participation to continue well into
production.

Students might at first resist such an approach, concerned they could

“disappear” into collectively written scripts, making it “impossible to
determine or remember or care about who contributed what
passages.” (20) But harnessing collective intelligence need not result in
anonymous authorship. Wikipedia may prove a useful example here: “Text
on Wikipedia is a collaborative work, and the efforts of individual
contributors to a page are recorded in that page’s history, which is
publicly viewable.” (21) Authorship is collective but not always or entirely
anonymous. Wikipedia entries also have administrators who oversee the
quality of each edit and have the ability to block abusive users and
spammers. Classroom screenwriting and student film production could
work similarly. Students might be assigned to write their scripts in a wiki
platform. Faculty and classmates could then make editorial contributions
to each student’s script wiki, with the original author acting as a kind of
administrator, accepting or declining collaborative input into the master
entry. In such an arrangement, user agreements would establish
copyright: before contributing to a student or classmate’s script wiki,
faculty and peers will release their claim to credit or compensation for
any material they add to the final product.

The second of O’Reilly and Musser’s core principles I would like to

discuss, perpetual beta, refers to the end of software release cycles. (22)
Traditional desktop-based applications are released in distinct versions.
When new versions are released, users are required to upgrade, often at
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cost. Sometimes works created using one software version
will be incompatible with another. Web-based applications, however,
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perpetually evolve, and those who use them always have access to the
latest version and features. “Users must be treated as co-developers, in a
reflection of open source development practices […] The open source
dictum, ‘release early and release often’ in fact has morphed into an even
more radical position, ‘the perpetual beta,’ in which the product is
developed in the open, with new features slipstreamed in on a monthly,
weekly, or even daily basis.” (23)

During the principle photography of a motion picture, script revisions are

common. “The changeability of the text is also reflected in its physical
appearance. Screenplays are loosely bound and can be easily dismantled
to insert revision pages.” (24) The process of keeping the entire cast and
crew literally on the same page can become quite a challenge when
revisions are released, giving rise to strict conventions for the tracking of
these revisions. When a screenplay is locked for production, new
revisions are printed on color-coded sheets of paper that indicate the date
of revision, and the specific revisions themselves are demarcated in the
margins by an asterisk. Each member of the crew can compare his or her
script to another copy on set, and visually determine whether or not it is
an up-to-date draft. The principle of perpetual beta in digital
screenwriting would remove the need for such ‘version-control’ concerns.
With a cloud-based script wiki, revisions would always immediately be
available to everyone on the crew, as would the history of those revisions
(just as it is in Wikipedia). For screenwriting instructors, this would also
be an invaluable tool, making it possible for us to review not only our
students’ final drafts, but their entire revision process. We could see
which peer suggestions a student has decided to use and which were
rejected. Students would not have to worry about whether or not their
professor is grading the latest draft of their work, since updates will be
automatic.

Another of O’Reilly and Musser’s core principles, ‘rich user experiences’

refer to the dynamic and interactive qualities of a Web site’s interface.
(25) Peter Morville identifies seven facets of user experience-centered
design, arguing that a Web site’s interface should be useful, usable,
desirable, findable, accessible, credible, and valuable. (26) Where Web
1.0 was static, Web 2.0 is always in motion, and many sites act as Web-
based applications that offer users a wide range of functionalities.
Content and presentation change to offer personalized experiences for
each new user. Audio, video, and animation elements are common. Users
can respond to what they see and make changes, customizing and
filtering as they see fit. Unlike its conventional paper counterpart, a truly
digital screenplay could easily incorporate all of Morville’s facets of user
experience. To help our students achieve this, we could teach them to
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embed audio andJournal
visual elements in their script wikis, to add hyperlinks
to connect readers to notes and research, to integrate GPS data and
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location maps, and to use tagging “folksonomies” (27) and other meta
data to increase the searchability of their projects, offering users a more
flexible and rewarding experience. Now the script wiki becomes
something more than a mere screenplay; it becomes a kind of living pre-
visualization of the film to come, one which also has all sorts of added
advantages for marketing work to film producers.

Cloud-based software applications also make it possible for users on

different kinds of devices to interact with the same content. (28) This is
what is meant by Musser and O’Reilly’s core principle of ‘software above
the level of single device’. If we were to translate this principle to the
teaching of Screenwriting 2.0, we would unleash one of its most powerful
opportunities: writing above the level of a single narrative medium. “A
new generation of screenwriters who have grown up in a networked
world saturated with YouTube, TiVo, instant messaging, MP3s and cell
phones as well as graphic novels are abandoning the idea of writing only
for the movies,” Millard writes. “Instead they are embracing a more
elastic, cross-platform approach.” (29) In cross-platform writing, often
referred to as transmedia storytelling, “elements of a story are dispersed
systematically across multiple media platforms, each making their own
unique contribution to the whole. Each medium does what it does best —
comics might provide back-story, games might allow you to explore the
world, and the television series offers unfolding episodes.” (30) Teaching
Screenwriting 2.0 might mean rejecting limited three-act design in favor
of comprehensive storyworld creation. In this case, the script wiki would
finally become “a transport mechanism, the ether through which
interactivity happens.” (31)

The transmedia potential of Screenwriting 2.0 also makes leveraging the

Long Tail more manageable for students. First articulated in a Wired
column by Chris Anderson and later expanded upon in his influential
book, the Long Tail refers to a graphical representation of the market
principles that drive the success of Web-based businesses like Amazon
and Netflix. (32) “What’s really amazing about the Long Tail,” writes
Anderson,

is the sheer size of it. Combine enough nonhits on the Long Tail
and you’ve got a market bigger than the hits. Take books: The
average Barnes & Noble carries 130,000 titles. Yet more than half
of Amazon’s book sales come from outside its top 130,000 titles.
Consider the implication: If the Amazon statistics are any guide,
the market for books that are not even sold in the average
bookstore is larger than the market for those that are. (33)

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earlier, Hollywood released only 120 feature films in 2011.
Meanwhile, Web 2.0 content aggregators like Amazon, Netflix, Hulu, and
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iTunes have opened new distribution channels to content creators who
can learn to leverage the Long Tail in their marketing. (34) Today far
more motion pictures are made outside of the Hollywood system than
within it, and the Web offers additional platforms for transmedia stories.
If our students are far more likely to have their works produced
independently, why do screenwriting instructors, especially in the U.S.,
continue to focus the majority of our teaching on the strict conventions of
Hollywood screenwriting? By learning to leverage the Long Tail,
screenwriting students will begin to market their works directly to
independent filmmakers, release them across multiple platforms, or even
use the Web for crowdfunding purposes and self-finance a feature film
production of their own. We can help them do this.

“Films originate from written words,” writes Jean-Pierre Geuens. “Words

here, now; images there, later. The question that has plagued the motion
pictures almost from the beginning is how best to proceed from one
medium to the next.” (35) Screenwriting 2.0 would attempt to integrate
conception and execution through an interactive digital text, but would it
work? Writer/director Chip Proser (36) has already begun applying
Screenwriting 2.0 principles to his own writing, working in a form he
calls the Online Graphic Screenplay (OGS). (37) Describing the OGS,
Proser writes:

It is visual, like a storyboard or graphic novel only more detailed.

[…] It can include music, dialogue, animation, hyperlinks. It can
be written online among a group anywhere in the world. It is a
stage in production that can be used to empower writers, and
bring their vision to the audience without the interference of
gatekeepers, producers, directors or Harvey Weinstein. It takes
advantage of the internet. It also can be propagated to all
potential buyers at the same instant, in order to create a bidding
situation. It may also diminish the need for agents, God forbid…

Proser created his first OGS while trying to tackle the problem of
visualizing his science-fiction adventure script, ‘Treasure of the Oort
Cloud’. When the conventional screenplay form proved woefully
inadequate to express his vision, he turned to another hybrid of image
and text for inspiration: “Both studios and independent producers are
currently buying up graphic novels and comics. They can see what they
are getting, and the visual works may have attained a measurable level of
interest with the audience.” Proser is not the first screenwriter to make
this observation about graphic novels and comics. As Millard notes,
“Screenwriter Jim Taylor (Election [1999] and Sideways [2004]) argues
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that screenplays could draw more on comics and the graphic novel in
their formatting and layout. ‘I’m hoping to figure out a new way to make
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screenplays more expressive,’ he says (Kretchmer 2006).” (38)

The conventional screenplay is written for an insider audience, but the

OGS can be enjoyed by anyone. “Nobody reads conventional
screenplays,” Proser notes. “… at least not the mass audience necessary
for a movie’s success.” (39) The OGS, however, leverages the Long Tail.
“If a screenplay doesn’t sell or isn’t produced, you can still put it online
and reach an audience.” Proser believes the OGS is also inherently well-
suited to transmedia storytelling and storyworld creation: “the audience
can be invited to contribute or alternative story arcs can be created…
There is a choice to follow characters into their backstory… like
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern… or concepts into hyperlinked educational
footnotes. It can be used to create a game. It’s not just for features, it can
be long form television or strictly online productions. We are no longer
limited to the feature film form, based on how long your butt can interact
with a chair or how long granny can hold her water.” While Proser admits
that some feature film directors may find the OGS off-putting due to its
overt visualization, he believes the form represents a net gain for the
production process:

With OGS, you could use the screenplay as a template for the
whole production. For example, characters can be dressed, lit,
animated… They can be synced to recorded dialogue. Sets and
costumes can be designed and developed, even lit in computer
which lowers cost, and speeds the process. All departments can
do a dry run before spending serious money… They can poll the
potential audience for acceptance as they do it. At some point
building practical sets or going on location may no longer be
necessary. (40)

Proser believes students can easily work in a form similar to the OGS.
While some conceptual artists were used to create backgrounds for
Treasure of the Oort Cloud, Proser created most of his OGS himself using
consumer-level software tools like Keynote, Photoshop, Aperture, and
iBooks Author. “You can actually see what you’ve written. You can
eliminate scene descriptions and unnecessary dialogue. And you can do
each element of filmmaking. You can start to transition from purely the
written word to the more or less elegantly visual.”

In my view, teaching Screenwriting 2.0 in the classroom would produce

both smarter, richer screenplays and more technologically fluent students
equipped for teamwork in the digital workforce. Entrepreneur Zach
Simms (creator of CodeAcademy) predicts, “In 20 years, programming
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another blue-collar job or related to almost every major
employment field.” (41) Unless university screenwriting instructors want
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their students left in the economic dust, it is time we move beyond
teaching the screenplay as a closed blueprint for a Hollywood motion
picture and start teaching it as flexible source code, adaptable to any
number of media expressions. “Scripting,” writes Maras, “can be easily
extended into the domain of computer programming, motion-capture,
algorithmic decision-making, interactivity, dynamic media, and avatars,
visualised across a range of screens (from mobile phones to iPods to
Second Life),” (42) and these screens produce hundreds of thousands of
jobs. (43)

Adapting digital principles to the teaching of screenwriting would not be

without its challenges, of course. Many screenwriting instructors would
need to learn these new concepts for the first time before we could teach
them to our students. We would also be likely to meet with resistance,
both from students and more traditionally-minded colleagues, but
Screenwriting 2.0 needn’t replace all traditional screenwriting
instruction. Proser argues that this digital approach “should compliment
usual screenplay writing.” (44) Finally, the infrastructure isn’t yet in
place to do everything proposed here without significant effort. For
instance, while Final Draft, the industry standard screenwriting software
program, allows writers to embed hyperlinks and export their scripts as
html files, many other programs lack these features. As things currently
stand, teachers would have to invent workarounds for their students in
order to integrate screenwriting and the Web. Ultimately, however, I
predict that the digital screenplay of the future won’t be written in
software, it will be software, with the screenwriter in the role of
programmer.

Endnotes:

(1) Robert, McKee, Story: Substance, Structure, Style, and the Principles
of Screenwriting (New York: Regan, 1997): 3.

(2) Stephen Rosen and Celia Paul, Career Renewal: Tools for Scientists
and Technical Professionals (San Diego: Academic Press, 1998): 46.

(3) Kathryn Millard, “The Screenplay as Prototype,” in Analysing the

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Screenplay, Journal
ed. Jill Nelmes (New York: Routledge, 2011): 146.

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(4) Lewis Herman, A Practical Manual of Screen Playwriting for Theater
and Television Films (Cleveland: World, 1952): 171.

(5) McKee, Story, 3.

(6) “Studio Market Share,” Box Office Mojo, accessed April 20, 2011,
http://boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2011
&debug=0&p=.htm.

(7) David N. Weiss, Tony DeSena, Christopher Keyser, Adam Rodman,

and Alison Taylor, Writers Guild of America, West, Inc. Annual Financial
Report (Writers Guild of America, West, 2011):
http://www.wga.org/content/default.aspx?id=1044

(8) Writers Guild of America, West, FYI: Guide to the Guild (2009):
http://www.wga.org/content/default.aspx?id=509

(9) Howard Rodman, “What a Screenplay Isn’t,” Cinema Journal 45, no. 2
(Winter 2006): 87.

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Millard, Journal
“The Screenplay as Prototype,” 143-144

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(11) Darcy DiNucci, “Fragmented Future,” Print Magazine (April 1999):

32, http://darcyd.com/fragmented_future.pdf

(12) Mohammad Aqil, Parvez Ahmad, and Mohammad Asad Siddique,

“Web 2.0 and Libraries: Facts or Myths,” DESIDOC Journal of Library &
Information Technology 31, no. 5 (2011): 395.

(13) John Musser and Tim O’Reilly, Web 2.0 Principles and Best
Practices (O’Reilly Media, 2006).

(14) Tim O’Reilly and John Battelle, Web squared: Web 2.0 Five Years
On (O’Reilly Media and TechWeb, 2009): 2,
http://assets.en.oreilly.com/1/event/28/web2009_websquared-
whitepaper.pdf

(15) Ibid.

(16) Maria Viera, “The Work of John Cassavetes: Script, Performance, and
Improvisation,” Journal of Film and Video 42, no. 3 (1990): 34.

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(17) “Playboy Interview: John Cassavetes,” Playboy (July 1971): 56.

(18) Janet Staiger, “Dividing Labor for Production Control: Thomas Ince
and the Rise of the Studio System,” Cinema Journal 18, no. 2 (Spring
1979): 16-25.

(19) Steven Maras, Screenwriting: History, Theory and Practice (London:

Wallflower Press, 2009): 123.

(20) Kohn, Nathaniel, “Standpoint: Disappearing Authors: A Postmodern

Perspective on the Practice of Writing for the Screen,” Journal of
Broadcasting & Electronic Media 43, no. 3 (Summer 1999): 443,
http://find.galegroup.com.ucfproxy.fcla.edu/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet
=IAC-Documents &type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&docId=A5
6185140&source=gale&srcprod=ITOF
&userGroupName=orla57816&version=1.0

(21) Wikipedia, s.v. “Wikipedia: About,” last modified March 31, 2012,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About#Credits.

(22) Tim O’Reilly, “What is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business
Models for the Next Generation of Software,” O’Reilly Media (2005): 4,
http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html
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(23) Ibid.

(24) Claudia Sternberg, Written for the Screen: The American Motion-
Picture Screenplay as Text (Tübingen, Germany: Stauffenburg Verlag,
1997): 36.

(25) Tim O’Reilly, “What is Web 2.0,” 5.

(26) Peter Morville, “User Experience Design,” Semantic studios (2004):

http://www.semanticstudios.com/publications/semantics/000029.php

(27) Isabella Peters, Folksonomies: Indexing and Retrieval in Web

2.0 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2009).

(28) Eric Knorr and Galen Gruman, “What Cloud Computing Really
Means,” InfoWorld, accessed April 20, 2012,
http://www.infoworld.com/d/cloud-computing/what-cloud-computing-
really-means-031?source=footer

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(29) Kathryn Journal
Millard, “After the Typewriter: The Screenplay in a Digital
Era,” Journal of Screenwriting 1, no. 1 (2010): 21-22.
http://framescinemajournal.com

(30) Henry Jenkins, “Seven Myths About Transmedia Storytelling

Debunked,” Fast Company (April 8, 2011):
http://www.fastcompany.com/1745746/seven-myths-about-transmedia-
storytelling-debunked

(31) DiNucci, “Fragmented Future,” 32.

(32) Chris Anderson, The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling
Less of More, 2nd ed. (New York: Hyperion, 2008).

(33) Chris Anderson, “The Long Tail,” Wired Magazine (October 2004): 3,
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/tail.html?pg=1&topic=tail&to
pic_set=

(34) Jon Reiss, Think Outside the Box Office: The Ultimate Guide to Film
Distribution and Marketing for the Digital Era (Los Angeles: Hybrid
Cinema Publishing, 2010).

(35) Jean-Pierre Geuens, Film Production Theory (Albany: SUNY Press,

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2000): Cinema Journal

http://framescinemajournal.com

(36) “Chip Proser,” IMDb, accessed April 20, 2012,

http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0698734/

(37) Chip Proser, “Questions: Online Graphic Screenplay,” e-mail

message to the author (March 31, 2012).

(38) Millard, “After the Typewriter,” 19.

(39) Proser, “Questions.”

(40) Proser, “Questions.”

(41) Jenn Wortham, “Codecademy Offers Free Coding Classes for

Aspiring Entrepreneurs,” Bits (blog), The New York Times (September
14, 2011): http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/codecademy-offers-
free-coding-classes-for-aspiring-entrepreneurs/

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Maras, Journal
Screenwriting, 179.

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(43) Michael Mandel, Where the Jobs Are: the App Economy (TechNet,
2012): http://www.technet.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/TechNet-App-
Economy-Jobs-Study.pdf

(44) Proser, “Questions.”

Bibliography:

Anderson, Chris. The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling
Less of More. (2nd ed. New York: Hyperion, 2008).

———. “The Long Tail.” Wired Magazine. (October 2004):

http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/tail.html?pg=1&topic=tail&to
pic_set=

Aqil, Mohammad, Parvez Ahmad, and Mohammad Asad Siddique. “Web

2.0 and Libraries: Facts or Myths.” DESIDOC Journal of Library &
Information Technology 31, no. 5 (2011): 395-400.

“Chip Proser.” IMDb. Accessed April 20, 2012.

http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0698734/.

Committee of Inquiry into the Changing Learner Experience. Higher

Education in a Web 2.0 World. 2009.

Davidson, Cathy N., Paula Barker Duffy, and Martha Wagner Weinberg.
“Why STEM is Not Enough (and We Still Need the Humanities).” The
Answer Sheet (blog), The Washington Post. (2012):
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/post/why-stem-is-not-
enough-and-we-still-need-the-
humanities/2012/03/04/gIQAniScrR_blog.html

DiNucci, Darcy. “Fragmented Future.” Print Magazine. (April 1999): 32,

221-22. http://darcyd.com/fragmented_future.pdf

Geuens, Jean-Pierre. Film Production Theory. (Albany: SUNY Press,

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2000).

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Herman, Lewis. A Practical Manual of Screen Playwriting for Theater and
Television Films. (Cleveland: World, 1952).

Jenkins, Henry. “Seven Myths About Transmedia Storytelling Debunked.”

Fast Company. (April 8, 2011):
http://www.fastcompany.com/1745746/seven-myths-about-transmedia-
storytelling-debunked

Kaczanowska, Agata. IBISWorld Industry Report 51211a: Movie & Video

Production in the US. 2012.

Knorr, Eric, and Galen Gruman. “What Cloud Computing Really Means.”
InfoWorld. Accessed April 20, 2012. http://www.infoworld.com/d/cloud-
computing/what-cloud-computing-really-means-031?source=footer

Kohn, Nathaniel. “Standpoint: Disappearing Authors: A Postmodern

Perspective On the Practice of Writing for the Screen.” Journal of
Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43, no. 3 (1999):
443. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08838159909364502

Mandel, Michael. Where the Jobs Are: the App Economy. TechNet,
2012: http://www.technet.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/TechNet-App-
Economy-Jobs-Study.pdf

Maras, Steven. Screenwriting: History, Theory and Practice. (London:

Wallflower Press, 2009).

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2012-07-02, this article © Andrew Kenneth Gay

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