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    Western Historical Quarterly - Shawnee, Cherokee

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    ca Koay ‘ -TECUMSEH, THE SHAWNEE PROPHET, c AND AMERICAN HISTORY R, DAVID EDMUNDS The close of the Revolutionary War meant many things to Americans. To some it conferred a guarantee of freedom, to others a return to the peacefulness of everyday life, and to yet-others an opportunity to establish a life of independence beyond the Appalachian mountains: But-for Native Americans the defeat. of the British meant the removal of their last defetise against expanding American settlements full of farmers hungry for their land.Even before the war ended in 1783, settlers poured into Indian land in the middle South and Ohio River valley. ‘There they met tribes that, cut off from a reliable supply of arms and trade goods, had difficulty preventing these incursions on their ancestral larid. Moreover, in the eyes of these advancing Americans, who had gained vast military experience during the Revolution, ‘Indians were enemies, having sided withthe British during the Revolution inhope of receiving royal proteetion for their lands. | : . ‘As tribés were pushéd west, small pockets of resistance began so develop. Settler «-.... outpists were raided, outlying séttlements attacked, farmers and livestock killed, Bist these remained isolated incidents and offéred little prospect for sustajnied resistance to white incussions. Itwas‘against this background that two extraordinary Indian leaders jed: Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh, Shawnee brothers, learned of the ~“rapacity of Atnerivan land hiinger at an eatly age‘and from, the-dishonor of displace- ment dreamed of an Indian nation as strotig and Vigordus as the 13 colonies which had just won, their independerice. In different ways they both worked for fiéthing less than the revitalization of, Native ‘American culture and the securing ofan independent nation for all:Native Americans. Their quest is the subject of this essay by R. David Edntunds; who offers'us a different view of the betfer-known ‘Tecuimiseh than is generally found : in history books, ° : t - Eas ee +, Doyou find any’similarities in the values and motivations of Tecumséh and white Reyolutionary leaders portrayed'in history books? What-does Paul Johnson's account of Mayo Greenleaf Patch. in Reading 15 tell us about the. sort of person ‘the post: Revolutionary settler might'be? How does Tecumseh’s resistance comiparé with’Mary ‘Young’s-accpunt of “The Trail of Tears" in’ Redding 182... i High upon a granite pedestal overlooking “the” warrior. Midshipmen passing in an out of Ban- Yard” at‘the United States Naval Academy at croft Hall traditionally salute the statue-before Annapolls stands a bronze statue of an Indian taking: examinations in the hope that the re- e. Copyright by Western History Association, Reprinted by permission. The article first appeared in Western * Historical Quarterly, 14 (1983), 261-76. 202 TECUMSEH, THE SHAWNEE PROPHET, ANID AMERICAN HISTORY nowned warrior's medicine will assist them dur- ing their tests. Most midshipmen, if asked whom the statue represents, will reply that it is a replica of Tecumseh, the famous war chief of the Shaw- nees. In reality, however, the statue was never intended to be Tecumseh. It represents Tame- nend, a chief among the Delawares. The midshipmen’s incorrect identification of the bronze figure is not surprising, for Americans have long-regarded Tecumseh as one of their fore- most Indian heroes. He is one of the few militant Indian leaders who was almost universally praised by his white contemporaries. During the War of 1812 both British and American officers spoke highly of the Shawnee, and since his death his image has grown accordingly. Bulogized by historians, Tecumseh has achieved an almost leg- endary status. His biographers have presented an’ Indian of superhuman qualities; and Alvin M. Josephy, in his volume: The Patriot ‘Chiefs, enti- tles his chapter.on the Shawnee as “Tectimseh: The Greatest Indian.” If the white observers and historians have been laudatory in.their description of Tecumseh, they: have been universal int their condemnation of his brother, Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee’ Prophet. Both: British.and ‘American leaders denounced the holy man.as @ “preteridef and a:'‘coward,” ‘and historians have enlarged upon such qualities to-present an‘ image:of a charfatan. who'manipu-" lated the tribesmen for his-own‘purposes. While Tecumseh’s political and: military movement is pictured as logical and praiseworthy, the Prophet represents the darker side of Indian life. A reli- gious fanatic, Tenskwatawa is presented as riding his brother's coattails to a position of minor prominence. Unquestionably, the © Shawnee brothers emerged to positions of leadership during a pe- riod of great stress for Native Americans. Al- though the Treaty of Greenville supposedly had drawn a line between Indian and American lands in Ohio, the’ treaty was ignored. Frontier settle- ene continued.to advance north from the Ohio parera then the remaining Indian land : Meanwhile, white hunters re- Peatedly trespassed onto Indian lands to hunt 203 game needed by the tribesmen, and by the first decade of the nineteenth century game was becoming scarce. The fur trade declined in a simi- lar manner, and efter 1800 many warriors were hard pressed to provide for their families. Not surprisingly, the Indians retaliated by stealing settlers’ livestock, and the resulting clashes pro- duced casualties on*both sides. Obviously, both Indians and whites suffered; but losses were much larger among the natives. Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana admitted that “a great many of the Inhabitants of the Fronteers (sic) Consider the murdering of the Indians in the high- * while Governor Arthur est degree meritorious,” St. Clair of the Northwest Territory reported that “the number of those unhappy people (the Indi- ans) who have been killed sirice the peace at Greenville . . : is great enough to give serious alarm for the consequences.” ‘Much ‘of the Indian-white conflict was trig~ gered-by alcohol. Frustrated over their declining political and economic status, beleaguered tribes- ‘nen drowned. their sorrows in frontier whiskey. ° . ‘Although illegal, alcohol was in’ plentiful supply, and brawls restlting from, the Bacchanalia.spread ° social’ chaos ‘throughout’, ‘the “Indian’ villages.” Once:proud warriors quarreled, among. them- selves or abused their kinsmen, while others-re- treated into drunken stupors. Some ‘Shawnees; weakened 'by their.dissipation, ‘fell victims to’ in. fluenza, smallpox, and other. diseases. Others sat"... ” passively in. -their lodges, ‘bewildered. by "the changés swirling around them..Meanwhile, the clans—traditional kinship ‘systems designed to regulate and provide cohesiveness among the sep- arate. Shawnee villages—were unable to cope with the multitude of problems besetting the tribe. 7 Overwhelmed by the chaos within their vil lages, the Shawnees pondered the causes. Al- though many tribesmen realized that the major- ity of their problems emanated from outside sources such as loss of lands, economic deteriora- tion, injustice, and alcohol; others suspected darker elements and probed inward, examining the fabric of tribal society. Predictably, tradi- tional Shawnees concluded that much of their 204 trouble resulted from witchcraft, for the fear of witches and their evil power permeated Shawnee culture, and neighboring tribes believed the Shawnces to have a particular affinity for sorcery and the supernatural. “The basis for such fear lay deep in tribal tradi- tion. The Shawnees believed that in the dim past, when they first crossed the Great Water in search of their homeland, they had been opposed by a huge water serpent who represented the evil pow- ers in the universe. Although their warriors had killed the serpent, witches had saved part of its body, which still held a potent and malevolent power, Contained in medicine bundles, this evil had been passed down through the ages and was used by witches to spread disorder throughout the tribe. The balance between order and chaos formed a focal point for Shawnee cosmology. The Shaw- neces believed they were a people chosen by’ the great power in the universe—‘the Master of Life"—to occupy the center of ‘the earth and bring harmony t6 the world. For their'assistance, the’Master of Life provided the Shawneés with a sacred bundle possessing powerful medicine-that ‘Gould. be uséd for good. He also gave the tribe a series of laws regulating their-personal conduct. If the Shawnees cherished thé bundlé, and used" its medicine properly,-and if-they followed: the sacred laws, they would. prosper’ and. their world “wouldbe orderly. But if witches gained. the a8- cendancy,.or if the Shawnees relinquished the ways of thelr fathers, their lives woilld be full of - - turmoil. In thg years following the Treaty. of Greenville, many traditional -Shawnees believed that the witches had gained the upper hand. Not surprisingly, many associated the-Ameri-. cans with these forces of evil. The Shawnees be~ lieved that the sea was the home of the.Great Serpent—the embodiment of disorder: Their forefathers had always warned ‘that pale-skinned invaders might emerge from the water to disrupt the harmony of the Shawnee homelaid. Since the Americans had first appeared on the eastern sea- shore, many tribesmien were certain the invaders were the children of the Serpent, intent uppi the Indians’ downfall. In 1803 Shawnees at Fort A REVOLUTIONARY PEOPLE Wayne informed Indian agents that their ances- tors had stood on the eastern seashore, watching as a strange ship came over the horizon. Al first they took it to-bea great bird, bul they soon found it to be a monstrois canoe filled with the very " people who had got the.knowledge which belonged to the Shawnees. After these white people had landed, they were not content with having the knowledge which ‘belonged to the Shawnees, but they usurped their lands also.—But these things will soon end. The Master of Life is about to restore to the Shawnees their knowledge and. their rights and he will trample the Long Knives under his feet. And even Black Hoof, a government chief com- mitted to the American cause, admitted, “The white people hds spoiled us. They have been our ruin.” Yet the same chaos'that threatened the tribes- men also produced a man who promised them deliverance. Known as‘Lalawethika (“The Noise- maker” or “Loud Mouth”), the man had been born in 1775 on the Mad River in eastern Ohio. ..... - Prior to. Lalawethika’s birth, his father-had been killed by the Americans and his mother had” abandoned him-when he was only four years old, ~ Raised by a sister,.his childhood had been over: shadowed by-two older brothers, Chiksika and. Tecumseh. Lalawethika: never’ excelled asa” huntet ora warrior, and during ‘his adolescence he became ‘an’ alcoholic, Following the Treaty of “Greenville he-lived in’a-small village: headed by Tecumseh, where he-unsuccessfully aspired tothe status of shaman, But in April:1805 this alcotiolic ‘ne'éi-do-well experienced a vision that: changed. his life and propelled hirh to the forefrost of In- dian leadership: : . While lighting his pipe from the fire in‘his lodge, Lalawethika collapsed, falling into a coma ‘so deep his wife-and neighbors believed him to be dead. As'his wife began her mourning song he astonished his family by first stirring, then regain- ing consciousness, Visibly’ shaken, he informed’ the gathered onlookers that indeed he had died and had visited heaven, where the Master of Life had shown him both*an Indian paradise and a TECUMSEH, THE SHAWNEE PROPHET, AND AMERICAN HISTORY hell where eternal fires lay in wait for sinful tribesmen. Alcoholics like himself suffered the most, for molten lead was poured down their throats until flames shot out their nostrils. Amidst much ‘trembling, Lalawethika vowed to renounce his former ways and never again drink the white man's whiskey. No longer would he be known as Lalawethika. Henceforward-he would be called Tenskwatawa—"The Open Door”-—a name symbolizing his new role as a holy man destined to lead his people down the narrow road to paradise. In. the following months’ Tenskwatawa ex- |. perienced other visions and enlarged upon his doctrine of Indian deliverance, Much of his teachings, addressed the’ decline of traditional moral values among the Shawnees and other tribes. Tenskwatawa claimed he “was particu- larly appointed to that office by the Great Spirit and that his “‘sole object was to reclaim the Indi- ans from bad habits and to cause them.to live in peace with all mankind.” While he continued to denounce whiskey as “poison and accitrsed,” he also condemned the violence that permeated tribal society. He urged warriors to ‘treat each other as.brothers, to stop théir.quarreling, and to refrain froma. striking their wives and children, :smore than cne woman “might ‘keep. them,” but such marriages displeased the Master of Life... _S.Convinéed that his forefathers had enjoyed a “happier existence, the new Shawnee Prophet. at. “iempted fo revitalize some facets of traditional ‘tribal culture. Indeed; much of Tenskwatawa’s teachirig was nativistic in both tone.and content. He asked. his followers to return to the comrinunal life of the past and to’ renounce alll desire to ac- cumulate property: as individuals. Those tribes- . Men. who. hoarded théir . possessions were doomed; but otfiers who shared with their kins- men, “when they die are happy; and when. they arrive in the Jand of the dead, will find their wig- wams ‘furnished with everything they had on earth.” He also instructed them to use only the food, implements, and dress of their fathers. Husbands: and wives should, remain. faithful: to. each other, and’ marriages should’ be :mionoga* ‘mous, Shawnée wartiors Currently ‘married. to * * Tife” 205 Pork, becf, and mutton were unclean, and the tribesmen were instructed to cat only the game they killed in the forests. Neither were the Indi- ans to eat bread, but only corn, beans, and other crops raised by their ancestors. Stone.or wood implements should replace metal tools, and al- though guns could be used for self-defense, the warriors were to hunt with bows and .arrows. With the exception of weapons, all items of American manufacture were to be discarded. In ‘a similar manner, the Indians were to dress in skin or leather clothing and were ordered to ly the scalp lock of ” shave their heads, leaving on! their forefathers. False gods should be forgotten, but the tribesmen should pray to the Master of Life, asking that he'return fish to the streams and game to the forest. To assist his disciples, Tensk- watawa provided them With sacred “prayer sticks.” The sticks were inscribed with picto- graphs illustrating certain spirits who would help the tribesmen in their supplications: If the Shaw- nees were faithful and their hearts pure, the Mas- ter of Life would restore order, the earth would be-fruitful, and they would prosper. While ‘Tenskwatawa attempted to revitalize some part of Shawnee culture, he condemned others. He warned that many of ‘the traditional dainces.and ceremonies no longer had.any mean-_ “ing and offeréd:neww. ones it their place. H¢-also.” instructed:his followers tq throw avay their-per-.. sonal, medicine’ bundles, which he’ claimed-had _ -been powerful in:the past, but no longer possessed the potency needed to protect the Shawnees from «ithe new dangers that threatened them. Tensk*’ watawa alone, spoke for the Master-of Life, -und only those tribesmeit who subscribed to the'new © faith would ever know happiness. But his disci- ples would:be rewarded above all men, for they alone would eventually. “find your children or your friends-that have long been dead restored to If the- Prophet conderined some of the old religious practices, he was particularly suspicious of those tribesmen who held religious beliefs dif- fering from his own. At best those shamans or medicine ‘men’ who‘ opposed his doctrine were misguided fools,.At worst they were witches, in 206 Jeague with the Great Serpent to spread disorder aniong the tribes. And the Prophet did not lirnit his accusations to religious leaders. For the holy man, religion and politics were the same. He had been chosen by the Master of Life to end the chaos in the Shawnee world. All those who op- posed him also opposed the Master of Life. Therefore, he was particularly suspicious of tribesmen -who were becoming acculturated or who had been converted to Christianity. Such men also were suspect of witchcraft. Unless they repented, they too should be destroyed. Tenskwatawa’s distrust of those Indians who adhered to American values reflected his general condemnation of the Long Knives, He informed his followers that the Master of Life had made the British, French, and Spanish, but the Americans were the children of the Great Serpent. In his visions Tenskwatawa had seen the Americans take thé form of a great crab that crawled from the sea, and the Master’ of Life had told him, “They grew from the scum.of the great water when it was troubled by the Evil Spirit. And the froth was driven into. the woods by a strong east wird. They are numerous, but I hate them: They are unjust. They have taken away your lands, ‘Which wére not made for them.” Only if the Indi ans reéjécted the- Americans would order ever be restored to. the Shawnee: world: The Prophet iri-- structed his people to cease all contact with the Long Knives. If they met an’ Amefican’in the. forest, they might speak to hiim froma distance, but they should avoid touching him or shaking his hand, They were also forbidden to trade In- dian foods to their white nteigtibors, for these provisions were the special gifts of thé Master of Life; to be used by his children, not the spawn of the Serpent. Tenskwatawa instructed his disciples to cut their ties with frontier merchants, and “be- cause they (the Americans) have cheated you,” the Indians were to pay “no more than half their credits.” Moreover, Indian women married to American men should return to their tribes, and the children of such unions were to be left with their fathers, The new faith suon spread to other tribes, who like the Shawnees were unable to adjust to the A REVOLUTIONARY PEOPLE great changes sweeping around them. By the au- tumn of 1805 warriors from the Delawares and Wyandots were traveling to Greenville, Ohio, where the Prophet had established a new village. There Tenskwatawa converted the visitors, then ~ sent them back to proselytize their home villages. The Delawares proved particularly susceptible to, the new religion, and during the late winter of 1806 they accused about one dozen of their tribesmen of witchcraft, In March 1806 the Prophet journeyed to the Delaware villages, where ‘he examined the captives, exonerating sonie, but condemning others. The Delawares eventually burned four of their kinsmen before the witch-hunt terminated. Predictably, all those burned were converted Christians whose accultu- ration made them more suspicious. ‘The witch-hunt among the Delawares fright- ened Moravian missionaries.associated with the tribe and brought a storm of protest from-govern- ment officials. During the spring of 1806 Harri- son wrote to the Delawares denouncing the Prophet and asking, “If he is really a prophet, ask _ him to cause the-sun to stand still—the moon to ~ alter its course—the rivers to cease to flow—or the dead.to rise from their graves. If hie does these thirigs, you rhay. beliéve that: he hasbeen sent from God.” : Boalt ._ Ironically, Harrison's” challenge’ played “into ‘Teriskwatawa’s hands. In-the Spring of 1806 sev- eral ast¥onomers had traveled through Indiana * and Illinois locatirig observation stations to study, ‘an eclipse of the sun scheduled to occur on June “16. Although Hartison sither:ignoréd oF forgot about the” event, the Prophet’ .remémberéd, Among the Shawnees such ain éclipse' waa known . as‘a “Black Sun;"! an event surrounded’ with dread and portending future..warfare. Accepting. Harrison's challenge, in early June Tenskwatawa surprised even his closest followers by promising to darkeni the sun. On June 16, while his disciples and skeptics both’ assembled iin his’ village, the Prophet remained secluded in his lodge through- out most of-the morning, but as the noon sun faded into an eerie twilight he stepped forth ‘ex- claiming, “Did I not speak the truth? See the sun is dark!” He then assured his audience that he TECUMSEH, THE SHAWNEE PROPHET, AND AMERICAN HISTORY would restore the sun's formes radiance, and as the eclipse ended even those tribesmen who stil! remembered him as Lalawethika, the drunken - Joudmouth, now were convinced of his medicine. Following the eclipse, the Prophet's influence spread rapidly. During the summer of 1806 Kick- apoos from the Wabash visited his village, were converted, and by the following summer their towns in eastern and central Illinois had become seedbeds for the new religion. Early in 1807 large numbers of Potawatomis and Ottawas from the Lake Michigan region traveled to Greenville and then carried’ the new faith back to the western Great Lakes. One of the Ottawas, Le Magouis, or “the Trout,” became a special envoy for Tensk- watawa and journeyed:-into upper Michigan where he taught the Prophet's doctrines to the Chippewas. The results were phenomenal. At Chequamegon Bay hundreds of Chippewas gath- \deline Istand to “dance the ered. opposite Ma fe songs” of the new deliver dances and sing th ance. Subscribing to the Prophet’s instructions, they threw their médicine bags into Lake Supe. fior and-made plans to visit the holy man in Ohio. enroute to the Prophet's village that white traders found mogt' of: the Chippewa: sowns along the southern shores of Lake Michigan deserted. The Menominees, ‘Sacs, and Winnetjagas also'were ‘swept up in.the éeligious frenay, and during the “summer of 1807 they trekked to Greenville in large numbers. 3: : Unable to comprehend the'religi the movement, American officials atiist believed, | that. Ténskwatawa ‘was only. a’ figurehead,.con- trolled::by niore traditional chiefs: among the: Shawnees. During 1807 séveral groups of Ameri- can agents arrived at the Prophet's village to in- vestigate the.character of the new movement. ‘After ,méeting with ‘Tenskwatawa, ‘most of thé envoys agreed that'the holy man was the clomi- nant Indian leader in the village. Moreover, the Prophet was able to persuade them that his reli- gion posed no threat to the government, But Har- rison and other officials refused to admit that the movement was an indigenous uprising, resulting from desperate conditions among the Indiaris. In- Io-the following months so many tribesmen were _ natiire of 207 stead, they chatged that the Prophet was actually a British agent, intent upon raising the tribes against the United States. Yet the British were as mystified about Tensk- watawa as were the Americans. During the sum- mer of 1807 British agents were active among the Indians of Michigan and Wisconsin, but they re- mained suspicious of the Prophet. Although they invited the Shawnee to visit them in Canada, he refused. In response, William Claus, Deputy Su- perintendent of Indian Affairs for Upper Canada, warned other Indians to avoid him, speculating that the holy man might be working for the French. The large numbe: to Tenskwatawa’s village but they also alarmed wl Moreover, the «influx of Tenskwatawa’s food supply, and he was hard pressed to feed his followers. In November 1807 the Potawatomis suggested that he withdraw from Greenville and establish a new village on the Tippecanoe River in Indiana. The new site would “be much less exposed to’ white influence and was located in.a region- where game was more plenti- ful. Therefore, in April 1808 the Prophet and his followers abandoried Ohio and moved. to Proph- etstown. 2" - : : The withdiawal.: to. Indiana. temporarily rerrioved Tenskwatawa from white scrptiny, but his logistical: problems continued. Since: Pr etstown- was located further west, it was more accessible to, poténtial.converts, and:during’ [808° arid: 1809: Indians flocked to the new lage in numbers surpassing-those who’ had visited him até Greenville. Although the. villagers. planted fields of com and scouréd the surrounding countryside for game, they coild not-feed the multitude. To obtain additional: food, the’. Prophet brazenly turned to the Americans. In June 1808 he sent a delegation of warriors -to Harrigon assuring the governor of his peacefull intentions and asking for provisions. The Indians were so’ persuasive that Harrison sent food to Prophetstown and invited Tenskwatawa to. meet with him in Vincennes. Two months later, in August 1808; the Prophet and his retinue arrived at Vincennes and spent s of Indians who journeyed enhanced his prestige. hite settlers in Ohio. ribesmen exhausted two weeks conferring with Harrison. The gover- nor was astonished at "the considerable talent of art and address” with which Tenskwatawa mes- merized his followers. Moreover, the holy man’s pleas of friendship toward the United States were so convincing that Harrison provided him with additional stores of food and gunpowder and re- ported to"his superiors that his earlier assess- ments of the Shawnee were in error, for “the influence which the Prophet has acquired will prove advantageous rather than otherwise to the United, States.” * Tenskwatawa was also able to hoodwink John Johnston, the Indian agent at Fort Wayne. In May 1809 he met with Johnston, and although the agent previously had expressed misgivings about the Prophet's motives, Teriskwatawa as- sured him of his friendship. The Shawnee spent four days, denying “in the most solemn-manner, having any views inimical to (the Americans’) peace and welfare.” Indeed, when the conferénce ended, Johnston, like Harrison, exonerated ‘the holy man from all charges and reported, “I have taken-much: pains and have not teen ableto find . that there existed any’ grounds forthe ‘alarm.’ But the facade of friendship ivas.t6o fragile to.. last. Although-the Prophet feigned goodwill to- ward the government, he could not control his followers, many” of whom “were less devious in their relations with the United States. As Indian: depredations spread along the Wabash’ Valley, Harrison-became convinced of the Shawnée’s:du- plicity. During the summer of 1809 Tenskwatawa again visited-with the governor in Vincennes, but this time Harrison was less hospitable: Tensk- watawa’s protestations of friendship had little im- pact, and Harrison informed’ the War Depart- ment that’ his suspicions of the Prophet “have , been strengthened rather ‘than diminished in every interview Ihave had'with him since his atrivul."" Moreover, by the summer of }809 Har- tison Was making preparations for the Treaty of Fort Wayne, and he assumed that such a transac- tion would terminate any pretense of amity be- (cen the government and the holy man. Harrison was correct. The Treaty of Fort Wayne, signed in September 1809, ceded over _- government, By A REVOLUTIONARY PEOPLE three million acres in Indiana and Illinois to the United States. Negotiated by friendly chiefs among the Miamis, Delawares, and Potawato- mis, the treaty was adamantly opposed by Tensk- watawa. In response, he redoubled his efforts to win new disciples. Messengers were sent to the Ottawas and Potawatomis, and many Wyandots who earliér’had shunned the new faith now were converted to the Prophet's teachings. Once again Harrison received reports that the Indians were burning witches, and friendly chiefs among the Miamis and Piankashaws complained that warri- ors long faithful to the government now were flocking to Prophetstown. Concerned over the new upsurge in the Prophet's infiuence, Harrison sent informers to the Tippecanoe and invited Tenskwatawa’ to again meet with him in Vincennes, but the holy mari refused, He also ignored an invitation by the governor to travel to Washington. and meet with the president. Instead, he informed Harrison that the recent treaty was illegal and threatened to kill- " all:those.chiefs who had signed it, He also vowed that the lands would:néver be séttled by white “meh and warhed Harrison to-keep Ameérican set- tlement-south, of-the, Biouith: of the Vermillion’ River. - ‘The Treaty of Fort Wayne cinded any pretense of. cooperation between: Tenskwatawa afd. the /-1810. the -lines were. drawn. ‘Tenskwatawa arid his movement were gnequivo- ” “cally opposed to American expansion, and‘in the years following the treaty the-anti

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