Lesson 15

•Relative Clauses
• Defining & Non-defining Clauses
• Relative Pronouns
• Who or Whom?
• Omitting Relative
Pronouns
 Relative Clauses
• Relative clauses are dependent clauses.
• They start with a relative pronoun:
• who/whom persons
• that persons/things
• which things
• when time
• where place
• why reason
• whose possession
 Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are divided into

two categories:
• Defining
• I need a job that suits my skills and
needs.
• Non-defining
• We are humans, which means we all
possess a mammal’s instincts.
 Defining Relative Clauses

Specifies one item in a group of

similar items:
• I received a letter which was sent
by a close friend.
• I sold all the books that I
knew I would never read.
 Non-Defining Relative Clauses

• Give additional information about

something that doesn’t need defining:
• By 4.30, which was almost closing time,
nearly all the paitings had been sold.
• This is my friend’s house, which he bought
about 20 years ago.
• Use commas to separate them from the
rest of the sentence.
 Defining or Non-Defining?

• My sister, who lives in Spain, has

two beautiful dogs.
(I have only one sister)
• My sister who lives in Spain
has two beautiful dogs.
(I have more than one sister)
 That

• That can replace which and who in

defining clauses only:
• Do you know the girl who (that) lives next
door?
• I love a conversation which (that) is inspiring.
• That cannot be used after prepositions:
• It was a service for which I’m really grateful.
 Who or Whom?
• Whom is used in object clauses:
• He was a person whom everyone loved.
• Whom is the only correct choice if it
follows a preposition:
• To whom am I speaking?
• Who am I speaking to?
• This is the lady who we had lunch with.
• This is the lady with whom we had lunch.
 When
• Defining:
• There is hardly a moment when I don’t
think of you.
• Call me at a time when everybody is ready.
• Non-defining:
• Come back at 4, when I won’t be so busy.
• Let’s meet at the weekend, when no one is
busy with work.
 Where
• Defining:
• This is the street where I live.
• Let’s find a place where no one knows us.
• Non-defining:
• I stopped in the city centre, where my sister
has a shop.
• They arrived at the hotel, where they could
finally take some rest.
 Confusions with Where

• Where could be replaced by ‘in which’:

• This is the restaurant where we dine
every night.
• This is the restaurant in which we dine
every night.
• This is the restaurant which makes great
pasta.
 Whose
• Defining:
• Several guests whose rooms had been
broken into complained to the manager.
• There was a crying woman at the police
station whose child had been missing.
• Non-defining:
• I regularly see my cousin,
whose house is right across
from mine.
 Which
• Defining:
• I need a jacket which (that) goes with my
shoes.
• Non-defining:
1. Could replace a noun/noun phrase:
• I would like to buy this car, which will
be my first car.
2. Could replace a whole situation:
1. He hasn’t called me for three days,
which has made me really suspicious!
 Which
• Preposition + which + noun
• I watched the play until the end of the first
act, at which point I felt I had seen enough.
• A warning alarm will go off when there is a fire, in
which case break the glass and push the button.
• Come back tonight, by which time he’ll be deeply
asleep.
• Here is the key, by which you could open the entrance
door.
 What
• Means ‘the thing’ or ‘things which’:
• I still cannot believe what you
told me yesterday.
• What you should do is write
directly to God and ask him
your questions.
 Omitting the relative pronoun
• Who/which/that, only in defining
clauses, when there is a new subject:
• That’s the house (which/that) I used to live in.
• That’s the man (who/that) I was telling you
about.
• He was a person (who/that) everyone
regarded as trustworthy.
• He’s not someone (who/that) you could get on
with.
 Omitting who/which + be
(reducing)

• Jim was the only one of his platoon who had

not been captured.
• Jim was the only one of his platoon not
captured.
• She pointed to the man who was standing
by the door.
• She pointed to the man standing by the
door. (only defining)