1.

 GIS AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

  1.4.1 Definitions of GIS
“A geographic information system is a special case of information systems where the
database consists of observations on spatially distributed features, activities or events, which
are definable in space as points, lines, or areas. A geographic information system manipulates
data about these points, lines, and areas to retrieve data for ad hoc queries and analyses”
(Kenneth Dueker, Portland State University, 1979).
“A powerful set of tools for collection, storing, retrieving at will transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world” Burrough,1986
“A system for capturing , storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and
displaying data which are spatially referenced on the earth ” Chorley, 1987.
“GIS is a configuration of computer hardware and software specifically designed for
the acquisition, maintenance and use of cartographic data” Tomlin,1990
“A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and
analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates
common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique
visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps.” ESRI
“GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained personnel
linking topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other resource data that is
geographically referenced.” NASA.
1.4.2 Objectives of GIS
Some of the major objectives of GIS are to
 Maximizing the efficiency of planning and decision making
 Integrating information from multiple sources
 Facilitating complex querying and analysis
 Eliminating redundant data and minimizing duplication

1.5 HISTORY OF GIS

One of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the 1832 "Rapport
sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le department de la Seine". The French
geographer Charles Piquet represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color
gradient according to the percentage of deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants.
In 1854 John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent
the locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of a geographic methodology
in epidemiology. His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a
contaminated water pump (the Broad Street Pump, whose handle he disconnected, thus
terminating the outbreak). 
The early 20th century saw the development of photo zincography, which allowed
maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This
was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labor-intensive task but
having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to
confuse the draughtsman.
The year 1960 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development.
Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called the Canada Geographic Information
System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada
Land Inventory – an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping
information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a
scale of 1:50,000.
 In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS
product emerged for the DOS operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for
Windows when it was ported to the Microsoft Windows platform. This began the process of
moving GIS from the research department into the business environment.
The first known use of the term "Geographic Information System" was by Dr.
Roger Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper "A Geographic Information System for
Regional Planning“. Tomlinson is also acknowledged as the "father of GIS”.

1.6 COMPONENTS OF A GIS 

1.6.1 Hardware: It consists of the equipments and support devices that are required to
capture, store process and visualize the geographic information. These include computer with
hard disk, digitizers, scanners, printers and plotters etc.
1.6.2 Software: Software is at the heart of a GIS system. The GIS software must have the
basic capabilities of data input, storage, transformation, analysis and providing desired
outputs. The interfaces could be different for different software’s. 
Key software components are

 Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information

 A database management system (DBMS)

 Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization

 A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

The GIS software’s being used today belong to either of the category –proprietary or open
source. ArcGIS by ESRI is the widely used proprietary GIS software. Others in the same
category are MapInfo, Microstation, Geomedia etc. The development of open source GIS has
provided us with freely available desktop GIS such as Quantum, uDIG, GRASS,
MapWindow GIS etc., GIS softwares.
1.6.3 Data: The data is captured or collected from various sources (such as maps, field
observations, photography, satellite imagery etc) and is processed for analysis and
presentation. 
1.6.4 Methods/Procedures: These include the methods or ways by which data has to be
input in the system, retrieved, processed, transformed and presented. 
1.6.5 People: This component of GIS includes all those individuals (such as programmer,
database manager, GIS researcher etc.) who are making the GIS work, and also the
individuals who are at the user end using the GIS services, applications and tools
 
1.8 APPLICATIONS OF GIS
GIS is involved in various areas. These include topographical mapping,
socioeconomic and environment modeling, and education. The role of GIS is best illustrated
with respect to some of the representative application areas that are mentioned below
 Tax Mapping,
 Business,
 Logistics,
 Emergency evacuation,
 Environment
 1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEM
 A coordinate system is a reference system used for locating objects in a two or three
dimensional space
 Geographic Coordinate System
 A geographic coordinate system, also known as global or spherical coordinate system
is a reference system that uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to determine
locations on the earth. Any location on earth can be referenced by a point with
longitude and latitude.
 We must familiarize ourselves with the geographic terms with respect to the Earth
coordinate system in order to use the GIS technologies effectively.
 Pole: The geographic pole of earth is defined as either of the two points where the
axis of rotation of the earth meets its surface. The North Pole lies 90º north of the
equator and the South Pole lies 90º south of the equator
 Latitude : Imaginary lines that run horizontally around the globe and are measured
from 90º north to 90º south. Also known as parallels, latitudes are equidistant from
each other.
 Equator : An imaginary line on the earth with zero degree latitude, divides the earth
into two halves–Northern and Southern Hemisphere. This parallel has the widest

circumference.
  


 Fig. 1.3.1 Division of earth into hemispheres

 Longitude : Imaginary lines that run vertically around the globe. Also known as
meridians, longitudes are measured from 180º east to 180º west. Longitudes meet at
the poles and are widest apart at the equator
 Prime meridian : Zero degree longitude which divides the earth into two halves–
Eastern and Western hemisphere. As it runs through the Royal Greenwich
Observatory in Greenwich, England it is also known as Greenwich meridian
     


 Fig. 1.3.2 Latitude and longitude measurements


 Equator (0º) is the reference for the measurement of latitude. Latitude is measured
north or south of the equator. For measurement of longitude, prime meridian (0º) is
used as a reference. Longitude is measured east or west of prime meridian. The grid
of latitude and longitude over the globe is known as graticule. The intersection point
of the equator and the prime meridian is the origin (0, 0) of the graticule.

projected coordinate system
 A projected coordinate system is defined as two dimensional representation of the
Earth. It is based on a spheroid geographic coordinate system, but it uses linear units
of measure for coordinates. It is also known as Cartesian coordinate system.
 In such a coordinate system the location of a point on the grid is identified by (x, y)
coordinate pair and the origin lies at the centre of grid. The x coordinate determines
the horizontal position and y coordinate determines the vertical position of the point.

  


 Fig. 1.3.3 Cartesian coordinate system

 In such a coordinate system the location of a point on the grid is identified by (x, y)
coordinate pair and the origin lies at the centre of grid. The x coordinate determines
the horizontal position and y coordinate determines the vertical position of the point.

2
.
GIS SUBSYSTEMS / SOFTWARE FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS
A GIS has four main functional subsystems. These are:
 a data input subsystem;
 a data storage and retrieval subsystem
 a data manipulation and analysis subsystem
 a data output and display subsystem

1.7.1 Data Input

Data input is the operation of encoding the data and writing them to the database and
creates the foundation for useful GIS. However, the process of good database creation is very
time consuming and complex operation upon which the usefulness of the GIS depends.
A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and
thematic data into digital form. Data input involves data acquisition including identification
and collection of data required for applications. It covers all aspects of transforming data
captured from existing maps, field observations, and sensors into a compatible digital form. A
wide range of computer tools is available for this purpose, including the digitizer, lists of data
in text files, scanners and the devices necessary for recording data already written on
magnetic media such as tapes, drums and disks
Various sources for data input may be:
 text files
 existing maps
 aerial photographs
 satellite imagery
 airborne scanners
 field measurements

Fig 1.7.1 Data input 

1.7.2 Data Storage and Retrieval
The data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form
which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and
accurate updates to be made to the database. This component usually involves use of a
database management system (DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually
encoded and maintained in a proprietary file format.

Fig. 1.7.2 Data Storage 

1.7.3 Data Manipulation and Analysis
The data manipulation and analysis subsystem allows the user to define and execute
spatial and attribute procedures to generate derived information. This subsystem is commonly
thought of as the heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other database information
systems and computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems.
1.7.4 Data Output
The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally
maps, and tabular reports representing derived information products.
The critical function for a GIS is, by design, the analysis of spatial data.
 Fig. 1.7.3 Data Output
It is important to understand that the GIS is not a new invention. In fact, geographic
information processing has a rich history in a variety of disciplines. In particular, natural
resource specialists and environmental scientists have been actively processing geographic
data and promoting their techniques since the 1960's.

3.
2.10 Data Quality
Data quality is the degree of data excellency that satisfy the given objective. In other words,
completeness of attributes in order to achieve the given task can be termed as Data Quality.
Data created from different channels with different techniques can have discrepancies in
terms of resolution, orientation and displacements.
Data quality is a pillar in any GIS implementation and application as reliable data are
indispensable to allow the user obtaining meaningful results. The following review of data
quality focuses on three distinct components, data accuracy, quality, and error.
2.10.1 Accuracy
The fundamental issue with respect to data is accuracy. Accuracy is the closeness of results
of observations to the true values or values accepted as being true. This implies that
observations of most spatial phenomena are usually only considered to estimates of the true
value. The difference between observed and true (or accepted as being true) values indicates
the accuracy of the observations.
Basically two types of accuracy exist. These are positional and attribute accuracy
Positional accuracy is the expected deviance in the geographic  location of an object from its
true ground position. There are two components to positional accuracy. These
are relative and absolute accuracy.
Absolute accuracy concerns the accuracy of data elements with respect to a coordinate
scheme.
Relative accuracy concerns the positioning of map features relative to one another.
Attribute accuracy is equally as important as positional accuracy. It also reflects estimates
of the truth. Interpreting and depicting boundaries and characteristics for forest stands or soil
polygons can be exceedingly difficult and subjective.
2.10.2 Quality
Quality can simply be defined as the fitness for use for a specific data set. Data that is
appropriate for use with one application may not be fit for use with another. It is fully
dependent on the scale, accuracy, and extent of the data set, as well as the quality of other
data sets to be used. The recent U.S. Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) identifies five
components to data quality definitions. These are :
 Lineage
 Positional Accuracy
 Attribute Accuracy
 Logical Consistency
 Completeness
Lineage
The lineage of data is concerned with historical and compilation aspects of the data such as
the:
 source of the data;
 content of the data
  data capture specifications
 geographic coverage of the data
 compilation method of the data, e.g. digitizing versus scanned;
 transformation methods applied to the data; and
 the use of an pertinent algorithms during compilation, e.g. linear simplification,
feature generalization
 
Positional Accuracy
The identification of positional accuracy is important. This includes consideration of inherent
error (source error) and operational error (introduced error). 
Attribute Accuracy
Consideration of the accuracy of attributes also helps to define the quality of the data. This
quality component concerns the identification of the reliability, or level of purity
(homogeneity), in a data set.
Logical Consistency
This component is concerned with determining the faithfulness of the data structure for a data
set. This typically involves spatial data inconsistencies such as incorrect line intersections,
duplicate lines or boundaries, or gaps in lines. These are referred to as spatial
or topological errors.
Completeness
The final quality component involves a statement about the completeness of the data set. This
includes consideration of holes in the data, unclassified areas, and any compilation
procedures that may have caused data to be eliminated.
The ease with which geographic data in a GIS can be used at any scale highlights the
importance of detailed data quality information. Although a data set may not have a specific
scale once it is loaded into the GIS database, it was produced with levels of accuracy and
resolution that make it appropriate for use only at certain scales, and in combination with data
of similar scales.
2.10.3 Error
Two sources of error, inherent and operational, contribute to the reduction in quality of the
products that are generated by geographic information systems.
 Inherent error is the error present in source documents and data. 
Operational error is the amount of error produced through the data capture and
manipulation functions of a GIS. 
Possible sources of operational errors include:
 Mis-labelling of areas on thematic maps;
 misplacement of horizontal (positional) boundaries;
 human error in digitizing
 classification error;.
 GIS algorithm inaccuracies; and
 human bias.
 
An awareness of the error status of different data sets will allow user to make a subjective
statement on the quality and reliability of a product derived from GIS processing.
The validity of any decisions based on a GIS product is directly related to the quality
and reliability rating of the product.
Depending upon the level of error inherent in the source data, and the error operationally
produced through data capture and manipulation, GIS products may possess significant
amounts of error.
2.10.4 Sources of Spatial Data Discrepancy:
DataInformationExchange:
Data information exchange is basically the information about the data provided by the client
to organization. The degree of information provided by the client defines the accuracy and
completeness of data.
TypeandSource:
Data type and source must be evaluated in order to get appropriate data values. There are
many spatial data formats and each one of them is having some beneficiary elements as well
as some drawbacks.
DataCapture:
There are many tools that incorporate manual skills to capture the data using various
softwares like ArcGIS. These softwares allows user to capture information from the base
data. During this data capture, the user may misinterpret features from the base data and
captures the features with errors. Data capture must be performed on a perfect scale where
one must be able to view the features distinctly.
CartographicEffects:
After capturing the data, some cartographic effects like symbology, pattern, colors,
orientation and size are assigned to the features. This is required for a better representation of
reality. These effects must be assigned according to the domain of the features
DataTransfer:
Some discrepancies may occur while transferring the data from one place to another “There is
no bad or good data. There are only data which are suitable for a specific purpose.”  So, Data
must be evaluated according to the domain for which it is supposed to be used.
Metadata:
Sometimes metadata is not updated according to the original features. So, metadata must be
updated with the original data.
 
2.10.5 Data Quality Improvement Techniques:
 
 Choice of relevant data from a relevant source.
 Derive precisions in the origin itself.
 Data quality testing in each phase of data capture.
 Using automated software tools for spatial and non-spatial data validation.
 Assessment of the mode of data uses and user.
 Determining the map elements like scale, visualization and feature orientation.