Chapter 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry MOLE CONCEPT 1 mole is represented in the form of atoms, molecules and ions as For atoms — 1 gm atom For molecules -» 1 gm motecute For jons -» 1 gm ion Moles can be calculated in follewing manner Weight of substance (ng) @) Number of moles of molecules = ca wae = Weight of substance (a g) (b) Number of motes of atomé = he (c): Nurtbar ot motes of gatagee WOME Semmeet RTP Bs Bess (1 mote of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 litres at N.TP. NTP. Corresponds to OC and 1 atm pressure) Number of atoms /molacules fions . of atomsimoleculesfions = () Number of moles of fons oe (Avogadro constant is equal to 6.022 x 10%) LIMITING REAGENT In the given reaction if number of quantities (either in gm/mole/molecules) are present with exact co-effcients, chemical reaction goes to completion without any reactant left unused. However if exact proportion is not present then the one which gets totally consumed is known as limiting reagent (Limiting reagent decides the product quantity for given information). 29., 2H, +O, + 2H,0 In above 6.9. 2 moles of H, reacts exactly with 1 mole of O, to give 2 moles of H,O. If given moles of Hy are 4 moles and that of O, are 0.5, then 05 motes ©, will act as limiting reagent as itis in minimum amount and product formation is given wt O, Le., 1 mole of HO. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower. 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Phone : 011-476234562) Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Rapid Revision & Formula Bank EQUIVALENT WEIGHT Equivalent weight of substance is defined as number of parts by weight of given substance which combines ‘or displaces 1 part by weight of hydrogen (11.2 L of H, at STP). 8 parts by weight of axygen (5.6 L of O, at STP), 25.5 parts by weight of chiorine (11.2 L of Cl, at STP). __ Atomic weight 1. Equivalent woight of lemant = AETTNSE Molecular weight of acid 2 yalent weight of acids = MOCCUley weight of acid Equivalent weg Molecular weightofbase 3. Equivalent weight of bases = Mester weightet bere Molecular weight of salt 4. Equivalent weight of sats = eg weno Molecular weight Number of & lost by one moleciile 5, Equivalent weight of reducing agent Molecular weight Number of e- gained by one molecule 6 Equivalent weight of oxidising agent:= N-FACTOR OR VALENCE FACTOR factor fs very important for both redox: and hon redox reactions through which we predict the folowing two Informations: (@) It predicts the molar ratio of the species taking part in reactions 1.6. reactants. The reciprocal of ‘Mfactor's ratio of the reactants 's the malar ratio of the reactants. For example : If X (having n-factor =/a) reacts with Y (having factor = b) then its n-factor's ratio fs a: b, $0 molar ratio of X to Y is b: a. Wtean be be + a¥ Products can be represented 6 (BX + a, —a 0) naan wae Mo LAW OF EQUVALENCE ‘According to law of equivalence, for each and every reactant and product, Equivaients of each reactant reacted = Equivalents of each product formed For example : ‘Suppose, the reaction Is taking place as under Avesc+0 Snes ein Equivalents of A reacted = Equivalents of B reacted Kadina of C peda sha te esa Corporate Office : Askash Tower, 8, Puss Road, New Dalhi-110005, Phone: O11-47523456Rapid Revision & Formula Bark ‘Some Basic Concepts of Chemisty 3. Wi of sacs fog Eautenictany nance « Nott oes fo = Neal + Value (te) Nomaty (= mace + Mlary Naty rd erty rtp ped Sine oc temper tne of won changes, emai ana mary shane EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA (@) Empirical Formuta of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of elements. constituting ts one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing empirical formula is calied empirical formuls mass, (b) Molecular Formula of 2 compound shows the actual number of the atoms of the elements present in Its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing molecule is called molecular mass, (@) Relationship between Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula, Molecular tormada = n= empical formula where nis 2 simple whole numberhaving values of 1,2, 3..te ‘Aso, n = Molecular formula mass/Empirical formula mass Weigh We Galeaate rales see |— [comand ‘ciara % of free SO, in Oleum Strength of oleum is expressed in percentage e.g. oleum sample js 109%, It means 100 g of this cleum reacts with H,O to form 108 9 of H,SO, H,80, #80, +0 —+H,S0, “is Ss i ‘Actually SO, react with H,0,te form H,S0,. Here-® g H,0°6r > mole H,0 react win $0, So, moles of $0, in sample = 3. mele $0, + #0 —+H,80, So, wt of S0,= 1 80 (molecuar weight of $0,) = 40 3 % free SO, = 40% ee) Note : Moles of H,0 aChapter 2 States of Matter (Gases, Liquids and Solids) GASEOUS STATE MEASURABLE PROPERTIES OF GASES 1, Volume : Gases have tendency to occupy all available space, So, volume af gas is equal to yolume of container. 2. Temperature : It is degree af hotness and coldness. Conversion of °C to K K="C+27315 3. Pressure : It is force exerted by gas per unit area’ aa) Peon Note ; 1 atm = 760 mm of Hy = 760 torr = 1.01 « 10° Pa 1 bar = 10° Pa BOYLE’S LAW 1 P= 1 at constant n and Vv CHARLES' LAW V = Tat constant n and P. wi=vlt+ sts] AVOGADRO’S LAW V = 1 (P and T constant); 1 mole of every gas at STP occupies volume = 22-4 lt Ideal Gas Equation On combining the Boyle's law, Charles’ taw and Avogadro's law we get an equation known as ideal gas equation whieh conelates P, V, T, of a gas Corporate Office = Askash Tower, 8, Puss Road, New Deihi-110005. Phons > 011-47623456Rapid Revision & Formula Bank ‘Statos of Matter (Gases. Liquids and Solids) | 5, [Py = nRT constant Numerical value of R= 0.0621 few atm K°* mat! 78.314 JK! mot 1.987 = 2 eal K-* mot (Other form of ideal gas: equation. ‘ideal gas equation where R fs @ constant known as universal gas constant or motar gas Pv Wear wo [ev- % M 2 [P= SRT | : (wnere his the molecular weight) DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE “The total pressure exerted by 2 mixture of two or more chemically not-reacting gases in a definite volume Js equal to the sum of individual pressures oF partial pressures where p,, p, @lc. are partial pressures of Individusl gases which each gas would exert if occupies the same yoltime ata constant temperature Pru = Py * Ppt Py» Where p,, Py te: Bre partial pressures’ of individual gases. Pra = (My FF men) Partial pressure of a gas = Mole fraction of that gas * Total pressure oof mates of otal na. of moles of all gases ™ Total pressure: By Datton’s law of partial pressure. Note : P (moist) = P (ary gas) + P (H,0 vapours) (cry gas) = P (moist) — ag, tension, GRAHAM'S LAW OF DIFFUSION (@) Diffusion is the ability of gas to spread and occupy the whole volume. (®) Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, the rate of effusion/diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to square root of its density, (©) Rate of dffusionleffusion for two gases are related as. Hav cut eo fe fe Valty Ma/ty YM, Voy EEE | siniihoscialvnveasinitinreontndns ‘Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone = 011-47623456G States of Mater (Gases, Liquids and Sols) Rapid Reevision & Formula Bank KINETIC THEORY OF GASES The postiates (1) The gaseous molecules are considered to be pont masses 2) The vole of a molecule is negigile s compared to otal ve of he ges. (2) There is no force of inert among the ges molecules. (4) The catiisions are perfectly elastic ie. there is no loss or gain of energy during the molecular collisions. (8) The average kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas. (8) The effect ol gravity on molecar moton is negkgble. Based on Kinetic: Molecular Theory Py = Ime ‘Mass of one molecule N= Number of molecules in the container = Mean square velocity KE of mmoles = 3 RT. forn=1 vie ‘Average KE per molecule = DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS fea acl (Average velocityy,,) = od 5) Met pai cy (ng aE NOt@ = Ups - Uy Upp? = 1.782 1.596 = 1.414 2: 1.208°1.128:21 HENCE, tp, > tg, > Ung Maxwell Boltzmann's curveRapid Revision & Formula Bank States of Mater (Gases, Liquids and Sots) 7? DEVIATION FROM IDEALITY AND van der Waal’s EQUATION ‘Alot of PV- P at constant temperature for a number of gases shows deviations from ideal behaviour. Therefore PV =nRT cannot be applied to these gases. Thus another equation must be sought in order to correlate PV, for these gases; which is van der waa's equation. Causes of Deviation ‘There are two objectionable postulates in kinetic theory of gases. (1) The volume of a molecule Is negligible as compared to total volume of the gas. Actually, gas molecules do posses some volume which account for the deviation. Hence total volume of gas is not equal to volume of the vessel (2) There Is no Intermolecular force of attraction between gaseous molecules (There exists force of attraction between gaseous molecules otherwise liquefaction of gases would be Impossible). By correcting these two postuiates, we-get an equation which tan be apphed to the gases which deviate from ideal behaviour, The deviation of 9 gas from ideal behaviour can also be expressed in terms of compressibility factor (2). Py 2-7 tort mole} for ideal gas Z = 1 for real gasZ>10°Z<4 LIQUID STATE ‘A liquid 's composed of moleciles that are constantly moving about at random. each undergoing bilions of Colsions per second. However strong attractive forces of the dipole-dipole, H-bonds, prevent them from moving as freely and as far apart as in a gas. (a) Vapour pressure : Its the pressure exerted by vapours on surface of liquid at equilibrium. Vapour pressure does not depend on surface area and volume but # depend on temperature and nature of qui. Vapour pressure increases wit rise in temperature (©) Viscosity : Liquids flows as i they were divided into layers flowing over one another: Resistance offered to ths flow is due to friction between two iquid layers and is called viscosity. Reciprocal of viscosity is called fluity, Viscosity of a iquid decreases with ise of temperature (©) Coefficient of viscosity : The force in newtons per square metre required to maintain a dffrence of velocty of one metre per second between two parallel layers of the liquid ata distance of one mete from each other, this expressed in kg ms". Liquids having stronger atractve forces are more viscous, (@) Surface tension : The force that acts at right angles to an imaginary line of unit length at the surface of the liquid at rest Its expressed in J m or Nr. Surface tension generally decreases with the rise of tomperature. Liquids exhibit capillary action and make spherical drops. This can be explained on the basis of surface tension, Corpicrate Office - Aakash Towor, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone 011-47623456B States of Matter (Gases. Liquids and Solids) Rapid Revision & Formula Bank IMPORTANT POINTS (1) Critical temperature (T.) : tis the temperature above which a neal gas cannot be liquefied: whatever appled pressure may be (8) Critical volume (v,)= The volume occupied by 1 mole of the gas at cntical temperature and erica pressure is known as: ential volume, Ve =38 Ve = 34Vpy = 12Vq | (Since b= 4V,) V,.= Volume of one mole of gaseous molecule. (4) Critical coefficient of a gas > RT, {tis ratio of py “which is equal to 2.66 and remains constant for all the gases. (5) Boyle's temperature (T,) : ‘The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideat gas equation al very low pressure is known as Boyle's temperature. ao RD Boy/e's temperature of a ga is alvalys higher than is ical temperature (T,) (6) Inversion temperature (T,) \¥- compressed gas is allowed to pass through a fine hole, it may show cooling or heating or no change in temperature depending upon the temperature of the gas. For each gas, there exists a characteristic temperature known as inversion temperature (T,) fT > T, heating is produced IT <7, cooling is produced INT=T, nether heating nor cooling fa 28-7, ‘Rb (7) Excluded volume (b) = ‘The van der Waal constant ‘bis Known as excluded volume. It's 4 times greater than the actual volume: of the gas molecule. b=4N,V (where V is the volume of one molecule) Comporate Office : Kakaish Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 01147623456Rapid Revision & Formula Bank States of Mattor (Gases, Liquids and Solids) | 9) SOLID STATE ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY “The total no, of planes, axes and centre of symmetries possessed by a crystal is termed as is elements of symmetry. A simple cubical crystal possesses 8 total of 23 elements of symmetry Ina Cube Pianos of symmetry = 3 +6 = 9 ‘Avs of symmetry =3+4+6=13 Centre of symmetry = 1 “Total number of syrimetry elements = 23 TYPES OF CUBIC UNIT CELL ‘Number of atoms ‘Type ef unit col 41, Simple cube 2. Body contted | 1,5 4 cube (BCC) | de Face centred cube (FCC) Radius ratio (] ce Example) 0155<4<0.205 2,0, omsst< outa 2S oatas Scone Nact onastfons are present atthe Comers as well as at the centre of each face of the cube. (i) Zn"? ion are present at alternate tetrahedtal void [50% of tetrahedral void.) (fi) This structure has 4 : 4 codedination number. Examples : CuCl, CuBr, Cul, Agl, and BeS aoa Corporate Office = Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005: Phone : 011-47623456Chapter 3 Structure of Atom BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL ‘The mode! is based on the quantum theory of radiation and the classical concept of physics. Postulate (a) The path of electron is circular. The force of aitraction between nucieus and electron is equal to centrifugal force ofthe moving electron 1») Electron can revolve only in those erbts whose angular momentum is an integral multiple of J Le nh on (m = mass of etectron) w= velocity of electron, r= radius of orbit) (c) Electron remains in stationary orbit where it does not lose energy, (@) Each stationary orbit is with definite amount of energy (E) and E, < E, < E, (EE)? EE)? (EB Similarly ‘The Energy of Electron Total energy (E) = KE. + PE. 2n?Z7me! = Ke where, n= 1,23 E = Energy of electron in nh orbit Z = Nuclear charge = Charge of electron m= Mass of electron fh = Planck's constant z fe, Eq = Ey = for Heike atom H like atoms means atom which consists of one electron, Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, Now Delhi-110005: Phone © 011-4762345642) Seucture of Atom Rapid Revision & Formuia Bank 1972 2179102? atom Potential energy = Kinetic energy = - © Totat energy = E ‘Note If an atoin consists more than one electron, then we take ‘shiekding effect into account. Radil of Orbits 0520 A Z For Hike atoms. Thus f= 1, ne Velocity of Electron 100 18» Zee Number of revolution per second (Frequency) v ys 22 Nope B exo" S Rydberg Equation ‘The wavelength (2). wave number {7 forthe electromagnetic radiation can be calculated by Rydberg equation al, Om po a= =r, xz! I Z_ = Atomic number Ri, = Rydberg constant = 109677 cnr ny, = Higher orbit ny = Lower obit Corporate Office Aakash Tower. 8, Pusa Road, Now Dslhi-110005, Phone - O11-47623456Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Structure of Atom 43 ‘Total number of spectral lines nin 1) 0 —> when electron jumps from n? level to ground level. (9 ®2=Aahle =P 9 sgn cre rks om m1 (ii) 2n, —n, + whan electron retums from n, to n, wm umber of spectral fine in a particular shel ‘Note : Remember in this case n,, n, are energy level or orbét number. I we have given rf" excited State then formuia wil be diferent. 10) formula ts applicable, hydrogen sample contains several numbar of H atoms. DUAL NATURE OF MATTER : de-Broglie Equation (@) Louis de Broglie proposed that the material parities are also associated with wave nature, just as radiations. (0) The wavelength ofthe wave associated with @ paricle mass ‘mt moving with velocty Vas | % where 4 = de-Brogie wavelength = Planck’s constant = 6.62 * 10-¥ os, Note: The waves associated with material particles or objects in motion are called matter waves. or de-Brogile waves. (©) Number of revolutions per second by an electron in a shell may be given as = (@) de-Brogte's equation and KE. Let KE. of the particle of mass ‘mis E ‘Suppose an electron makes n wave in one complete circle, then 2nr = ni (Corporate Office : Askaah Tower. B, Puss Road, New Deihi-110005. Phone : 011.4762345644 Sovcture of Atom Rapid Revision & Formuia Bank QUANTUM NUMBERS ‘The set of four integers required to define the stale of electron in an atom are called quantum numbers. The quantum numbers are (1) Principal quantum number (7) (2) Azimuthal quantum number (?) (@) Magnetic quantum number (m) (4) Spin quantum number(s) (1) Principal quantum number, (7), relates to the amplitude (/e., size) of an electron wave and also the total energy of the electron. it has integral values of 1, 2, 3, 4... etc. also denoted as K. L. M,N... ete. @) Azimuthat quantum number, (0), tells us about the subenergy shell of electron, For each main energy shell there can be ‘n’ number of subenergy shells. These subeneray shells are designated by cifferent values of For each value of n, | can have values from 0, 1, 2.3.91. (@) Magnetic quantum number, (m), explains the behaviour of an electron in the extemal magnetic field orn other words i tells us about orbitais ofthe electrons. The values of m gives the number of orbitals associated with a particular sub shell in shell: For‘each value of |, m can have vakies from ~/to +/including zero “1, O/¢4 = 2m =-2 1,0, 49,42 (4) Spin quantum number, (3) gives an idea about the electron spinning on is ax. Each spining electron fi 4 can have two values of += Of ~> BOo Corporate Office > Kakash Tower, 8. Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 011-47623456Chapter 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure TYPES OF BONDS 1. tonic Bond 2. CovalentBond 3 Co-erdinate Bond 4, Hydrogen Bond lonic Bond ‘An ionic bond is formed by complete trans(er of one of more electrons trom the valency shell of one atom to the valency shell of another atom. In this way both the atoms acquire the stabie electronic configurations of the noble ‘gases. The atom losing the electrons becomes @ positive ion and the atom which gains electron becomes negative ion. FAJAN’S RULE Covalent character in ionic bonds ‘When oppositely charged ions approach aach ether. there is not only the attraction between the positively ‘charged cation and the negatively charged-anion but also simultaneous repulsion between their nuclei. Thus there is distortion, or deformation or polarization of anions. The electronic charge of anion does not remain spherical but gets distorled QO & ‘No polarization Polarization of anion (1) Polarizing power of cation increases with (High charge on cation (i), Small size of cation (ii) Pseudo (18) electronic configuration in outermost shell of eation Corporate Office - Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-1%0005. Phone : 019-4767345616) Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Rapid Revision & Formula Bank (2) Tendency of an anion to get polarized increases with (0) High charge on anion i) Large size of anion This polarization of jon results in a electric charge concentration between the two nuclei resulting in a ‘ovalent bond with a iarge degree of charge separation ‘The extent of polarization depends upon (1) Polarizing power af cations. (2) Tendency of an anion to get polarized (polarizability) FORMAL CHARGE Fe = | Toa! number of maa [ra umber of | 4f Totat "1 ein tee atom) |~[nom-bonding -u)|” 2] nonang (9) DIPOLE MOMENT (x) Dipole moment is product of the magnitude of charge developed on ay one of the two atoms and the distance between the atoms. (1 =q = d), where q'= charge developed and d = distance between two atoms. The unit ‘0f dipole mament is debye (0), 1 debye = 1 * 10° esu cm = 3.34% 10- coulomb metre (Gm) te" charge = 4.8 * 10°" esu = 1.6°%:10°" e6ulomd (@) Dipole moment is a vector quantty. (®) Molecule with more than one bond will have mere thait’one bond dipole moments. The resultant of bond ‘dipole moments of the molecule containing two bonds is given as oe = VE +H + 2ugig 0086 (©) Dipole moment predicts whether @ molecule is polar er non-polar (8) Dipole moment is zero for symmetrical and planar species. (0) Dipole moment helps to determine percentage ionic character and can be calewated as Observed dipole moment Bier m = Calculated dipole moment assuming 100% ionic bond ~ 100 % lonic character = 16)X, — Xpl * 3.5 IX, — XpP, where X, and Xy are the electronegativity of A and 8 element VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY (VSEPR) (@) A number of physical and chemical properties of molecules are affected by the geometry and shape of molecules, (0) ‘VSEPR theory gives the information of shape of molecules. Corporate Office = Aakash Tower, 8, Pus Road, New Delhi-110005, Phone : 011-47623456Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 47 (©) The arrangement of bond pair electron and ione pair electron is done to minimize the repuision Le, Lone pair — lone pair > fone pair ~ bond pair > bond pair ~ bond pai (6) These repulsion - effects result in deviations from idealized shape and alterations in bond angles in molecules. HYBRIDIZATION & SHAPES OF MOLECULES S.No] Type of No. of Bond pair] Lone | Geometry ‘Shape [Examples hybridisation | hybridived orbitals Pale 1 ” 2 2 — | Lower near ©0, Bec, , 3 — | Thon! Ptanar | Tigonal Planar 8, a $ 2 1 | Teigonal Ptanar | V-shape $0, 4 — | Tevanedrat | Tetranedtrat cH, . 3 1 | Totramedral — | Pyraenicat NH, & © # 2 2 | Totahedral | Vshape HO 5 | THgonat THigonal Po, 4 1 | Trigonat Seo-saw SF, bipyramidal “| me 7 3 2) Thgonat Tahape, oF, Bipyramical 2 3 | Trigonat Linear ey ‘ipyramidat 6 =| Square ‘Square (octanedral)| SF, bipyramidat | bipyramidat 5 | ge 6 Ss 1 | Square Square ca pyramicat | pyrameat 4 2 | Squere Square xe, Bpyramicat | Planar 7 =| Pentagoral | Pentagonat i" 6 | it 7 ‘ipyramicat — | _bipyramidat 6 1 | Pentagonal | Distorted octahedral] XeF, bipyramidal MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY ‘Types of Covalent Bond 's—s overlap (Sigma Overlap) oo OO = -©.0 Corporate Office - Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone -011-4762345618 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Rapid Revision & Formula Bank P-Poverlap (Sigma Overiap) CO'CO=eQe QO-QO=- Sega W 25, Pp Overlap Lateral (n- overlap) ig SS St88 (2) Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method is used for the formation of molecular orbitals. (©) For two atomic orbitals A and 8, Whose Wave function is given as y and ye. Then molecular orbitals (MO) are given 8S Yygs= va + Yas (6) The molecular orbital « formed by the addition of atomic orbitals is called bonding molecular orbital. And ‘molecular orbital * formed by the subtraction of atomic orbitals is called antibonding molecular orbital. (d) Molecular orbital configuration for diatomic molecules upto 74 electrons = ats ots 02s 02s (r2p, = n2p,) 2p, (w'2p, = #'2P,) 0°20, (Inereasing order of enetay) (@) Molecular orbital configuration for datomic molecules with more than 14 electrons. = ots 0°2s 02s a'2s a2p, (x2p, = n2p,) {n'2p, = #2p,) o°2p, (increasing order of energy) (© Molecular orbitals are arranged with increasing order of energy level (@) *2p, and 2p, similarly x"2p, and n"2p, have same energy and folow Hund's re. (h) Bond ordar = + [Bending elactons — Antibonding elecvons} ‘Corporate Office < Aakash Tower, 8, Puisa Road, New Dslfi-110005. Phone = 019-47623456Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Chemical Bonding end Molecular Structure 19) 1 Bond order Bond stength = Saenan eg. N,= 4 electrons +. Molecular orbital configuration ots? or ts? 02st, o°2st rap? nap? }o2p? f° 2p,,x* 2p, } a°2p, =1po-a BO= 5 [10-41=3 [AS no unpaired electron hence N, is diamagnetic. gaa Corporite Office = Aakash Tower, 8, Pisa Road, New Deihi-10005. Phone : 011-47623456Chapter 5 Chemical Thermodynamics EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE VARIABLES (2) Extensive property of @ systam are those whose magnitude depends: on the amount of matter present Inthe system. These are additive in'nature. For example, volume, intemal energy, enthalpy, entropy, mass etc. Sum, subtraction and mulipieation of two extensive property is extensive. (b) The property whose magnitude 468s not depend upon quantity of matter present in a system is known 2s intensive property of the system. It is not an additive property, Examiples are : temperature, pressure, onsity ete. Sum, subtraction, ruitiplication division of two intensive properties is intensive INTERNAL ENERGY (U) is the energy associated with 3 system by vittue of its molecular constitution and motion of its. molecule, ‘Such motion may be translational, rotational, vibrational etc, Internal energy is @ state function and an extensive property, Heat supplied to system is denoted by (1) When q > 0, heat has been supplied to system. 2) When q < 0, system has rejected heot. (3) When q = 0, no heat exchange ; process is adiabatic: Wark done on system (W) (1), When W > 0 work is done-on system, @ When W <0 work is done by system. Processes = When a change is observed in the properties of system, a process is said to be taking place. This may be 12 chemical reaction or a physical process, like crystallization. Processes are of two types. (1), Reversible : Ne change in entropy of universe (2) Ineversibie : Entropy of universe increases. ‘Comorate Office - Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, Now Delhi-110006, Phone : 011.47623456Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Chemical Thermodynamics "24 and W for some simple processes Table for ideal gases (only) Reversible Process 4a w Me Me Isothermal expansion | nTin yt =nRTin Yt \V.= Initial volume Viz Final volume Isobaric expansion CesT Pav ‘Adiabatic expansion 0 Isochoric heating nG,aT ° HESS'S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION. ‘The enthalpy change for a reaction is the same. whether it occurs in one step OF in a series of stops. |W. reaction is the sum of two Or more-constituent reactions, then aH for the overall process must be sum of the AH of the constituent reactions. att 4 fs For A+ D, 4H= 0H, +H, + 4H, ENTROPY AND ENTROPY CHANGE Eniropy is a measure of randomness, Higher the disottfer, higher is the entropy. Entropy for sold < liquid < gas as= Se) whore q,., * Heat absorbed when the process is carried out reversibly and isothermal. Entropy change is given in unit of JK oF JK Example : For reversible isothermal expansion ofan deal gas AS = nin GIBB'S ENERGY AND SPONTANEITY OF REACTION Gibbs defined a function by the relation G=H-TS (Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deli-110005, Phone : 011-4762345622) Chemical Thermodynamics Rapid Revision & Forma Bank ees (Ata given pressure and temperature if for an anticipated change dG for system is negative, process is spontaneous and if positive, process is spontaneous in reverse direction. Also if dG = 0. system is in equilibrium with respect to the given reaction or process (@ 4G = maximum work dane by system on non-expansion surrounding @.g., cll doing electrical work on sircuit ‘Spontaneity of the reaction (1) Relation between AG and AG" AG = AG + 2903RT log (@ = reaction quotion’) (2) AG° and equilibrium constant = At equilibrium, AG = 0 and Q = K 4 AG*=-RT fog, = -2.03 RT log. K ‘Spontaneous at all temperature -ort ‘Spontaneous at low temperatures where AH outweighs TAS (TAS < AH) ‘Non-spantaneous at high temperatures where, TAS outweighs AH. . Non-spontaneous af al temperatures ort ‘Spontaneous af high temperatures Where TAS outweighs JH (TAS > AH) ‘Non-spontanaous at iow temperatures. where AH outweighs TAS IMPORTANT POINTS ‘Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8. Puss Road, New Delhi 110005. Phone = 011-47623456Chapter 7 Equilibrium RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN K, AND K, KART where, An, =n, —n, tan, =0K,=K.; Example: N,(a)+0,(8) + 2NoWg) Wan, >O.K, > Ke) Example: POk(a) = Pctia) + Chis) tan, <0K, 0 then on increasing pressure, equim wil get shied in the backward direction. ‘An, <0 then on increasing pressure, aquirium wil shi towards forward direction, (8) Catalyst A catalyst has no effect on state of equilibrium but @ enables the state of equilibrium to reach wery quickly. (8) Inert gas The introduction of inert gas to any equilibrium is visualized under the condition of constant volume and constant pressure (a) At constant volume W Anj=0 ‘An, >0. } no eflect on equilibrium on addition of inert gas an, <0 Gorporate Office = Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 011-4762345630° Equilibrium Rapid Revision & Formula Bank (b) At constant pressure IW Any =Ono eflect on equilbrium Equilibrium wil get shied in that direction where no, of moles are more An, >0} tn forward direction An, <0) in backward direction IONIC EQUILIBRIUM Dissociation of weak acids or weak bases and Ostwald's dilution law When weak acid or weak base is dissolved in aqueous medhum equilbrium exists between dissociated ions and undissocated molecules, CH,COOH <= CH,COO + Ht Initially, c o oO Areuilbium ci) Ga ca where, a is the degree of dissociation. €a1.66_ gga Hc! ae Ca) - ' a= fe foe [am dieW | ane | br] ca~c [RS - ce Here V is the volume in litre containing 1 mole of electrolyte. Silay for weak base, [eE] « ] mfpertee S e Here V is the volume in ire containing 1 mole of electrolyte. BUFFER SOLUTIONS ‘Types of Buffer Solutions Acidic buffer : A mixture of weak acid and its conjugated base farm acidic buffer. CH,COOH + CH,COONa HCOOH +HCOONa (CgHsCOOH +CeHsCOONa Basic butler: iis @ mixture of weak base and is conugate acid Ex. (1) NHJOH + NH,cr 2) CuoH), + Cu, @) Mg(OH), + MgSO, (Corparate Office = Aakash Tower. 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Phone : 011-47623456Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Equilibrium 34 = pK, + log [Sat POH = Py +100 Sai 1, pHs 14—pOH = 14- pk, +40g [Sal 2 pHs 14—pOH = 14 - [pk tog (Set) =k, — (pk +iog S24) pH = pk, — (pK, ‘oa ea} SALT HYDROLYSIS Consider the salt BA. which on hydrolysis will gve acid and base inside the aqueous solution, BA + H,0 = BOH + HA (a) Salt made up of strong acid, strong base will not hydrolyse it will simply ionise, And pH of aqueous Seige Dermat pt fe on pect a iE pH=7. eg. Nat, () Salt made up strong acid and weak base will hyérolyse, e.g, NH,CL DH = Sok, - pk, —loaC] cH,COON (©) Sait made up of weak acid and strong base, 6; % KF | oH = Ploky0K, + ogc] (@) Sait made up of weak acd and weak base. The pH and fh of these sal solitons depend on K, and K, but independent with concentration, e.g, CH,COONH,. PH 5 Wi, PR Note : K, = Chi, n= [were n= aero of ofavais SOLUBILITY PRODUCT \When a sparingly soluble satis dissolved in water. forms saturated soliton but concentration of salt is very low, Therefore in saturated solution of such electrolytes, solid electrolysis in equilbrium with te ons as represented below AQC! qe Agh + Cr ‘Applying Law of chemical equlxiam «= (ATIF Tasch KIAGCH = [Aa'l ICr Kyp «1491 [CF] Corporate Office: Aakash Tower, 8; Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Phone :G11-4762345682° Equilibrium Rapid Revision & Formule Bank where Ky is a constant known as solubility product. It remains constant at constant temperature for a given salt and defined 28 the product of ionic concentration of @ sparingly Soluble electoiyte in a saturated soliton IK, =I. (lonic product) then solution is said to be saturated if K,, > LP. then solution is said to be unsaturated If, > Sandx+S =x AgNO, —=»Ag’ +NO} x x ACK) — Aa" (00) + GF (en) AQ hans = #8) Kyp= +8) S Im genoral due to common ion effect solubility f sa decreases, gaa Corporste Office : Aakash Tower. 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 011-47629456Chapter 11 Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry and Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds HOMOLOGOUS SERIES It is @ series of similarly consttuted organic compounds in which members possess the same functional AFoUp, have a similar or aimost similar characteristics, can be represented by the same general formuta, and the two consecutive members difler by CH, — group in their molecular formula. 6.9, General formula for saturated alcohol is C.H,,,,— OH CH, -OH +21 CH, ~ CH, ~ OH, CH, CH) = CH, -OH ean eet ewe ISOMERISM Compounds having same molecular forrnula but different in their physical and chemical properties are called Isomers. This phenomenan is called isomerism, They are classified into two types. 1. Structural isomerism or constitutional isomerism 2. Stereo isomerism 1. Structural isomerism : When same molecular formula represents two or more compounds which differ in the arrangement of atoms within the molecule, then such compounds are called structural isomers and the phenomenon is called structural isomerism: It is of the following types (). Chain isomerism : When the same molecular formula represents two or more compoundls which differ in the nature of carbon chain (straight or branched), the isomers are called chain isomers and the phenomenon is Known as chain isomerism, Example : CH;—CH;—CH,—GH and CH —GH—-CH, are chain isomers cH, (i) Position isomerism : Gompounds having same structural formtae but differ only in the position of the substituent atoms or groups on the carbon chain are called postion isomers. Example : C, H, OH has two position isomers CH, CH,CH,-OH and CH, -CH-CH, oH propan-tet prooan 2.01 Corporate Office * Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, Now Delhi-110005, Phone : 011-47623456BO. Saw Gas Pcs of Opin Chora at Paton and Charters Onan Camgears Rape Ravin & Forme ark (iti Functional isomerism : When any two compounds have same molecular formula but possess cfferent functional groups, they are called functional lsomers and the phenomenon is called functional isomerism, Examples of functional isomerism are (8) Alcohol and ether (CH,-CH,~CH,~CH,-OH and GH,-CH,-O-CH,-CH,) a ae a (iv) Metamerism : |t arises due to different alky! chains on either side of the functional group in the molecule. tent rn eae none ee ‘Example > (@) MetamersofG.H,-O-C,H,are CH, cHoroH-0cK, cH G Meth! peony ether CH, mectrcwepte 9 W (0) Metamers of CH,CH;-C-O-CH, are a Nis to be noted that CH,CH,CH;AC-O-H is nat the metamer of above compounds. Because this ‘compound is an acd while the above compounds are isomeric esters, (M1 Tautomertsm : The phenomenon diet which two o more structurally distinct compounds ae in dynamic equllprum due to shitin te position of an atom or groupin.a molecule is known as tautomerism and the structural somers are known as tautomers, Tautomerism may be catalysed by an aid, a base or races oftransiton metal ions etc, Structural Requirement for Tautomerism ? When unsaturated functonal gioup (e.., -C- exhibit tautomerism. N= O)have «hydrogen, the compound may A=8- 1 & c t 4 =-> “Tautomers In simple keto-enol tautomerism generally koto form is more stable, the stabilty of enol form may increase due to extended conjugation, aromatiity or intramolecular hydrogen bonding I ea. =O == Gth=C-0 4 More stable > 99% Less stable <1% ‘Corporate Office Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 011-47623456Rag Raven Forma Bark ___ Some Basic Pence of xan: Christy and Purleton and Charest of npc Conpaands 5 2 Stereo isomerism : The compounds that have the same constitution and sequence of covalent bonds but ditler in relative positions of their atoms or groups in space are called stereoisomers and this type of isomerism is known as stareoisomerism, This isomerism can be further classified as geometrical Isomerism and optical isomerism. Pa Ph. H Seca” Nese” peers, md Dore ee ‘Sterecisomers Geometrical isomerism : When stereoisomerism arises due to restricted rotation (because of the presence of double bond oF ring), then itis known as geometrical isomerism, He. cH, Hy H c= and c= 17 Nu no Ne ‘These are geomettical isomers because they have different spatial srrangement due to the presence of restricted rotation (due to double bond). ‘Note: ()) Geometrical isomers may be named as cis-rans isomers, E-Z isomers or syp-anti isomers, (Geometrical isomers are also known as dlastereomers (stereoisomers which are not the mirror images of each other). Therefore geometrical isomers have different physical properties and similar chemical properties. i) Geometrical isomers: do not rotate plane polarised light (unless they also happen to be chiral). Enantiomers : Nonsuperimposable mirror images are known as enantiomers. They have similar physical and chemical properties in symmetricenvironment, But they may behave differently in asymmetric envirenment. They also rotate plane polarised light in opposite directions but the magnitude of rotation 's identical. Specific rotation of S-alanine is +8,5 while that of R-alanine is -8.5, while meiting point of both the enantiomers are 297°C. Dextrorotatory substances : Those substances which rotate the plane polarised light in clock-wise direction are known as dextrorotatory substances. The-rotation is labelled as (+). If the rotation is counterclockwise, the compound is called Laevorotatory. No relationship exists between D and L (represent relative configuration) and dextrorotatory and laevoratatory substances. A ‘compound with D configuration may be (+) or (-). This information can be obtained only by putting the molecule in Polarimeter (instrument used to obtain dection and extent of rotation of plane polarised ight) Specific rotation : Specific rotation of a chiral compound is a constant at @ particular temperature and wavelength (589mm). Racemic mixture : A mixture containing equal amount of twa enantiomers is called racemic mixture or racemate. A racemic mixture |s optically inactive due to external compensation. Racemic mixture can be resolved into optically pure form by several methods. Percentage enantiomeric excess : It tells us how much one enantiomer is present in excess of the racemic mixture, '% 00 = %of one enantiomer — % of the other enantiomer Corporate Office’: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Read, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 011-47623456152) Som Basic Peres of Crane Chom and Puesion and Crates cf Ongar Campout apt Reson & Fors Bark Number of Possible optical isomers in Compounds having n-chiral Carbon Atoms : Case-1: When there Is no symmetry in the structure of molecule. Number of d and J forms = 2° ‘Number of meso forms = 0 Total number of optical isomers = 2° Case- il: When the molecule is structurally symmetric and n is even Number of d and / forms = 2°" Number of meso forms = 22-' Total number of optical isomers = 2"-' + 22 Case -Ill : When the molecule can be divided Into two Identical parts. and n is odd Number of and fom = 28-1 = 2°" Number of meso forms = 2 2 Totat number of optical isomers = 2"? BOND FISSION In any reaction, band between the reactant moiecule is broken, Bond fission in organic molecules can take place in one of the two ways. 1. Homolytic Bond Fission R, i nme av af Ri Result of homolytic fission is free radical. (Alkyl free radical may be sp? or sp" hybridised) 2. Heterolytic Bond Fission {@) In the heterolytic bond fission Bonding electron pair may move away from carbon, which results into the formation of carbocation. me R Rec Ly tee Ro 2 x tamor stconegatve fan carton] RY Rx (0) Where bonding pair moves towards carbon R, 8 ily q + ¥© ty iets electronegative than carbon} v1 oe R RY ‘This results in formation of carbanion. (Aikyl carbanion is sp” hybridised) Corporate Office - Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone *011-47623456‘Rap niin & Fora Bark ‘csr Banc Pon of Ogjanc Chur ae Peon ane aracrstin of Onpanc Corps | 5 ELECTROPHILE Electrophies are electron loving species having at least one vacant ertital in valonce shell 1. Charged slectraphiles X°, R® 2 Neutral Electrophites : 0.g.. BH, SO,, AICI, Note : Electrophiles are Lewis acids, NUCLEOPHILE Nucleophiies are nucleus loving, they are electron rich having at least one non-bonding pair of electrons in valence shell can be of three types. ° 1. Charged Nucleoptvles. «- Fr, SH, 2 Neutral Nucleophiles ~My ,R-OH 3. Ambident Nucleophies - cE Ne, “ace Ne (both atoms are nudleophiie centre) ELECTRONIC EFFECTS Electronic Effects Indictwe —-Hypereonjugation _Electromeric. Mesomeric or Resonance effect 1. Inductive Effect : ‘The permanent displacement of electrons in a bond towards the more electronegative element is called Inductive effect. The effect provides polarity to the molecule. The property of electron withdrawal shown by an atom or group is its (-I) effect and that of donation is-calfed (+1) effact. Electron donation or electron withdrawal 's. compared with respect to H ne qa ‘As shown above the charge decreases from « to {} to y position. Hence inductive effect decreases as number of bonds increases. Order of -1 effect : (CH,),N >-NO, > -CN>-F > -COOH > -Ci>—Br > 15 -OR>-OH>-NH, > C,H >-H Order of +1 effect ; (CH,),C—> (CH,),CH-> CH,-CH,~> -CH, > -H Uses of Inductive Effect : () Stability of ions: Stabiity of ions can be explained by using the concept of Inductive effect and hhyperconjugation fa) Stability of Carbocation 29. (CH, C* > (CH,), CHY > CH.CH, > CH? (0) Stabity of Carbanions (CH, )y6® <(CH3} CH® (groups with +1 effect decrease the stabilty of anton)SSA Sm Bae Petit of Orie Chntty ard Pilon ins ren Onan Ceara Ran & Fer Bare (0) Acidic Properties: I is possible to compare the acidic strength of various organic compounds Using the inductive effect concept, ©... In carboxyiic acid ‘The strength of an acid depends upon the ease with which itcan lonize to glve proton or onthe stabity ofthe conjugate bases formed, io ifthe conjugate base formedis mote stable, then tha acids more acide Name of Acid Formula K Conjugate Base Fluoroacetic acid (most acidic) FCH,COOH — 217* 10% — FCH,COO-(most stable) Ghioroacetic acid GICH,COOH 155* 10%} GICH,-GOO- Bromoacetic acid BICH,COOH 138 10 © BICH,COO- lodoacetic acid ICH,COOH 75x 10% —ICH,COO” Acelic acid (least acidic) CH,COOH 1.810% CH COO" (least stable) Increasing stablty of conjugate base increases the acidity of acids Furthermore, the inductive effect in di and tihalogenated acids is sbil more marked with the result they are progressively more acidic than the corresponding monohalogenated acids eg, CHCL-COOH ; K,=51¢™ 10 Cl,-COOH ; Ky="2100% 10% In general, dicarboxylic acds are stronger acids than monocarboxylic acids, since one of the -COOH gr0up shows -| effect, Hyperconjugation : It is also known as no-bond resonance, It involves delocalisation of o-electrons ‘of C — H bond of an alky! group directly attached to an atom of unsaturated system or to an atom with ‘an unshared orbital (p oro orbit). Depending on the number of cH. various hyperconjugative structures are possible, Greater the number of hyperconjugative structures, higher would be the stability of given system. It is aiso a permanent effect. Less effective ~ = overlap (responsible for hyperbonjugative effec) ‘Stability of substituted alkenes, ally! carbocations, and free radicals can be explained on the basis of hyperconjugation. # H . gt. 4 Heck cn be, 0 HeG=CH~GryeeH =cH-EH, e+ Hac =cH- EH 4 f 4 4 4 1" i 4 r HeG-CHeo HC scHeoit b Ok > nh > OB Decreasing order of stability Carbanions : Structure: &, fd Rg Pyramidat Carbon bearing the negative charge is sp! hybridised, when lone pair on carbon not involve in resonance. Stability: Carbanions are stabilsed by electron withdrawing groups and they are destabilised by electron ‘sonabng groups os Bh > By-cn 2 BC > CH, Segara, @B>8s > worry > 04-8 Decreasing order of stability, O-O-A Decreasing order of stability Garbon Free Radicals Free radicals are obtained through homolysis of a bond. They have unpaired electron associated with carbon,‘Sam Basic Pres of Cry Charis ad Prat and Chanttersaon f Open: Congouncs ‘Rape Reis 6 Formula ark, Structure ; The exact type of hybridisation of the carbon atom bearing an unpaired electron depends or: the: nature of the substituent. Generally alkyl radicals are planner and as electronegativty of bonded group increase: adopts pyramidal shape e.g. CF, is pyramidal, In presence of resonance it surely adopts planner shape QA nperataecrenie —¢, present in unhybridised OY. P, orbital Tipster Stability : Free radicals are stabilised by resonance, hypercanjugation and stene effect. Both electron donating, ‘and electron withdrawing groups stabilize free radicals, oh GH, < CH-GH, < CH-cH < ong i Gry, oH Increasing Stability Pho > HC=CH-CH, > OH-CH by Decreasing stability @) A tree radical combines with ather free radical R+R —+R-R (0) Free radicals may gWve cisproportonatin reaction 20H, - GH, 90H; = CH, + cH, - cH, DETECTION OF ELEMENTS (Qualitative Analysis) Element | Sodium Fusion Extract (8.8) Confirmed Test Reactions Nitrogen |Na+C+N—Y+ NaCN | SE +FeSO, + NaCH, FeSO, +6NaCN— (SE) _| bot and cool, + Fact, NaJFe(CN)j + Na,SO, + cone. HOI + Prussion 3NajFe(CN), + 2F0{SO,) bhie or green » FeJFe(CNj + 6 Na,SO, Prassian blue (Femi Ferrocyanice) [Sulphur | Ne+S— > Nas (SE + Sodium nitroprussice + | NaS * NaJFe(CN),NO} -» (SE) Deop viciet colour: Na, [Fe(CN),NOS] deep violet (i) SE +(CH.COO),Pb + NaS + (CH.COO),Pb —+ ‘Black ppt POS. + 2CH.COONa =m Corporate Office = Askash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Dsihi-110005. Phone: 011-47623456‘Raxid evan & Forma Bark ‘Scme Bast: Poncples of Oxgant: Chery ard Purfcifon and Cherartarsaton of Ongeric Compaurcs 5 |Halogens| Nasc) A> Nach |S.E + AgNO, + AQX (XC. Br. !) ? ee pe chia ba (Pate yotow pt party sate | ax + AgHo, -+ABK inHg) Bt Be contin (it) Yellow ppt insoluble in NH, (liq) Teantirms Nitregen | Na+C+N+SsNaCNS | As in test for nitrogen instead of | 3NaCNS.+ FeCl, ‘and (SE) | aren oF blue colour, blood red | _, Fac), + 3NNact Sulphur ‘colouration confirms presence | blood ved (Ferre thiocyanate} together lof N and $ both : QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF ELEMENTS IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Wt of GO, * 100: C= —— Smee and | Lebgs Manoa | & +69, itetegen | 123449 “Ga = weight of erganis compound 2x wtof HO 100 mono) xu=— eee _ whe | xn gree itvogen | ()Duma's method }q)2N-' Mio) Pagan mere | a ide 25x = 100 ani "224 = wi of organic compound Winera Vb the volume of Ngas in L aS TP. @N > Nite #50, Za. 14 NM ‘wt. of organic compound where, N;V; 6 the meq, of H,SO,.used Suiphur | Carian method S+HSO,¥ 8080, |. _ S2xwtol BESO. |, 329 233g 233 = wa. of org. comp, Halogens: | Carus method CLs Ag, _355.x wt of AGI x 100 35g 143.89 1435 «wi. of organic comp. Br Age _ at of Agr 100 8091860 188 «oA of organic comp 1 — al en wg ag '* 25" otorganccome. *'™ Oxygen 100 = (sum of % of al elements) Phosphorus] Garis method pa EE» MLOTMBLEO, formed sq 222 wh of organic comp.(60. Se Basic Pires of rpc Chore are Putian ard Charctrsaon of Organic Commands EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA (Empirical Formuia of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of elements constituting its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing empirical forma is called empirical formula mass. (li) Molecular Formula of 2 compound shows the actual number of the atoms of the elements present in lts one molecule, The sum of atomic masses at the atoms representing molecule is called molecular (ii) Relationship between Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula Molecular formula = a empirical formula where 1 is a simple whole number having values of 1, 2,3. ete. Also, n = Molecular formula mass/Empirical formula mass. Rapid Revo Forala Bark Weigh sample |[eo Weigh 5 and HO} EF alculale males] of C and H Caleaiate ©: A maie ratio Caleaiate ‘empirical formutia| gagChapter 8 Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry REDOX REACTIONS CONCEPT OF OXIDATION & REDUCTION ‘Oxidation Reduction (Loss of electron (Gain of electron (i) Loss of hydrogen (i) Gain of nydrogen (i) Gain of oxygen, (ii) Loss ef oxygen (iv) Increase in oxidation number | iv) Oecrease in oxidation number OXIDATION NUMBER Onidation number change is defined as the change (real or imaginary) which an atom appears to have undergone ‘when itis present in redox reaction, There are certain rules laid down in order to determine the oxidation number: @ © © (a) te) 0 @ ) ‘Oxidation number of an atom in free elements is 2er0. ‘Oxidation number of oxygen is -2, white in peroxides itis -1, in OF, itis +2 Oxidation number at hydrogen is +1, white in metat hydrides itis 1 ‘Oxidation number of an ion is equal to the electrical charge present on it ‘Oxidation number of group 1A elements is +1 and that of group IVA elements is +2. For complex ions, the algebraic sum of axication numbers af all the atoms is equal to the net charge ‘on the ton, In case of neutral molecules the algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms present in the molecules is zero, ‘Oxidation number of an atom never be greater than its valonce electron. o.g., valence eiectron for Cr is 6 Increase in oxidation number of an element in a reaction is known as oxidation while decrease in axidation umber of an element in a reaction is known as reduction. Besides +ve and -ve values, fractional values of oxidation number (as average) are aiso possible. Batancing of H.0 can also be done as per the medium given Gorporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005. Phone = 011-47622456