ALSTOM Protection & Control Course PC3, Dubai Application of Protective Relaying to - Distribution and Sub-Transmission Systems 25" - 29" March 2000 Analysis of Unbalanced Faults ~ (Additional Notes) AISTOM TSO Protection & Conta id Ragintred Ofc ngland No. 959256Page 2 ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED FAULTS 2.1 INTRODUCTION In a balanced three-phase system, each of the three phases of any part of the system will have currents and voltages which are equal and 120° displaced with respect to each other. To maintain balanced operation, each item of system plant must be symmetrical: i.e. have identical impedances tn each line, equal mutual impedances between phases and ground, and equal shunt admittances to ground. This is the case for machines and transformers, and it is also valid for Vines if they are fully transposed. Three phase faults with symmetrical fault impedances leave the system in balanced operation. Such faults can be analysed using the simple single phase representation. However» these faults are rare. The majority of faults occur between one line and ground, or between two lines and ground. These are asymmetrical or unbalanced faults. They arise from lightning discharges and other overvoltages which initiate flashovers followed by power arcs ; or they may arise from mechanical causes such as birds on overhead lines or mechanical damage to cables, etc. Another type of unbalanced fault which is of interest are the open circuit faults. They can arise from broken conductor, maloperation of single phase switchgear or the operation of fuses. During unbalanced faults, the symmetry of the system is lost and the single phase representation used for three phase balanced faults no longer applies. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS METHOD Fortescue discovered a property of unbalanced phasors and introduced the method of symmetrical conponents. phasors may be resolved into (n-1) sets of balanced n-phase systems of different phase sequence and one set of zero-phase sequence or unf-directional phasor systen. Consider n-dimensional system of phasors. Where Vay» Vpjr etc.» are phasors of the first set of balanced n-phase system. Phasors are single spaced. Vagt Vyge @te-s are phasors of the second set of balanced n=phase system. Phasors are double spaced.Page 3 - And so on. Van? Vpn? etc-» are phasors of the uni-directional phasor system. Take for example an unbalanced S-phase system. V+ Vur Vor Vgr Ver % Var Vos V3 he Ve he . he Ves J Ve Va, Vow Vex Vow Ves Go ~ FIRST SET OF SECOND SET OF THIRD SET OF BALANCED PHASORS BALANCED PHASORS BALANCED PHASORS Va hack Vas % Vow Nes ea. “fy Nas Gm Vea Vie FOURTH SET OF FIFTH SET OF BALANCED PHASORS ZERO SEQUENCE PHASORS 2.2 Now consider an unbalanced three phase system. V.» Vir Ya = Yar * Yan + Vag y, bt * Yo2 * Yb3 Yo = Vey + Veg + ¥, c 3 Van Var Vas Z Mo 3 Vey Vey Ver, Mer POSITIVE NEGATIVE ZERO SEQUENCE ‘SEQUENCE SEQUENCE —Page 4 Three unbalanced phasors have been resolved into nine phasors. Choose "at phase as the reference phase and replace V3 by Vag- Ya = Yan * Yar + Yao 2, Vy = Var t Yao * Vag 2, Yo = Mar * “Yaz * Yao where == 1.0 £120° It is convenient to delete subscript 'a' for the symmetrical components. Var tly tM 1 1 tay + Vo 2 Vee ay t22V) + Uy 3 Add equations 1, 2 and 3 Vat My to = 3% 4 te Wy =z Wty +) Multiply equation 2 by sand equation 3 by x” and add the resulting equations to equation l, 2, VY, te¥y to2V, = 3Vy = 2, fe MEMS tay + o2¥) Multiply equation 2 by a2 and equation 3 by x and add the resulting equations to equation 1, 2, : Vat 7, + eV, = BY) = 2, a se Wye 3 + c7V, tev) Equations 1 to 6 can be re-written in matrix form.Yo 8 & R x 2 wr g v. v y, v Ry k | Re-write matrix equations 7 and 8 respectively as [re] =f] [vs] “1 Es} “La}L] Where Vp 10 phase components = sequence components hia A» 1 of « ria & Raid =afir ia 2 Plo 2.3. Example Resolve the following 3-phase unbalanced voltages into their symmetrical components. o Ve Ye = 120% ° 120 = 1,5 290° oo = 0.5 /4120° Page 5Solution : V,= 1+ 40 ly = O- ils Yo = 0.5 (-0.5 +j0.86) = -0.25 + j0.433 Yap Vy CV tay + fv 7 ar 3 CV, tah + eV, = 3 C (1 + JO) + (-0.5 450.866) (0 = 1.5) + (-0.5 ~J0.866)(-0.25 +50.433) J = V3 (2.798 + 50.75) = 0,965 15° 2 a2 V3 CV, + fv, tov] = 3 C (1D + (-0.5 ~j0.866)(-J1.5) + (-0.5 +40.866)(-0.25 +J0.433) J] (3 (-0.548 +j0.318) = 0.211 150° Yo M3 Wt ¥y + Vd 20 ~ 3 = Wz C (1 + JO) + (0 ~ j1.5) + (-0,25 440.433) ] = 1/3 (0.75 = §1.067) = 0.434 7-55° 2 Yor = Mar = 1 240° x 0.965 715° = 0.965 255° Yoo = “Mar = 1 £120° x 0,211 750° = 0.211 £270? Yoo = Yao = 0.434 /-55° Yor = “Yar = 1 20° x 0.965 715° = 0.965 135° 2d Nog * Vaz = 1 @40® x 0.211 150° = 0,211 390° Yeo = Yao = 0.434 /-55° Figure 1 shows the sequence components of the phase voltages. Page 6Page 7 Fig. | STMMETR ICAL COMPONENTS3. Page 8 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT TRANSFORMATION Zs \Yo——As 4 }—_—__——_o 2, 2s yen eum Vo- Ze Bm on) —_——_ + FIGURE 2 Take a set of symmetrical three phase impedances (equally spaced, fully transposed, etc.) carryng unbalanced phase currents I, I, and I We may write the following equations. Zlqt %qly + Zale Zl t Zelp + Zale Vo = Zqla + Zqly + Zl Where Z. = self impedance per phase 2, = mutual impedance between any m phase pair Or, in matrix formPage 9 Re-arrange ll Therefore, if the system 1s symmetrical in its normal state the eyametr ical component impedance becomes diagonal (equation 11) and, Gherefore, isolated sequence networks are obtained with impedences 211 Zz and Zp. These three networks will become intercomecten sper an unbalance such as a fault or unbalanced loading is iatreduced. The manner of interconnection will depend’on the new constraints: i.e, the additional system connections.41 42 Page 1¢ PLANT IMPEDANCE DATA For static networks i.e. non-rotating plants, the positive and negative sequence impedances are the same. These are the leakage impedance of the transformers and the normal phase impedance of the transmission circuits. Zero sequence impedance of overhead line and cable circuits ts determined by the return path of the zero sequence currents through earths earth wires or cable sheaths. The zero sequence impedance is generally greater than the positive and negative sequence impedance, being usually of the order of two to three tines the positive sequence value in the case of overhead lines. For transformers, if zero sequence currents have an available path and can flow, they wil] again see the leakage reactance in each phase. If no path exists, an open circuit mst be shown for the particular windings in the zero sequence network. The flow of zero sequence current in any winding is possible only if other windings provide @ path for the flow of balancing zero sequence currents. Consider the transformer equivalent circuit in Figure 3 overleaf. The magnetising. impedance Z, is of the order of 20008, compared to the Teakage Impedance 2), + 2,, of about 10%, Therefore, magnetising impedance can be ignored and the transformer can be represented in the positive and negative sequence networks by a series impedance G2, +2.) z Zeus 21) = primary winding P Jeakage impedance 21, = secondary winding Zam Teakage impedance Z, = magnetising ‘impedance FIGURE 3. TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT In the zero sequence network, although the leakage impedance is identical to the positive sequence value (when zero sequence path is available) the zero sequence magnetising impedance is dependent upon the transformer core construction and can be much lower. In three-phase banks of single phase transformers and in three-phase shell cored transformers, the zero sequence magnetising impedance is large and can be ignored as in the positive and negative sequence networks. In three-limb core type transformers, however, the zero sequence flux must be completed through the oi] or tank. Owing to the high reluctance of the flux path, zero sequence magnet ising impedance is of the order of only 1008 to 400%. However, this is stil] high enough to be neglected in most fault studies, particularly when a delta winding is present. Therefore, consider zero sequence circuit of transformer as a series impedance Z,. The mode of connection of Z, to the external circuit is determined by taking account of each winding arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground.Page 11 Imaginary Tinks ‘a! and 'b! (see Figure 4) are used to derive the windings res gif z@r@ sequence currents can flow into and ove eros {indingy for example a solidly earthed star windings the winding iqgasga! 1s connected to the external circuit, that ts Tink warts closed, Ze a I I oO B “BI FIGURE 4 Tf zero sequence currents can circulate in the winding without flowing in the external circuit, for example a delts winding, the wpneao terminal 1s directly connected to the zero busy ther fe Vink 'b' 1s closed. Example 1 Transformer Connections Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit Connections The zero sequence impedance of a neutral earthing impedance z, 1s 32,- The reason for this can be read!ly understood from Figure 5 below ae nt b nm = 3to a2 Y, By =~ Zero Sequence Circuit FIGURE 5. NEUTRAL EARTHING IMPEDANCE4.3 Page 12 At the neutral point the zero sequence currents I, in the three phases combine to give 31, in the netural earthing impedance. The zero sequence voltage at fhe neutral point 1s given by 3 Van * Yon * Yon? . Yn Example 2 + Transformer Connect {ons a Ze a BR b b Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit Connections The positive sequence impedance of synchronous machines is the normal nachine reactance, There are three defined values of positive sequence impedances, namely the synchronous transient and subtranstent impedances and they are used according to whether steady state, transient or initial short-circuit values of current are required. Unlike the non-rotating networks» the negative sequence impedance of the rotating plants {s not equal to the positive sequence impedance. It relates to mmf at synchronous speed travelling in the opposite direction to the rotor. Its value is usually less than that of the positive sequence impedance. In the zero sequence network» the winding connection and earthing arrangement mst be considered as for transformers. Any earthing impedance will be seen by each phase and therefore the correct voltages will be obtained if three times the impedance value 1s included in the zero sequence network.Page 13 Typical turbo-generator sequence reactances are : synchronous reactance = 1.0 p.u. transtent reactance = 0.15 pews subtranstent reactance = 0.10 pews negative sequence impedance = 0.13 p.u. zero sequence impedance = 0,04 pu. CONNECTION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS TO REPRESENT UNBALANCED FAULTS (a) For any given fault there are six quantities to be considered at the fault point 5 Vir Vie Vio Igy Ie IQ+ If any three are known (provided they are not all voltages or all currents) or if any two are known and two others known to have a specific relationship» then a relationship between V,, V> and Vg and I,» I, and Ip can be established. These relationships are called the circuit constraints. From the circu{t constraints we can determine the manner in which the isolated sequence networks can be interconnected. (b) The relationships are derived with phase 'a! as the reference phase and the faults are selected to be balanced relative to the reference phase. This yields the simplest interconnection of the sequence networks. If this is not done the interconnections of the sequence networks require additional transformations which are achieved by the introduction of phase shifting transformers. This will be apparent in the case of simultaneous faults where it 1s not possible for both the faults to be symmetrical about the reference phase. 5.1 Shunt Faults Line-to-ground faults, line-to-1ine faults, 1ine-to-1ine to ground faults and three phase faults all fall into the category of shunt faults. (a) Figure 6 shows a system with a fault at F. The positive, negative and zero sequence networks of the system are shown in Figure 7. The fault terminals for the posttive sequence network are F, and Ny» and the corresponding fault terminals for the negattve and?zero sequence networks are For Ny and For No respectively. It is at these terminals that the iRterconnection of the networks will occur. In the derivation of sequence network interconnections, it is convenient to show the sequence networks as blocks with fault terminals F and N for external connections (Figure 8).(b) Page 14 A S| Cc Tey 7 Ie NOV, Oye. FIGURE 9Page 15 (O-@ = 1-0, FiG.6 SINGLE LWE DIAGRAM OF Two AMCHINE SYSTEM 96 OS Tn, POS\TWE SEQUENCE NETWORK OF SYSTEM Fe 1-1 RR NEGATE SEQUENCE NETWORK OF SYSTEW -——-—___ — Ne ZERO SEQUENCE NETWORK OF SYSTEM FIG] SEQuENCE NETWORKS OF FAULTED SYSTEM 30 : 0 VE eB ve F 2 Fe ees ete ieee ‘| ow Pest. ARS. FiG.8 SEQuENCE EQUIVALENT NETWORK BLOCK SsPage 16 Line To Ground Fault On Phase "At At fault point + A FE 1 6 2 < TeYEVLa Vow We know from section (2.2) that Vat Wty +p T But +e Wty + Vy 20 3 We know from section (2.2) that peg y+ i tip But I,=1,=0 se gel 1, = ya Also, I) = W/3 (1, texel, + TL) = 3 1, : 2, = Ip = Vy T+ 7D, tet = 3 1, eae pilgt igs Vz 1, ca 4 Equations 3 & 4 are the CIRCUIT CONSTRAINTS. They suggest that the sequence networks are connected in series.Page 17 5-1.2. Line to Ground Fault Through Fault Impedance 2 At fault point + We know from section (2.2) that pt Us Uti tip t+ Ine V3 Tye stance 1, = 1 Similarly, Yar My ti + Vy But V, = 1,2, from constraint 2 Ltt Y= 1Z, But I, = 31 from equation 3 - 4 ne MHD # Vy = 1932) Equations 3 and 4 suggests the following interconnections. ZFPage 18 5.1.3. Line to Line Fault on Phases 'B! and 'Ct At fault point We know Ty = 1/, (I, +1, + 1.) Substituting equations 2 and 3 into equation 4, Ip 20 5 Simslarly, Tp = Vy (1, tot, + 071) = 1s, (eee) 17 M3 (1, + oct, io) = M3 > 2, 2. = V3 (I, tect, tel.) = -1/, (oe -0%) 1, oe Itt 0 wassennaee 6 2 ' = 2 He know Vy = 1/3 (Vt oeV, tec2V_) =~ 7 Substituting equation 1 into equation 7, v= 3 Wa vy) 2, = 7 Similarly V2 = 1/3 (V, tocW, toc¥.) = 3 (V, - V4) oe WEY, — 7 8 From equations 5, 6 and 8, the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel but the zero sequence network is unconnected.Page 19 5.1.4 Line to Line Fault on Phases '8" and 'C! Through Fault Impedance Zp At point of faulty 1 A — 2 s — e 3 | Tepe pre OM Oe Ova V3 I, +I, +I) =0 oan oe? 17 M3 U1, tect, + ec?t) = V5 (oc-ee?) 1, 2, 5 I= V3 (1, + ee*l, toc I) 2, Wg (o-ee") 1, 4 yy + I, oO * 2, We know q, Ty to Ty tecI,) 5 Substituting equation 4 in 5 1, = (oc? -00 1) 6 2 No toe vy + ey 2, Vp tae + 0070, . = 20 . 20 te Vy - ve = (oe ~ex) yy (es® ~0¢) Vy 7 Substitute equation 3 and 6 into 7, 2 = (ee? wee (ec -ee) 1,2, = (09% -o¢) yy (oe ) Vo oe nz 8 vePage 20 5.1.5 Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases 'B! and 'C! At fault point : A oe Weve L a FE 1,0 2 a Le Yief Lo Qe GMa om 5 . A re MEMS OV, tect, te = 5 vy 2 : Wg = Wz WV, tee, toe¥.) = V5 Vy Yor Ms VtWy ti) =U y, lo = 3%, I, +I,+Ig=0 From equation 3 and 4, it can be concluded that the sequence networks are connected in parallel.Page 21 5.1.6 Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases '8! and 'C! Through Fault Impedance Z, At fault point : I,=0 ~ L (tp Zp 2 . 1 N ar 1tigtIy=o ee) ~ V3 I, +T, +1 sv; ay +1) se Ty t IQs 3ty 0 see 4 Yor Ms Wy tM FV) 2; + ayy) 2 ne 2 ls - Vpn M3 Vy tee, to07V.) Us OV + OE ted T= 1/5 WA YD) 2 = Z . - Wg 2 M3 Vt, ta) = 1/g CV, + (od #00) Vo 1 = 1/5 (V, ~ YQ) lo Vp M3 Vt Vy =, FU tty z 6 Subsitute equation 4 in 6 Vg ~ Vy = 31g2y + WA Mg = Ip 3Zp seceeennne 7 Equations 3, 5 and 7 suggest the following interconnect fons.5.1.7 Page 22 Thevenin Equivalent Method One method of reducing or simplifying a complicated sequence network is to derive the Thevenin equivalent circuit. The Thevenin equivalent voltage of the positive sequence network is the pre-fault voltage at the fault location F,. The positive sequence equivalent impedance is the impedance seenvacross the fault terminals F, and Ny when all the sources are de-activated. It should be realised, however, that if the Thevenin method is used to calculate the various branch currents, these values will represent only the current changes in each branch due to the fault. The pre-fault currents of the system has to be added to the fault current changes to derive the total current for the fault condition.