Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology Lectures

2017 – 2018

Lecturer

Hassanin Mehsin Ali

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

Lecture 1
Introduction

 The term Nano originated from the Greek Nanos which means ‗dwarf‘. It
is one billionth of a meter. Therefore, whenever we think about
nanoscience or nanotechnology, very small objects come to the mind.
Indeed, this branch of science and technology deals with materials having
at least one spatial dimension in the size range of 1 to 100 nm.
 Richard P. Feynman (Nobel Laureate in Physics, 1965) is often credited
for introducing the concept of nanotechnology about 50 years ago. In the
annual meeting of the American Physical Society at California Institute of
Technology on 26 December 1959, he delivered a famous lecture entitled
―There‘s Plenty of Room at the Bottom‖. In this lecture, he talked about
writing twenty four volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica on the head
of a pin, and miniaturizing the computer (see Feynman, 1992). He also
suggested that it would be possible to arrange the atoms the way we want.
Therefore, a physicist should be able to synthesize any chemical
substance by putting the atoms down where the chemist says.
 The lecture of Feynman had inspired many scientists in various ways. For
example, K. Eric Drexler wrote a book (in 1986) entitled ―Engines of
Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology‖. Drexler envisioned a
world completely transformed by Nano-scale robot assemblers. These
assemblers would manipulate and build things atom-by-atom working
furiously running a nanofactory. They would be able to build anything
with absolute precision and no pollution.

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

 The most common working definition of nanoscience is:

‗Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of
materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where
properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale‘.
Bulk materials (the ‗big‘ pieces of materials we see around us) possess
continuous (macroscopic) physical properties. The same applies to
micron-sized materials (e.g. a grain of sand). But when particles assume
nanoscale dimensions, the principles of classic physics are no longer
capable of describing their behaviour (movement, energy, etc.): at these
dimensions, the principles of quantum mechanics principles. The same
material (e.g.gold) at the nanoscale can have properties (e.g.optical,
mechanical and electrical) which are very different from (and even
opposite to!) the properties the material has at the macroscale (bulk).
Nanotechnologies are defined thus:
―Nanotechnologies are the design, characterization, production and
application of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape
and size at the nanometer scale.‖
 A nanomaterial is an object that has at least one dimension in the
nanometre scale (approximately 1 to 100 nm). Nanomaterials are
categorised according to their dimensions as shown in Table 1.
Nanomaterials are expected to have a wide range of applications in
various fields such as electronics, optical communications and biological
systems. These applications are based on factors such as their physical
properties, huge surface area and small size which offers possibilities for
manipulation and room for accommodating multiple functionalities.

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

Table 1: Nanomaterials are categorised according to their dimensions

Nanomaterials can be of two types:

1. ‗non-intentionally-made nanomaterials‘, which refers to nano-sized
particles or materials that belong naturally to the environment (e.g. proteins,
viruses, nanoparticles produced during volcanic eruptions, etc.) or that are
produced by human activity without intention (e.g. nano-particles produced
from diesel combustion);
2. ‗intentionally-made‘ nanomaterials, which refers to nanomaterials
produced deliberately through a defined fabrication process.

 The nanometre scale is conventionally defined as 1 to 100 nm. One

nanometre is one billionth of a metre (10-9 m). The size range is normally
set to a minimum of 1 nm to avoid single atoms or very small groups of
atoms being designated as nano-objects. Therefore, nanoscience and
nanotechnologies deal with clusters of atoms of 1 nm in at least one
dimension.
 In recent years, major progress has been achieved in molecular
electronics. As the physical limits of the conventional silicon chips are
being approached, researchers are seeking the next small thing in
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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

electronics through chemistry. By making devices from small groups of

molecules, researchers may be able to pack computer chips with billions
of transistors, more than 10 times as many as the current technology can
achieve (see Fig.1).

Fig.1 Sandwitch structure of nanowires and organic molecules for electronic circuit (Service,
2001) (reproduced by permission from The American Association for the Advancement of
Science, © 2001).

 A very promising and rapidly-growing field of application of

nanotechnology is in medicine. One interesting application involves the
use of nano-scale devices which may serve as vehicles for delivery of
therapeutic agents and act as detectors or guardians against early disease.
They would possibly repair the metabolic and genetic defects. They
would seek out a target within the body such as a cancer cell and perform
some functions to fix it. The fixing can be achieved by releasing a drug in
the localized area. The potential side effects of general drug therapy can
be reduced significantly in this manner. As nanotechnology becomes
more sophisticated, gene replacement, tissue regeneration or
nanosurgeries are the promising future developments (see Fig. 2).
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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

Fig. 2 Multifunctional nanoparticles can combine tumor-seeking

sensors, imaging agents, and toxins that kill cancer cells (Service, 2005)
(reproduced by permission from The American Association for the Advancement
of Science, © 2005).

 The possible benefits that can be obtained from nanoscience and

technology seem to be almost endless. Many of these dreams may be
realized in the near future. In this module, various types of nanomaterials,
their structures and methods to prepare them will be discussed. The
potential applications of these materials will also be explained.
 ‗Nano‘ means small, very small; But why is this special? There are
various reasons why nanoscience and nanotechnologies are so promising
in materials, engineering and related sciences. First, at the nanometre
scale, the properties of matter, such as energy, change. This is a direct
consequence of the small size of nanomaterials, physically explained as
quantum effects. The consequence is that a material (e.g. a metal) when in
a nano-sized form can assume properties which are very different from
those when the same material is in a bulk form. For instance, bulk silver
is non-toxic, whereas silver nanoparticles are capable of killing viruses

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

upon contact. Properties like electrical conductivity, colour, strength

and weight change when the nanoscale level is reached: the same
metal can become a semiconductor or an insulator at the nanoscale
level. The second exceptional property of nanomaterials is that they can
be fabricated atom by atom by a process called bottom-up. The
information for this fabrication process is embedded in the material
building blocks so that these can self-assemble in the final product.
Finally, nanomaterials have an increased surface-to-volume ratio
compared to bulk materials. This has important consequences for all those
processes that occur at the surface of a material, such as catalysis and
detection.
 Nanoscience and nanotechnologies depend on the exceptional properties
of matter at the nanoscale level. In this context, ‗nano‘ doesn‘t only mean
‗1 000 times smaller than micro‘, and nanotechnologies are not just an
extension of microtechnologies to a smaller scale. It is an entirely new
paradigm that opens entirely new scientific opportunities.
 The application of nanoscience to ‗practical‘ devices is called
nanotechnologies. Nanotechnologies are based on the manipulation,
control and integration of atoms and molecules to form materials, struc-
tures, components, devices and systems at the nanoscale.
Nanotechnologies are the application of nanoscience especially to
industrial and commercial objectives. All industrial sectors rely on
materials and devices made of atoms and molecules thus, in principle, all
materials can be improved with nanomaterials, and all industries can
benefit from nanotechnologies. In reality, as with any new technology, the

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

‗cost versus added benefit‘ relationship will determine the industrial

sectors that will mostly benefit from nanotechnologies.
 When the term was first used in 1959, it was used in the singular,
‗nanotechnology‘. In the last few years, the field has evolved steadily in
terms of science and technology development. Scientists have also started
to address the safety, ethical and societal impact of ‗nanotechnology‘. In
doing so, it has become clear that this is not one technology, but that
different nanotechnologies exist (which all share the common concept of
using the properties of matter at the nanoscale). There has even been a
call from a prominent scientist and expert in nanotechnologies to stop
using the singular, and to use the plural, precisely to communicate the
variety of materials and methods involved in nanotechnologies.
Nowadays, the plural form is most used.
 Nanoscience is not new, so the question is: If it‘s not all new, why is it
so special? In recent years, researchers have been able to uncover the
enormous potential of nanoscience and nanotechnologies thanks to a new
set of analytical and fabrication tools. At the same time, in recent years,
new nanomaterials have been intentionally fabricated or discovered, novel
nanotools have been developed and old ones implemented, and novel
properties of matter at the nanoscale level have been discovered.
All of this has allowed the systematic investigation of nanomaterials
and the realisation that the exceptional properties of matter at the
nanoscale level can be used to build new materials, systems and
devices with properties, capabilities and functions that could not be
achieved if bulk materials were used. This is where the novelty lies, and
the reason for being excited about it! The exceptional properties of matter
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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

at the nanoscale have prompted scientists to ‗reinvent‘ the way materials

are engineered and produced, and are opening up exciting new
opportunities in many different fields.
Nanoscience is thus a ‗work-in-progress science‘. A ‗work‘ that finds its
roots in disciplines, such as chemistry and physics, where much
fundamental knowledge is well established, and that is progressing
towards fields where new knowledge is currently being created and
collected.
 Natural Nanomaterials
We see hundreds of examples of nanoscience under our eyes daily, from
geckos that walk upside down on a ceiling, apparently against gravity, to
butterflies with iridescent colours, to fireflies that glow at night. In nature,
we encounter some outstanding solutions to complex problems in the
form of fine nanostructures with which precise functions are associated.
A short list of some natural nanomaterials follows:
1. Nanoparticles from natural erosion and volcanic activity: nanoparticles
are part of our mineral world since they are naturally produced during
erosion and volcanic explosions.
2. Minerals, such as clays, are nanostructured: clays are a type of layered
silicate characterised by a fine 2D crystal structure. Among clays, mica has
been the most studied. Mica is made up of large sheets of silicate held
together by relatively strong bonds. Smectic clays, such as montmorillonite,
have relatively weak bonds between layers. Each layer consists of two sheets
of silica held together by cations such as Li+, Na+, K+ and Ca+2. The presence
of the cations is necessary to compensate for the overall negative charge of
the single layers. The layers are 20–200 nm in diameter laterally and form
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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

into aggregates called tactoids, which can be about 1 nm or more thick.

Naturally occurring clays include montmorillonite (MMT) and hecrite. The
fine nanostructure of clays determines their properties. When water is added,
the clay swells, but the volume change is rather unusual it is several times
the original volume due to the ‗opening‘ up of the layered structure by the
water molecules that replace the cations. Clay swelling is a significant factor
in soil stability and must be taken into account when building roads etc.
3. Natural colloids, such as milk and blood (liquid colloids), fog (aerosol
type), gelatin (gel type): in these materials, nanoparticles are dispersed in the
medium (liquid or gas) but do not form a solution, rather a colloid. All these
materials have the characteristic of scattering light and often their colour (as
in the case of blood and milk) is due to the scattering of light by the
nanoparticles that make them up.
4. Mineralised natural materials, such as shells, corals and bones: many of
these materials are formed by calcium carbonate crystals that self-assemble
together with other natural materials, such as polymers, to form fascinating
three-dimensional architectures. For instance, a shell is grown by a layer of
cells that first lays down a coating of protein supported by a polysaccharide
polymer like chitin. The proteins act like a nano-assembly mechanism to
control the growth of carbon carbonate crystals. Around each crystal remains
a honeycomb-like matrix of protein and chitin. This relatively ‗flexible
envelope‘ is fundamental for the mechanical properties of the shell and
mitigates cracking. The size of each crystal is around 100 nm. The result is
that the nacre of mollusc shells has extraordinary physical properties
(strength, resistance to compression, etc.).

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

5. Materials like skin, claws, beaks, feathers, horns, hair: these materials are
made largely of very flexible proteins like keratin, elastin and collagen.
Keratins have a large glycine and alanine content. This leads to β-sheets that
can bond strongly one with another in an aligned fashion. Fibrous keratin
molecules can twist around each other to form helical intermediate
filaments. Similarly, collagen (not related to keratin in terms of primary
structure) has a high percentage of glycine and forms flexible triple-helix
structures. In addition to intra and intermolecular bonds, keratins have
numerous cysteins that can form stable disulphide bonds. The amount of
cysteins in the protein determines the strength and rigidity of the material:
keratin in human hair, for instance, contains about 14 % cysteins. Materials
like nails, hooves and claws have a higher percentage of cysteins.
6. Paper and cotton: both are made mainly of cellulose. The high strength,
durability and absorbency of cotton are due to the nanoscale arrangement of
the fibres.
7. Insect wings and opals: the colours seen in opals and butterflies are directly
related to their fine structure, which reveals packed nanostructures that act
like a diffraction grid and induce iridescence. In the case of opals, this is due
to packed silica spheres in the nanometre range, uniform in size and
arranged in layers. Butterflies often owe the colour of their wings to pig-
ments that absorb specific colours; in some species, such as the beautiful
Morpho rhetenor, colours are due to the presence in the wings of
nanostructures which are photonic crystals.
8. Spider silk: silk is the material with the greatest known strength about five
times that of steel of the same weight. The extraordinary properties of spider

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018

Babylon University/College of Engineering /Chemical Engineering Department/Nanotechnology

silk are due to the proteins that make up the silk (mainly fibroin) and its
supramolecular organisation which is at the nanoscale level.
9. Lotus leaves and similar (nasturtium): the nanostructure of the leaves of
these plants is responsible for their extraordinary surface properties and their
ability to ‗self-clean‘.
10.Geckos‘ feet: the structure of the gecko foot is an amazing example of the
relationship between function and nanostructure. The ability of geckos to
walk upside down, against gravity, even on wet or dirty surfaces, is
intimately connected to the nanostructure of their feet.

Reference:

 Luisa Filipponi and Duncan Sutherland, Nanotechnologies: Principles,

Applications, Implications and Hands on Activities, Edited by the European
Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation Industrial
technologies (NMP) programme, 2013, Chapter 1.

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Lecturer: Hassanin Mehsin Ali Fourth Stage 2017/2018