Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit8 Eng Schol BK
Unit8 Eng Schol BK
in
Unit 4
Ancient
Cities of
Tamilagam
Learning Objectives
• To learn about the greatness of the towns of ancient Tamilagam.
• To know about Poompuhar, Madurai and Kanchi.
• To understand the ancient kingdoms of Tamilagam.
• To gain knowledge about the crafts, markets, manufactures, maritime trade,
education and water management in ancient Tamilagam.
161
Teacher: There is. I shall come to that Teacher: Like Harappa and Mohenjo-
later. Let us stand up and wish her first. Daro in ancient India, there were famous
Students: Happy birthday, Tamil. towns in ancient Tamilagam too. Madurai,
Kanchi and Poompuhar are prominent
Tamilini: Thank you all.
among them.
Teacher: Tamil, Is Chennai your
Tamil literature, accounts of foreign
home town?
travellers and archaeological finds provide
Tamilini: No ma’m. My home town is
us information about the ancient towns of
Kadavur near Karur.
Tamilagam.
Teacher: Good. Do you have the habit
of visiting your home town? Poompuhar
Tamilini: Yes ma’m. Every summer I Poompuhar is one of the oldest towns in
visit my home town. ancient Tamilagam. This is the place where
Teacher: Excellent! Can you tell me well known characters of Silapathikaram,
the difference between Kadavur and Kovalan and Kannagi lived. It was also a port
Chennai? town along the Bay of Bengal. The ports
were established for facilitating maritime
Tamilini: Kadavur is a village. Chennai
trade. Even in times past, countries began
is a city.
to export their surplus products and import
Teacher: Excellent! the scarce commodities by sea. Poompuhar
Teacher: Can you tell what were the is one such historic port that emerged in
earliest planned cities of ancient India? the wake of increasing maritime trade.
Students: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, It is a coastal town near the present-day
ma’m. Mayiladuthurai and is located where the
Teacher: Yes. Very good children. Today river Cauvery drains into the sea.
we are going to study about the ancient Poompuhar Port
towns of Tamilagam. They are Poompuhar,
Madurai, Kanchi. Shall we start? Poompuhar was also known by names
such as Puhar and Kaveripoompattinam.
Students: Ok ma’m.
It served as the port of the early Chola
Teacher: See we have started today’s
kingdom. One of the popular Sangam
lesson with Tamilini’s birthday. Literature. Pattinappaalai and Tamil epics,
Students: Yes mam. Silappathikaram and Manimegalai, have
references to the brisk sea-borne trade
that took place in the port city, Puhar.
Mesopotamian
Silappathikaram, in
civilisation is the
particular, speaks about
earliest civilisation in
the greatness of
the world. It is 6500
Poompuhar. The lead
years old.
female character of
162
Madurai
Madurai has been one of the oldest cities in
India. Its antiquity can be understood from
the sobriquet “Sangam Valartha Nagaram”
it has earned.
Pandyas, the Cholas and later the
Kalabras ruled Madurai in the ancient
period. During medieval times, later
Cholas and later Pandyas followed by
the Nayaks ruled this historic town. This
has resulted in cultural blending. Trade last Sangam. Ahil, fragrant wood, was
flourished and evidence for this has been brought from Port Thondi to Madurai.
unearthed in archaeological excavation King Solomon of ancient Israel imported
done in Keezhadi near Madurai. pearls from Uvari near the Pandyan port,
Madurai is proudly associated with Korkai.
tamil sangam (academies), which worked A mint of Roman coins was present
for the promotion of Tamil language. at Madurai. The coins of other countries
Forty-nine poets were associated with the were also minted at Madurai, which is a
proof for the glory of Madurai.
Thoonga Nagaram
The fame of Madurai is attested by
the accounts of the Greek historian
Megasthanese. Chanakya, Chandragupta’s
minister, makes a mention of Madurai in
his book, Arthasastra.
In the moat around the town, tunnels
had been constructed in such a way that
even elephants could comfortably enter.
Madurai had Naalangadi and
Allangadi. Kanchi
Naalangadi – Day Market. A place of learning is called school. Several
Allangadi – Evening Market. schools were established in great numbers
Madurai is known as Thoonga for the first time in Kancheepuram. Jains
Nagaram (the city that never studied in Jainapalli, and Buddhists
sleeps). Madurai was a safe studied in Viharas.
place where women purchased The greatness of Kanchi as an
things from Allangadi without educational centre can be understood
any fear. from the fact that the Chinese traveller
Hieun Tsang who studied at Nalanda
164
Hieun Tsang
165
Summary
))Madurai, Kanchi and Poompuhar are • Foreigner - a person who
famous towns in ancient Tamilagam. comes from
))We know about the life of the another country
people of Poompuhar by reading • Blending - the mixings
Silappathikaram and Pattinappaalai.
• Integrity - the quality of being
))Madurai is associated with three
honest
sangams.
• Legitimate - reasonable prices
))Kanchi was an educational centre.
prices
Many great scholars were associated
• Antiquity - a long time ago
with it.
166
167
168
Poompuhar was located Name the ancient city Name a Sangam literary
on which river bank? which had Tamil Sangam. work.
Ans: Ans: Ans:
X. Life Skill
1. Make a handout that shows the importance of the place where you live.
169
Unit 1
Society and Culture in
Ancient Tamizhagam:
The Sangam Age
Learning Objectives
• To understand that Sangam Tamil literature is the main source for the study of
ancient Tamil society
• To know the rule of Muvendars (Three Great Kings) – the Chera, Chola and the
Pandya kings – and their contemporary minor chieftains
• To gain an understanding of the administrative system and the socio-economic
conditions of Tamizhagam
• To learn about the Kalabhra period
Sources
Inscriptions Hathigumpha Inscription of King Karavela of Kalinga,
Pugalur (near Karur) Inscription, Ashokan Edicts II and
XIII, and inscriptions found at Mangulam, Alagarmalai
and Kilavalavu (all near Madurai)
Copper Plates Velvikudi and Chinnamanur copper plates
87
Tholkappiyam is a work on Tamil grammar. It represents the quality of Tamil language and the
culture of Tamil people of the Sangam Age.
Culture Megalithic
Polity Kingship
88
Cholas
Prominent Chola Rulers
The Chola kingdom of Sangam period Ilanchetsenni
extended upto Venkatam (Tirupathi) KarikalValavan
hills. The Kaveri delta region remained Kocengannan
the central part of the kingdom. This KilliValavan
area was later known as Cholamandalam. Perunarkilli
KarikalValavan or Karikalan was the most
89
Pala
r
S.
Pen
Marakkanam
nar
Arikamedu
Ka
ve
ri Kaveripumpattinam
C H O L A S
Urayur Nagapattinam
Musiri
Pe
riya
r S
A
Y
D Va
N Madurai igai
CH
A
P
ER
Tama Alagankulam
rapa
rani
AS
Korkai
R
I
L A
Kanyakumari
N
K
A
90
Royal Insignia
Sceptre (kol), drum (murasu) and white umbrella (venkudai) were used as the symbols
of royal authority.
Tiger
Pandyas Margosa Korkai Madurai
(neem) flower
Two Fish
the disputes. The income to the state was (shield), tomaram (lance), spears, bows and
through taxation. Land tax was the main arrows. Tomaram is mentioned as a missile
source of revenue and it was called ‘Irai’. to be thrown at the enemy from a distance.
This apart, the state collected tolls and The place where the weapons were kept
customs (sungam), tributes and fines. was known as paddaikottil. The forts were
The kings and soldiers wore the protected by deep moats and trenches. The
heroic anklet (Veera kazhal). On the anklet, war drum was worshipped as a deity.
the name and achievement of the wearer
Law and Justice
were blazoned. Spies were used not only
to find out what was happening within the The king was the final authority for appeal.
country, but also in foreign countries. In the capital town, the court of justice was
A wound in the back was considered called Avai. In the villages, Mandram served
a disgrace and there are instances of as the place for dispensing justice. In civil
kings fasting unto death because they cases, the method of trial followed was to
had suffered such a wound in the battle. call upon the plaintiff to thrust his hand
into a pot containing a cobra. If the cobra
The Court bit him, he was sentenced; if the cobra did
not bite him he was considered innocent
The king’s court was called Arasavai. The
and acquitted. Punishment was always
king occupied a ceremonious throne in the
severe. Execution was ordered for theft
court called Ariyanai. In the court, the king
cases. The punishment awarded for other
was surrounded by officials, distinguished
crimes included beheading, mutilation of
visitors and court poets. The rulers had
the offending limbs of the body, torture
five-fold duties. They were encouraging
and imprisonment and imposition of fines.
learning, performing rituals, presenting
gifts, protecting people and punishing the
criminals. Ambassadors were employed by Local Administration
the kings. They played a significant role. The The entire kingdom was called Mandalam.
king was assisted by a number of officials. Mandalam was divided into Nadus . Kurrm
They were divided into Aimperunguzhu was subdivision of Nadu. The Ur was a
(five-member committee) and Enberaayam village, classified into perur (big village),
(eight-member group). Sirur (a small village) and Mudur (an old
village) depending upon its population,
Army
size and antiquity. Pattinam was the
The king’s army consisted of four divisions, name for a coastal town and Puhar was
namely, infantry, cavalry, elephants and the general term for harbour town.
chariot force. The army was known as
‘Padai’. The chief of the army was known Important Towns
as Thanaithalaivan. The prominent weapons Puhar, Uraiyur, Korkai, Madurai, Muziri,
used during this period were sword, kedayam Vanji or Karur and Kanchi.
92
Eco-region
(thinai) Landscape Occupation People Deity
Kurinji Palmyra flower Hunting /gathering Kuravar/kurathiyar Murugan
Mullai Forest region Herding Aayar/aaichiyar Maayon
Marutham Riverine track Agriculture Uzhavan/uzhathiyar Indiran
(plains)
Neithal Coastal region Fishing/saltmaking Parathavar/ nulathiyar Varunan
Palai Parched land Heroic deeds Maravar/Marathiyar Kotravai
Land was classified according to its Sangam period were Sivan, Mayon (Vishnu),
fertility. Marutham was called menpulam Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai. The Hero
(fertile land). It produced paddy and stone (natukkal) worship was in practice.
sugarcane. The rest of the landscape, Buddhism and Jainism also co-existed.
excluding Neithal, was called vanpulam
Veerakkal/Natukkal
(hard land), and it produced pulses and dry
grains. The ancient Tamils had a great respect
for the heroes who died in the battle
Status of Women field. The hero stones were erected to
commemorate heroes who sacrificed their
There was no restriction for women in
lives in war.
social life. There were learned and wise
women. Forty women poets had lived
and left behind their valuable works.
Marriage was a matter of self-choice.
However, chastity (karpu) was considered
the highest virtue of women. Sons and
daughters had equal shares in their
parents’ property.
Caste did not develop in
Women Poets of Sangam Age Tamizhagam as it did in the northern
Avvaiyar, VelliVeethiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar, India. Varuna system (occupation-based
AathiManthiyar, PonMudiyar.
caste) came to the Dravidian south
comparatively late.
Religious Beliefs and Social
Divisions Dress and Ornaments
The primary deity of the Tamils was Seyon The rich people wore muslin, silk and fine
or Murugan. Other gods worshipped during cotton garments. The common people
93
94
95
Elsewhere
GLOSSARY
96
EXERCISE.
I. Choose the correct answer
c. The earliest literature of the Sangam age was written mostly in the form of prose.
a. 1 only
c. 2 only
97
V. Match
Thennar
a. Cheras
Vanavar
b. Cholas
Senni
c. Velir
Adiyaman
d. Pandyas
Name any two literary sources to reconstruct the history of ancient Tamizhagam.
1.
What was Natukkal or Virakkal?
2.
98
VIII. HOTs
Mark and colour the extent of Chera, Chola and Pandya empires on the river map
1.
of South India.
X. Life skill
Collect and paste the pictures of landscape and find out the eco-region to which it
belongs. Write the important crops grown and occupation of the people there.
XI Answer Grid
Mention two epics of Name the two groups of Name any two women
the Sangam period. officials who assisted the poets of the Sangam
Ans: king. period.
Ans: Ans:
99
Hero Stones
Hero stones are memorials erected for
those who lost their lives in the battles and
in cattle raids. As cattle were considered Hero stone-Pulimankombai
The Muvendhar
Among the political powers of the A Chera coin with bow and arrow,
Sangam Age, the Cheras, the Cholas and the and an elephant goad on the obverse
Pandyas occupied pre-eminent positions. and elephant on the reverse
They were known as Muvendhar (the three
kings). The muvendhar controlled the major
towns and ports of the Sangam period.
The Cheras
The Cheras, referred to as
Keralaputras in the Ashokan inscriptions,
controlled the region of present-day
Kerala and also the western parts of Tamil Chola Coins with a tiger on the
Nadu. Vanci was the capital of the Cheras obverse, elephant and the sacred
while Muciri and Thondi were their port symbols on the reverse
towns. Vanci is identified with Karur in
Tamil Nadu while some others identify
it with Thiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala.
Pathirtruppathu speaks about the Chera
kings and their territory. The Cheras
wore garlands made from the flowers of
the palm tree. The inscriptions of Pugalur
near Karur mention the Chera kings of Sangam Age Pandya coin
three generations. Coins of Chera kings with fish symbol
have been found in Karur.
The Silappathikaram speaks about
Cheran Senguttuvan, who built a temple of Bengal. Pattinappaalai
for Kannagi, the protagonist of the epic. is a long poem about
The bow and arrow was the symbol of Kaveripoompattinam
the Cheras. Legend has it that Ilango who composed by the
composed the Silappathikaram, was the poet Ka d iy a lu r
brother of Cheran Senguttuvan. U r u t h i r a n k a n n a n a r.
Silappathikaram describes
the trading activities at Kaveripoompattinam.
The Cholas Karikalan is notable among the Chola kings
The Cholas ruled over the Kaveri delta and is credited with bringing forestlands
and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Their under the plough and developing irrigation
capital was Uraiyur and their port town facilities by effectively utilising the water
was Kaveripoompattinam or Pumpuhar, from the river Kaveri. The foundation for the
where the river Kaveri drains into the Bay extensive harnessing of water for irrigation
Women
3.4 Society in Sangam Age
Women are frequently referred to
Many of the communities of the Iron in Tamil texts as mothers, heroines, and
Age society were organised as tribes, and foster-mothers. Women from Panar
some of them were Chiefdoms. The Sangam families, dancers, poets, and royal women
Age society was a society in transition from were all portrayed in Sangam literature.
There are references to women from all five
3.5 Economy
Paddy grains collected from Porunthal
The economy was mixed as elaborated excavations
in the Thinai concept. People practiced
agriculture, pastoralism, trade and
money exchange, hunting-gathering, and
fishing depending upon the eco-zones in
which they lived.
Primary Production
Agriculture was one of the main
sources of subsistence. Crops like paddy,
sugarcane, millets were cultivated. Both Different types of pottery from
wet and dry land farming were practiced. Porunthal excavations.
In the riverine and tank-irrigated areas,
paddy was cultivated. Millets were
cultivated in dry lands. Varieties of rice
such as sennel (red rice), vennel (white
rice), and aivananel (a type of rice) are
mentioned in the literature. Rice grains
were found in burial urns at excavations
in Adichanallur and Porunthal. People
in the forest adopted punam or shifting Russet coated painted pottery with
cultivation. wavy line decoration
Pastoralism – nomadic people earning
livelihood by rearing cattle, sheep, and goat.
Gold
ornament axe
Glass Beads
The presence of glass beads at the
sites reveals that people of the Sangam
Age knew how to make glass beads. Glass
material (silica) was melted in a furnace
and drawn into long tubes which were then
cut into small beads. Glass beads came in
various shapes and colour. Arikkamedu
and Kudikkadu, near Cuddalore show Textile and
evidence of glass beads industry. It is spindle whorls
possible that people who could not afford A spindle whorl, from Kodumanal
precious stones used glass beads instead. Pattanam
Emergence of towns
3.6
and ports
The Sangam Age saw the first
urbanization in Tamilagam. Cities
developed and they had brick buildings,
roof tiles, ring wells and planned towns,
streets, and store houses. The towns
worked as ports and artisanal centres.
Arikkamedu, Kaveripoompattinam,
Ceramic Jars from Tamilagam with Azhagankulam and Korkai on the east
preserved pepper, Berenike, Egypt coast and Pattanam in Kerala were port
centres. Kanchipuram, Uraiyur, Karur,
Madurai and Kodumanal were inland
trade centres.
Many goods and commodities
were produced in these centres and were
exported to various regions. Though
few in number, large towns appeared in
the Sangam Age. Small villages however
were found in many areas. Bronze vessels,
beads, shell bangles, glass beads, pottery
Pottery with the name “Cattan” with names of people written in Tamil-
Brahmi script were found at these sites.
Human
skeleton
from
Kodumanal
Brick Structures at
Keezhadi
Tamil-Brahmi Script
used in the Sangam Age for writing the Tamil Language
SUMMARY
Primary production and exchange and social relationships in the landscapes and
mercantile activities across the seas led to urbanization and development of culture
paving way for the development of literature during this period.
The texts were compiled through the Tamil Academies (Sangam) at a later date.
The Thinai concept is a distinct classification of land and people as elaborated in
Tholkappiyam.
The Sangam age witnessed the transition from tribal society to kingdom-centred
polities.
Sea borne trade with the Indian Ocean regions developed.
Large towns with buildings made of bricks appeared in Tamil country.
The society was diverse in nature.
EXERCISE
7. (i) Pathitrupathu speaks about the 1. a) Evidence of iron smelting has been
Pandya kings and their territory. found in Kodumanal and Guttur.
(ii) The Akanaanuru describes the b) Periplus of Erythren Sea mentions
t r a d i ng a c t iv it i e s at about the pepper trade with India.
Kaveripoompattinum. c) Punch marked coins are the
(iii) The Chola Emblem was the tiger earliest coins used in India mostly
and they issued square copper coins made of gold.
with images of a tiger. d) The Sangam Age has its roots in
(iv) Neythal is a sandy desert region. the Bronze Age.
a) (i) is correct 2. a) The Cheras ruled over Kaveri delta
and their capital was Uraiyur.
b) (ii) and (iii) is correct
b) The Maangulam Tamil-Brahmi
c) (iii) is correct inscriptions mention the King
d) (iv) is correct Karikalan.
II. Fill in the blanks c) The terms Vanikan and Nigama
1. ___________ are documents appear in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
scripted on stones, copper plates, were different types of merchants.
coins and rings d) Salt merchants were called
2. ___________ refers to systematically Vanikars and they travelled in
digging a site to recover material bullock carts along with their family.
evidence for exploring societies of
the past
ENGLISH GLOSSARY
Estampage - the process of making copies of inscriptions using paper
and ink.
a collection of texts
Corpus -
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. கா. இராசன். த�ொல்லியல் ந�ோக்கில் சங்ககாலம், உலகத் தமிழாராய்ச்சி நிறுவனம்.
2. Champakalakshmi, R. Archaeology and Tamil Literary Tradition. Puratattva
3. Rajan Gurukkal. Social Formation in South India. Oxford University Press.
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. https://www.britannica.com
2. https://sangamtamilliterature.wordpress.com
3. http://www.archeologia.univ.
NOTES
To understand the social and political formation in early south India from the
third century BCE to the fifth century CE
Introduction
Stupas. The stupa is a heap of clay
In the Deccan region, encompassing major that evolved out of earthen funerary
parts of present day Andhra, Karnataka and mounds, in which the ashes of the dead
Maharashtra, the Satavahanas established a were buried. Buddhist stupas evolved
powerful kingdom in the first century BCE. out of the burial of the ashes of the
In the south, the three family ruling houses, mortal remains of the Buddha. Buddhist
the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas sacred architecture originated with
were their contemporaries, ruling the fertile the eight stupas where the ashes were
parts of Tamizhagam. But the Tamil rulers divided. Hemispherical shape, the stupa
started two centuries earlier as they figure symbolizes the universe; and the Buddha
in Asoka’s inscriptions of the third century represents the emperor of the spiritual
BCE. There were many common things as universe. The stupa has a path around it
for devotional circumambulation.
well as differences in the polity and society
of the Deccan and Tamil regions.
Sources The coins issued by the Cheras, Cholas,
Archaeological Pandyas, and the chieftains of the
Sangam Age.
The megalithic burials sites of the
early historic period. Roman copper, silver and gold coins.
Excavated material from ancient
sites, including ports, capital towns, Epigraphic
with architectural remains, such as in The Asokan inscriptions, written in Prakrit,
Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Alagankulam, found in Andhra-Karnataka regions.
and Uraiyur.
The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in
Buddhist sites with stupas and chaityas
the caves of Tamil Nadu and Kerala such
located in Andhra and Karnataka regions
as in Mangulam, Jambai, and Pugalur.
(Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, etc.)
The Satavahana inscriptions and other
Numismatic Buddhist inscriptions of the Andhra
Coins of pre-Satavahana chieftains region
and of the Satavahanas from Andhra- Short inscriptions found on pottery
Karnataka region. and rings and stones in Tamil Nadu
78
and some sites outside India, like Foreign Notices
in Berenike, and Quseir al Qadhim The following Greek and Latin sources
(Egypt). inform us about the long distance cultural
and commercial connections.
Literary
The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient
Tamil texts including the Sangam and Greek text of the first century CE.
post-Sangam literature Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, first
The Arthasastra, the treatise on century CE
economy and statecraft authored by Ptolemy’s Geography, second century
Kautilya CE
The Puranas which mention the Vienna Papyrus G 40822, a Greek
genealogy of the Andhras/Satavahanas, document datable to the second
Buddhist Chronicles such as century CE.
Mahavamsa. A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table
Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text
composed by the Satavahana king Hala
5.1 South India during
Classical Tamil Literature
Mauryan times
The Classical Sangam corpus consists The Asokan edicts (c. 270-30 BCE) present
of Tholkappiyam, the eight anthologies for the first time a picture of the political
(Ettuththokai), Paththuppattu. Tholkappiyam, condition in south India. Rock Edict II lists
attributed to Tholkappiyar, is the earliest the Tamil ruling houses Cholas, Pandyas,
extant Tamil grammatical text dealing not Keralaputras and Satiyaputra as neighbour
only with poetry but also the society and rulers, lying beyond his domain, where
culture of the times. The Pathinen Kilkanakku he is said to have made provision for
(18 minor works) and the five epics belong to two types of medical treatment: medical
post-Sangam times (fourth to sixth century treatment for both humans and animals.
CE) and describe a different social and The Mauryan empire at that time included
cultural set-up. northern parts of Karnataka and Andhra,
Ettuthogai and Pathupattu collections have about 2400 poems. These poems, varying in length
from 3 to 800 lines, were composed by panar, the wandering bards and pulavar, the poets.
The Eight Anthologies are 1. Natrinai; 2. Kurunthogai; 3. Aingurunuru; 4. Patitruppathu;
5. Paripadal; 6. Kalithogai; 7. Akananuru; 8. Purananuru
Pathupattu (ten long songs): 1. Thirumurugatrupatai; 2. Porunaratrupatai;
3. Sirupanatruppatai; 4. Perumpanatruppatai; 5. Mullaipattu; 6. Maduraikanchi;
7. Nedunalvadai; 8. Kurinjipattu; 9. Pattinappalai; 10. Malaipadukadam.
Patinen Kilkanakku texts, which are post-Sangam works, include eighteen texts, which mostly deal
with ethics and moral codes. The most important of them are Thirukkural, and Naladiyar.
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai are the two important epics useful for insights into cultural and
religious history.
SATAVAHANA EMPIRE
Malwa
Avanti Ujjayani
Saurashtra Utkala Tripuri
Junagadh Bharuch
Girnar Anupa
Vidarbha ga
Nasik lin Sisupalpuri
Kalyan Muluka Ka
Pratishthan
Sopara Bay of
Asmaka
Arabian Bengal
Sea
Amravati
Andama
L a k sha d weep
(I n dia)
n and Nicob
(I n d ia)
ar
Indian Ocean
80 Evolution of Soc
i ety in South India
Gautamiputra Satakarni
was the greatest of the
Satavahana kings. He
defeated the Shaka
ruler Nahapana and
reissued the coins of
Nahapana with his own royal insignia.
The inscription of his mother Gautami
Balashri at Nashik mentions him as the
conqueror of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Naneghat inscription
Yavanas. He is also said to have performed
the prestigious Vedic asvamedha sacrifice. Buddhists and Brahmins. The Naneghat
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, the inscription refers to tax exemptions given
successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni, to the lands granted to Buddhist monks.
expanded the frontiers of the Satavahana Thus we notice the beginning of priestly
Empire. The coins issued by him are found groups attaining higher status. These land
scattered in many parts of south India. donations created a group of people who
Yagnashri Satakarni was another famous did not cultivate, but owned land. This led
ruler who issued coins with a ship motif, to the development of land-based social
indicating the importance of the overseas hierarchy and divisions in the society.
trade during his reign. For the first time a big state covering
a major part of the Deccan was established.
Several rock-cut caves dedicated to the
Buddha sangha bear evidence that they
were situated in the trade routes linking
the interior to the coastal parts of Konkan
region. It was also a period of brisk Indo-
Roman trade.
84 Evolution of Soc
i ety in South India
Peru Vazhuthi distinguished themselves
from the ordinary people and the Velirs.
The patronization of bards and
poets and entertaining them in their courts
(avaiyam) was probably a step undertaken
by the kings to glorify their name and
fame and also their territories and towns.
For example, the Chola king Karikalan is
said to have offered a huge amount of gold
coins to Uruttirankannanar who composed
Pattinappalai.
86 Evolution of Soc
i ety in South India
Tamil culture disappeared in this interval.
This idea of the Kalabhra interregnum is
no more accepted as correct.
Rather this is the time when the
greatest Tamil work Tirukkural was written
along with many other works grouped
as the eighteen minor works. The epics
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai also
belong to this period. As this was the time
when the non-orthodox religions, Jainism
and Buddhism became more influential,
Buddha Statue, Nagarjunakonda
the scholars of the orthodox Vedic-
Puranic school seem to have created the
impression that the ruling Kalabhras of
Jains contributed substantially to Tamil the time were evil in nature.
literature. The recent interpretation of the
period takes it as a period of transition
leading to enlarged state societies under the
5.8 Age of Kalabhras - Post
Pallavas ruling over northern Tamilnadu
Sangam Period and the Pandyas in the south from the sixth
The period between the Sangam Age century onwards. To start with, the rulers
and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly of these new states were patrons of the Jain
between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known and Buddhist religions and gradually they
as the age of Kalabhras in the history of came under the spell of the orthodox Vedic-
Tamizhagam. As the three traditional Puranic religion emerging in the form of the
kingdoms disappeared in this interval Bhakti cults of Saivism and Vaishnavism. But
due to the occupation of their territory the influence of Jain and Buddhist religions
by a warlike group called the Kalabhras, on the general society was so strong as to
this period was called an interregnum or evoke much aversion from the Bhakti saints.
'dark age' by earlier historians. It was also
supposed that many good traits of earlier
The history of south India can be traced clearly from about the third century
BCE, as script was adopted for writing Tamil, and written evidence in the form
inscriptions and literature are available.
Economic development with agro-pastoral expansion characterised the Early
Historic Period.
The Cheras, Cholas, and the Pandyas, who were at the level of chiefdoms in the
Iron Age, became kings with the title of Vendar in the Sangam Age.
The Satavahanas who ruled Andhra, Karnataka and Maharashtra regions were
contemporary rulers.
Buddhism and Jainism had a strong presence in south India. Vedic ideas started
to influence the ruling class.
Sea-borne trade in the Indian Ocean regions and with the Roman world developed.
The idea of Kalabhra interregnum is contested as cultural activities continued as
before in this period.
EXERCISE
88 Evolution of Soc
i ety in South India
5. Ikshavakus wielded power in _________.
(a) Andhra-Karnataka region (b) Odisha
(c) Deccan region (d) Banavasi
Activity
1. Deliberations on various ideas articulated in Thirukkural
2. Visit to ancient port-towns in the neighbourhood to compile an account of the ruins and the
memories of the local people there.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. R.Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization in South India. Oxford
University Press, 1996.
2. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India. Oxford University Press, 1955.
3. Noboru Karashima, ed., A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.
Oxford University Press, 2014.
4. Rajan Gurukkal, Social Formation in South India. Oxford University Press, 2009.
5. Romila Thapar, Early India. Penguin.
6. R. Sathyanathier, History of India, Vol. I, 1972 (Reprint).
7. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval South India. Pearson
Longman, 2009.
90 Evolution of Soc
i ety in South India
அலகு
கற்றல் ந�ோக்கங்கள்
• பண்பாடு என்ற ச�ொல்லின் ப�ொருள் அறிதல்.
• தமிழரின் த�ொன்மை மற்றும் மாண்புகளை அறிதல்.
• தமிழ் வளர்த்த முச்சங்கங்கள் பற்றித் தெரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• தமிழரின் அகப்புறவாழ்க்கை முறையை அறிதல்.
• பண்டைய தமிழகத்தின் நிலவியல் பகுப்பு முறைகளைத் தெரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
தமிழகம் அயல்நாடுகளுடன்
மேற்கொண்டிருந்த வணிக உறவானது தமிழரின்
நாகரிகம், பண்பாடு, கலை ஆகியவற்றின்
வளர்ச்சிக்கு உதவின.
த�ொல்பொருள் சான்றுகள்
பட்டயங்கள்
பழங்கால நாணயங்கள்
அவை பிராகிருதம�ொழியிலும்,
முதலாம் இராஜராஜன் காலத்தில்
வடம�ொழியிலும், தமிழிலும் காணப்படுகின்றன.
வெளியிடப்பட்ட நாணயங்களில், புலியும்
வேள்விக்குடிப் பட்டயம், தளவாய்புரச்செப்பேடு,
அதனருகில் இரட்டை மீன் க�ொண்ட வடிவங்களும்
நினைவுச் சின்னங்கள்
ப�ொழுது
திணை நிலம் உரிப்பொருள்
சிறுப�ொழுது பெரும்பொழுது
மலையும் மலை கூதிர், புணர்தலும் புணர்தல்
குறிஞ்சி யாமம்
சார்ந்த இடமும் முன்பனி நிமித்தமும்
காடும் காடு இருத்தலும் இருத்தல்
முல்லை மாலை கார்
சார்ந்த இடமும் நிமித்தமும்
கார், கூதிர்,
முன்பனி,
வயலும் வயல் ஊடலும் ஊடல்
மருதம் வைகறை பின்பனி,
சார்ந்த இடமும் நிமித்தமும்
இளவேனில்,
முதுவேனில்
கார், கூதிர்,
முன்பனி,
கடலும் கடல் இரங்கலும் இரங்கல்
நெய்தல் எற்பாடு பின்பனி,
சார்ந்த இடமும் நிமித்தமும்
இளவேனில்,
முதுவேனில்
மணலும் இளவேனில்,
பிரிதலும் பிரிதல்
பாலை மணல் சார்ந்த நண்பகல் முதுவேனில்,
நிமித்தமும்
இடமும் பின்பனி
10
11
ஆட்சி பசய்த
குறுநில மனனர்கள் வள்ளல் தனழம
பகுதி
12
மதிப்பீடு
இ) த�ொல்காப்பியர் ஈ) வ.உ.சிதம்பரனார்
நிலம் - சிறுப�ொழுது
அ) குறிஞ்சி - யாமம்
ஆ) முல்லை - மாலை
இ) மருதம் - வைகறை
ஈ ) பாலை - எற்பாடு
4. ப�ொருத்துக
அ) த�ொண்டி - 1. முஸிரிஸ்
ஆ) முசிறி - 2. க�ொமாரி
இ) ப�ொற்காடு - 3. திண்டிஸ்
ஈ) குமரி - 4. பகரி
13
இ) அகஸ்டின் ஈ) ஹிப்பாகிரேட்டஸ்
அ) 5 ஆ) 7 இ) 9 ஈ)10
14
சிறுவினா
7. வள்ளன்மை – குறிப்புவரைக.
நெடுவினா
15
கற்றல் ந�ோக்கங்கள்
• சங்ககாலம் ஒரு வாழ்வியல் ப�ொற்காலம் என அறிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• சங்க இலக்கியங்கள்வழி வாழ்வியல் விழுமியங்களை அறிதல்.
• உலகப் ப�ொதுமறையான திருக்குறள் மூலம் வாழ்வின் பெருமைகளைத் தெரிந்து
க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• தமிழ் இலக்கியங்களின்வழி வாழ்வியலில் பெண்களின் நிலையை அறிதல்.
• தமிழ் இலக்கியங்கள் உணர்த்தும் வாழ்வியல் நெறிமுறைகளைப் புரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• இதிகாசங்கள் மற்றும் காப்பியங்களில் கூறப்பட்ட வாழ்வியல் அறநெறிகளைப் புரிந்து
க�ொள்ளுதல்.
33
34
நட்பு
உள்ளத்தால் ஒன்றியவர்களுக்கிடையில்
த�ோன்றும் அன்பின் உறவே நட்பாகும். மனித
உறவுகளில் மிகவும் பெருமை உடையதாகக்
கருதப்படுவது நட்பு. நட்பின் பெருமையைச் சங்க
இலக்கியங்கள் ப�ோற்றிப் பதிவுசெய்துள்ளன.
ஒருவருடைய உயர்வுக்கு உழைப்பும், விடா அதியமான்-ஔவையார்
முயற்சியும் காரணமாக இருப்பதுப�ோல, நல்லோர்
அரிதாகக் கிடைத்த நெல்லிக்கனியை
நட்பும் காரணமாக அமைகிறது.
ஔவைக்குக் க�ொடுத்த அதியமான்,
நட்பின் இயல்பு குறித்து க�ோப்பெருஞ்சோழன�ோடு வடக்கிருந்து உயிர்விட்ட
பிசிராந்தையார், பாரியின் இன்ப துன்பங்களைப்
உயிர்ஓர் அன்ன செயிர் தீர் நட்பின் பகிர்ந்துக�ொண்ட கபிலர் ப�ோன்றோரை நட்பிற்கு
(நற்றிணை 72: 3) இலக்கணங்களாகச் சங்க இலக்கியங்கள் பதிவு
……….. யாக்கைக்கு செய்துள்ளன.
உயிர் இயைந்து அன்ன நட்பின்
உதவி
(அகநானூறு 339: 11-12)
பிறருக்கு உதவுதல் என்பதைச் சிறந்த
எனச் சங்கப்பாடல்கள் குறிப்பிடுகின்றன.
அறமாகச் சங்க இலக்கியங்கள்
எலியைப்போல் சிறிய முயற்சி உடையவர�ோடு
எடுத்துரைக்கின்றன.
நட்புக் க�ொள்வதினும் புலியைப்போன்ற வலிமையும்
முயற்சியும் உடையவருடன் நட்புக் க�ொள்வதே “பிறர்நோயும் தம்நோய்போல் ப�ோற்றி அறன்அறிதல்
சாலச் சிறந்தது என்பதனை, சான்றவர்க்கு எல்லாம் கடன்”.
(கலித்தொகை.139:2-3)
35
36
38
40
41
42
44
46
47
48
49
நிறைவுரை
50
அ) குறுந்தொகை ஆ) நற்றிணை
இ) அகநானூறு ஈ) புறநானூறு
அ) ஔவையார் ஆ) ஆதிமந்தியார்
இ) காரைக்கால்அம்மையார் ஈ) நப்பசலையார்
ஆ) க
ணவனுக்கும் மனைவிக்கும் பெரும் ப�ொருள் க�ொடுத்து இல்லற வாழ்வில்
இணைத்து வைத்த செல்லாச் செல்வன்.
அ) நாலடியார் ஆ) குறுந்தொகை
இ) இன்னாநாற்பது ஈ) திருக்குறள்
அ) வாக்குத்தவறாமை - 1. சபரி
ஆ) செயல்வீரர் - 2. குகன்
இ) நட்பு - 3. அனுமன்
ஈ) விருந்து - 4. தசரதர்
51
அ) பாண்டு - 1. காந்தாரி
ஆ) இராமன் - 2. மண்டோதரி
இ) இராவணன் - 3. சீதை
ஈ) திருதராட்டிரன் - 4. குந்தி
52
உங்களுக்குத் தெரியுமா?
53
4 தமிழர் கலைகள்
கற்றல் ந�ோக்கங்கள்
• தமிழர் கலைகளைப் பற்றி அறிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• க�ோயில் அமைப்பின் தத்துவத்தைத் தெரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்
• சிற்பக் கலையின் வகைகளை அறிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• ஓவியங்களின் வாயிலாகப் பழங்காலச் செய்திகளைப் புரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• இசைத்தமிழின் பெருமைகளை அறியச் செய்தல்.
• நடனக் கலையின் சிறப்புகளைத் தெரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• தமிழகக் க�ோயில் கலை நுட்பங்களையும் த�ொழில் நுணுக்கங்களையும் அறிந்து
க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• தமிழர்களின் வீரவிளையாட்டுகளைத் தெரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
மரக்கட்டடங்கள்
55
கறறைளிகள்
56
ஸ்தூபி 1
சிகரம் 2
57
58
நார்த்தாமலைக் க�ோயில்
60
61
பிரதிமைகள்
உல�ோகப் பிரதிமை
பல்லவர் காலம்
62
ச�ோழர் காலம்
63
தஞ்சாவூர் நந்தி
நடராஜர் உல�ோகத் திருமேனி
செப்புத் திருமேனிகள்
விஜயநகர மற்றும் நாயக்கர் காலம்
தமிழர்கள் உலகத்திற்கு வழங்கிய
நன்கொடை, செப்புத்திருமேனிகள். சங்க விஜயநகர மன்னர்கள் கட்டடக்கலையில்
காலத்திலும் உல�ோகச் சிற்பங்கள் க�ொண்டிருந்த ஆர்வம் சிற்பக்கலையிலும்
இருந்திருக்கலாம் என்ற செய்தியை வெளிப்பட்டது. க�ோபுரங்களிலும், க�ோயில்
மதுரைக்காஞ்சி, குறுந்தொகை, பட்டினப்பாலை விமானங்களிலும் ஏராளமான சிற்பங்களை
64
65
66
சுவர் ஓவியங்கள்
இலக்கியங்கள், சுவர் ஓவியங்களைப்
பற்றிப் பெரிதும் பேசுகின்றன. உதயணனின்
பள்ளியறைச் சுவர் ஓவியம் பற்றியும்,
க�ோப்பெருந்தேவியின் பள்ளியறைச் சுவர்
ஓவியங்கள் பற்றியும் இலக்கியங்களில் காணலாம்.
பாண்டியன் நன்மாறன், தனது சித்திர மாடத்தில்
இருந்த ப�ொழுது உயிர் துறந்தமையால்
“பாண்டியன் சித்திர மாடத்துத்துஞ்சிய
நன்மாறன்” என அழைக்கப்பட்டதைப்
புறநானூற்றில் மாங்குடி மருதனார்
குறிப்பிடுகின்றார். நக்கீரரும் தமது தஞ்சாவூர் சுவர் ஓவியம்
நெடுநல்வாடையில் பாண்டியனின்
சித்திரமாடத்தைப் பற்றிக் கூறுகிறார். துகில�ோவியம்
திருப்பரங்குன்ற க�ோயில் மண்டபத்தில் “எழு ‘படம்’ என்ற ச�ொல் ‘படாம்’ என்ற
த�ொழில் அம்பலம்” என்ற பெயரில் ஓவியச்சாலை ச�ொல்லில் இருந்து த�ோன்றியது. படாம்
இருந்த செய்தியினைப் பரிபாடலின் மூலம் என்பதற்குத் துணி என்று ப�ொருள். பழங்காலத்தில்
அறியலாம். இங்கு இரதி, காமன், பூனை வடிவம் துணிகளில் ஓவியங்களை வரைந்தார்கள்.
க�ொண்ட இந்திரன், அகலிகை, கெளதம முனிவர் அவற்றிற்குச் சித்திரப்படாம், சித்திரத்திரை என்று
முதலான ஓவியங்கள் இங்குக் காணப்பட்ட பெயர். சித்திரம் எழுதும் க�ோலுக்குத் துகிலிகை
செய்தியினை இலக்கியங்களில் காணலாம். இந்த என்று பெயர். மணிமேகலையில், சீத்தலைச்
”எழு த�ொழில் அம்பலம்” பிற்காலத்தில் அழிந்தது. சாத்தனார் காவிரிப் பூம்பட்டினத்து உவவனம்
உதயணனின் பள்ளியறைச் சுவர்களில் ஓவியங்கள் என்னும் ச�ோலையின் காட்சி சித்திரப்படாம்
வரையப்பட்டிருந்த காட்சியைப் பெருங்கதையில் ப�ோன்று அழகுடன் காணப்பட்டது என்கிறார்.
காணலாம். திருச்சி மாவட்டத்தின் தக்க நாட்டிலே ஆங்காங்கே தாமரைப் பூக்களும்
திருவெறும்பூர் க�ோயிலில் காணப்பட்ட தாமரை இலைகளும் அடர்ந்த குளங்களும்
சித்திரக்கூடம் பற்றிச் செப்பேடுகள் காணப்படும் காட்சியினைத் திருத்தக்கதேவர்
கூறுகின்றன. வருணிக்கும் ப�ொழுது, துணியில் எழுதிய
இவை மட்டுமன்றிச் செல்வந்தர் வீட்டின் தாமரைக்குளத்தின் காட்சியைப் ப�ோலக்
சுவர்களில் ஓவியங்கள் தீட்டப்பட்டிருந்தன. புத்த காணப்படுகிறது என்கிறார். இளங்கோவடிகள்
தவச்சாலைகள் மற்றும் க�ோவலனின் தந்தை ஓவியம் வரையப்பட்ட துணியை ‘ஓவியஎழினி’
மாசாத்துவான் தவமியற்றிய சாலைகளிலும் என்கிறார். பலகைகளிலும் ஓவியங்கள்
ஓவியங்கள் தீட்டப்பட்டிருந்த செய்தியினை வரையப்பட்டன. அவ்வாறு ஓவியம் வரையப்பட்ட
மணிமேகலை கூறுகின்றது. பலகை ‘வட்டிகைப்பலகை’ எனப்பட்டது.
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தஞ்சாவூர் ஓவியங்கள்
இழெககருவிகள்
நரமபுக்கருவி
வில் நாணின் ஓழெழேக யகட்டு, அதன்
கதால்கருவிகள்
இழெ நுட்்த்ழத உணர்நது, நாணின் நீளத்ழதக
்ணழடே நாளில் வாழ்நத இழெக
கூட்டியும் குழறைத்தும் ்ல்யவறு இழெ ஒலிகழள
கழைஞர்கள் குைழையும் ோழையும் வகாணயட
உருவாககினர். இவவாறு இழெகழளத் தரும் வில்
ஏழிழெத் திறைஙகழள இழெத்துள்ளனர். இழவ
்ைவறழறை ஒன்றைாக இழணத்து அழமககப்ட்ட
தனிச் சிறைபபுழடேனவாகக கருதப்ட்டழதக
நரம்புககருவியே, ‘வில்ோழ்’ ஆகும்.
‘குைலினிது ோழினிது என்்’ என்றை வள்ளுவரின்
வதாடர் மூைம் அறிேைாம்.
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இசை நூல்கள்
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பல்லவர் காலம்
பல்லவர் காலத்தில் நடனக்கலை
சிறப்பான இடத்தைப் பெற்றிருந்தது. முதலாம்
மகேந்திரவர்மன் ‘மத்தவிலாசப் பிரகசனம்’ என்ற
தனது நூலில் சிவபெருமானின் தாண்டவங்கள்
பற்றிக் குறிப்பிட்டுள்ளார். ராஜசிம்மன் கட்டிய
காஞ்சி கைலாசநாதர் க�ோயிலில் சிவபெருமான் நடனம்
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77
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சடுகுடு
சிலம்பாட்டம்
நேர்த்தியாகக் கம்புகளைச்
சுழற்றினால்தான் எதிரியை வீழ்த்த இயலும் சடுகுடு
என்பதால் ப�ோர் முறைகளுக்கு உரிய சில விதி
முறைகளும் சிலம்பாட்டத்தில் இடம்பெற்றுள்ளன. பசுவைக் கவர்ந்து வருவதும் கவர்ந்து வந்த
பசுக்களை மீட்டு வருவதுமான வெட்சி, கரந்தை
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நிறைவுரை
தமிழகத்தில் அறுபத்து நான்கு
பச்சைக்குதிரை முதன்மைக் கலைகள் இருந்தன என்பதை
கால் தாண்டல் ‘ஆயகலைகள் அறுபத்து நான்கு’ என்ற கம்பரின்
ஒரு கால் பாதம், ஒன்றின் மேல் ஒன்றாக கூற்றின் மூலமாக அறிய முடிகிறது.
இரண்டு கால் பாதம், இரண்டு பாத உயரத்தின் இக்கலைகளுள் ஐந்தனை மட்டும் அழகு
மேல் ஒரு சாண், இரண்டு பாத உயரத்தின் மேல் கலைகள் அல்லது நுண்கலைகள் என்பர். பல்லவர்
இரண்டு சாண் எனக் கால் தாண்ட வேண்டிய காலத்தில் கட்டப்பட்ட க�ோயில்களே தமிழகக்
உயரம் உயர்ந்து க�ொண்டே ப�ோகும். கட்டடக் கலைக்குச் சிறந்த சான்றுகளாகத்
திகழ்ந்தன என்பதை அறியமுடிகிறது.
ஆள்தாண்டல்
தமிழகத்தில் மிக உயரமான விமானம்
கால் தாண்டலுக்குப் பின் ஆள்தாண்டல்
ச�ோழர் காலத்திலும், மிக உயர்ந்த க�ோபுரம்,
நடைபெறும். இதில் குனிந்துக�ொண்டு நிற்பவரை,
விஜயநகர காலத்திலும் நாயக்கர் காலத்திலும்
அவர் முதுகில் கையை ஊன்றித் தாண்ட
கட்டப்பட்டுள்ளன என்பதைக் கல்வெட்டுகள் மூலம்
வேண்டும். குனிந்து க�ொண்டு நிற்பவர் தலையைத்
அறிய முடிகிறது.
த�ொங்க விட்டுக் க�ொண்டு குனிந்திருக்க வேண்டும்.
தலையை உயர்த்தினால் தலையைத் தட்டிக் சிற்பக் கலையின் வகைகளையும்,
குனியச்செய்வர். தாண்டுபவர் தம் சிற்பங்கள் வடிக்கப் பயன்படுத்திய
இருகால்களையும் அகற்றி ஒரு கால் அவரது ப�ொருள்களையும் அறியமுடிகிறது. சுதைச்
தலையையும் மற்றொரு கால் அவரது இடுப்பையும் சிற்பங்கள் முதலில் த�ோன்றின என்பதையும்
தாண்டி வருமாறு தாண்டுவர். தாண்டுபவர் ஓடிவந்து பல்லவர் காலத்தில் நளினத்துடன் கூடிய அழகிய
தாண்ட இயலாது. சிற்பங்களும், நாயக்கர் காலத்தில் யானை,
குதிரை ப�ோன்ற புராணத் த�ொன்மங்களும்
கால் கட்டை விரலைப் பிடித்துக் க�ொண்டு வடிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளன என்பதையும் அறிய முடிகிறது.
நிற்றல். கணுக்காலைப் பிடித்துக் க�ொண்டு நிற்றல்
(கரண்டை), முழங்காலைப் பிடித்துக் க�ொண்டு பழங்கால ஓவியங்களையும், ஓவியத்தின்
சிறப்புகளையும் அவர்கள் பயன்படுத்திய
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உங்களுக்குத் தெரியுமா?
பண்ணாங்குழி
நெல் குத்தும் பண்ணைப�ோல் வட்டமான பள்ளம் அல்லது குழி வெட்டி, அதில்
கற்களை இட்டு ஆடும் ஆட்டம், பண்ணாங்குழி. பண்ணை என்பது, பள்ளம். பண்ணை
பறித்தல் என்பது, குழி த�ோண்டுதல்.
பண்ணாங்குழி என்பதைப் பல்லாங்குழி, பள்ளாங்குழி, பன்னாங்குழி என்னும்
பெயர்களால் வழங்குகின்றனர். பெரும்பாலும் பதினான்கு குழிகளை வைத்து ஆடுவதால்
பதினாங்குழி, பன்னாங்குழி எனத் திரிந்ததாகக் கூறுவர். பன்னான்கு என்பதே இலக்கிய
வழக்காக இருப்பதனால், பண்ணாங்குழி அல்லது பள்ளாங்குழி என்பதே திருந்திய
வடிவமாகும். இவ்விளையாட்டை இருவர் ஆடுவர். நிலத்தில் சமமான இரு படுக்கை
வரிசையாகத் த�ோண்டப்பட்ட குழிகளுள் கழற்சிக்காய்/ புளியங்கொட்டை/ கூழாங்கற்கள்
ஆகியவற்றுள் ஏதேனும் ஒன்றை ஐந்தைந்தாய் இட்டு விளையாடுவர்.
-தமிழ்நாட்டு விளையாட்டுகள், ஞா. தேவநேயன், 1952.
மதிப்பீடு
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கலைகள்
்படிகள்
ெகாடுக்கப்பட்டிருக்கும் உரலி / விைரவுக்குறியீட்ைடப் பயன்படுத்தி tamilvu என்னும்
இைணயப்பக்கத்திற்குச் ெசல்க.
பழங்காலக் கட்டடக்கைல, பிற்காலக் கட்டடக்கைல, பல்லவர், ேசாழர் ேகாவிற்கைல ேபான்ற
ெதரிவுகள் ெகாடுக்கப்பட்டிருக்கும். அவற்றுள் ேதைவயானைதத் ேதர்வுெசய்து அதன்
சிறப்புகைள அறிக.
எடுத்துக்காட்டாக, ேகாவிற்கட்டடக்கைல நுட்பங்கள் என்பைதத் ேதர்வு ெசய்து, கீழ்ப்பகுதியில்
உள்ள பாடஅைமப்ைபச் ெசாடுக்கியதும் நிலஅைமப்பு, ேகாபுரம், ஆலயவடிவம் ேபான்றைவத்.
ேதான்றும் அவற்ைற அறிந்துெகாள்க.
87
5 திருவிழாக்கள்
கற்றல் ந�ோக்கங்கள்
• திருவிழாக்கள் க�ொண்டாடப்படுவதற்கான காரணத்தை அறிதல்.
• திருவிழாக்கள் சமூக ஒற்றுமைக்கான வழி என்பதை அறிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• திருவிழாக்கள் மூலமாகப் பண்பாட்டுக் கூறுகளைத் தெரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
• இயற்கை சார்ந்த திருவிழாக்களின் வழி நம் முன்னோர் மரபைப் பின்பற்றுதல்.
• பிற சமயத் திருவிழாக்களைப் பற்றித் தெரிந்து க�ொள்ளுதல்.
88
89
90
பாவை ந�ோன்பு
91
ப�ொங்கல் திருவிழா
ப�ொங்கல் விழா, உலகில் வாழும் தமிழர்கள்
அனைவராலும் சிறப்பாகக் க�ொண்டாடப்பட்டு ப�ொங்கல் திருநாள்
வருகிறது. பயிர்கள் செழிக்கவும் விளைச்சல்
பெருகவும் கதிரவனே முதன்மைக் காரணமாக வீட்டு வாசலில் ப�ொங்கலிடும் இடத்தைப்
விளங்குகிறான். எனவே, உழவர் பெருமக்கள் பசுஞ்சாணத்தால் மெழுகிக் க�ோலமிடுவார்கள்.
கதிரவனுக்கு நன்றி செலுத்தும் விதமாகப் அன்றலர்ந்த மலர்களையே வழிபாட்டிற்குப்
ப�ொங்கல் திருவிழாவைக் க�ொண்டாடி பயன்படுத்துவார்கள். ப�ொங்கல் வைக்கும்
வருகின்றனர். இப்பண்டிகை ப�ோகி, ப�ொங்கல் பானையை மஞ்சள் குங்குமம், இஞ்சி, மஞ்சள்
திருநாள், மாட்டுப் ப�ொங்கல், காணும் ப�ொங்கல் க�ொத்து ஆகியவற்றால் அலங்கரிப்பர். புதிதாக
எனக் க�ொண்டாடப்பட்டு வருகிறது. அறுவடை செய்த நெல்லின் பச்சரிசியுடன் வெல்லம்,
கற்கண்டு, நெய், பால், முந்திரி, திராட்சை
ப�ோகிப் பண்டிகை முதலியவற்றைக் க�ொண்டு ப�ொங்கல் இடுவர்.
இப்பண்டிகை, ஒவ்வோர் ஆண்டும் மார்கழி தங்கள் விளைநிலங்களில் விளைந்த செங்கரும்பு,
மாதத்தின் கடைசி நாளன்று வாழை, மஞ்சள், இஞ்சி, கருணைக்கிழங்கு
க�ொண்டாடப்படுகிறது. பயனற்ற பழைய ப�ோன்றவற்றையும் சேர்த்துக் கதிரவனுக்கு
ப�ொருள்களையும் மனித மனத்தில் உள்ள வைத்து வழிபடுவார்கள்.
தேவையற்ற எண்ணங்களையும் ப�ோக்குவதே
ப�ோகிப்பண்டிகையின் ந�ோக்கமாகும்.
92
காணும் ப�ொங்கல்
இவ்வாறு பண்டைய காலம் முதல் இன்று
வரை ப�ொங்கல் திருநாள், தமிழர் திருநாள் என்றும்,
உழவர் திருநாள் என்றும் சிறப்பான முறையில்
உலகத் தமிழர்களால் க�ொண்டாடப்பட்டு வருகிறது.
மஞ்சு விரட்டு
93
ம்கா ம்கத்திருவிைா
சித்திழரத் திருவிைா-மதுழர
ழசவமும் ழவணவமும் இழண்நது
ச்காணடைாடும் தமிை்கத்தின மி்கபச்பரிய திருவிைா
மதுழர சித்திழரத் திருவிைா. ழசவ சமய விைாவான
மீனாட்சி சு்நத்ரசுவரர திருமணமும் ழவணவ
சமய விைாவான ்கள்ளை்கர ஆற்றில் இ்றஙகும்
விைாவும் ஒன்றா்க ெழடைச்பறுவது. திருமழல
ொயக்கர ்காலத்தில் இவ்விரு சமய விைாக்களும்
ஒன்றாக்கப்பட்டுக ச்காணடைாடைப்பட்டைன. சித்திழர
மாதம் வளரபிழ்ற ஐ்நதாம் ொள் இவ்விைா
சதாடைஙகித் சதாடைர்நது ்பத்து ொள்்கள் ம்கா ம்கத்திருவிழா கும்�க்கா்ணம்
ெழடைச்பறுகி்றது.
ெவககிர்கங்களில் குரு ஓர இராசியில்
ஆடிப ச்பருககு இரு்நது மற்்்றார இராசிககு இடைம்ச்பயர ஒரு
ஆடி மாதத்தில் ச்பயயும் சதன்மற்குப வருடைம் ஆகி்றது. இதன ்காரணமா்க ஒவ்்வார
்பருவ மழையினால் ஆறு்களில் புதுபபுனல் ச்பாஙகி ஆணடும் குரு ச்பயரச்சி விைாவும், மாசிம்க
வரும். இதழன்ய ‘ஆடிபச்பருககு’ எனறு கூறுவர. விைாவும் ெழடைச்பறுகி்றது. இது்்பால்வ,
்காவிரி ்பாயும் ்பகுதி்களில் வாழும் மக்கள் ்பனனிரணடு இராசி்கழளயும் குரு ்கடை்நது வர
்காவிரியாற்ழ்ற அனழனயா்கவும் சதயவமா்கவும் ்பனனிரணடு ஆணடு்கள் ஆகும். ஆ்க்வதான,
நிழனத்து வழி்படுவர. ்பனனிரணடு ஆணடு்களுககு ஒருமுழ்ற வரும்
மாசிம்கம், ‘ம்காம்கம்’ எனறு அழைக்கப்படுகி்றது.
அனழ்றய தினம் புனித இடைங்களில் நீராடுவது
மி்கவும் சி்றப்பானதாகும். என்வ, கும்்ப்்காணம்
ம்காம்கக குளத்தில் தீரத்தவாரி அனறு ்பகதர்கள்
புனித நீராடுகி்றார்கள். ்மலும், வடைொட்டில்
ெழடைச்பறும் ‘கும்்ப்மளா’ழவப ்்பானறு
இதழன, ‘சதனன்கத்தின கும்்ப்மளா’ எனறும்
அழைப்பர.
ஆடிப் ப�ருககு விழா
94
மகாசிவராத்திரி விழா
ஆதிரைத் திருவிழா
திருவாதிரை என்பது, ஆண்டுத�ோறும்
மார்கழி மாத முழுநிலவு நாளில் க�ொண்டாடப்படும்
விழாவாகும். இவ்விழாவினைப் பற்றி
மாணிக்கவாசகர் திருவாசகத்திலும், சம்பந்தர்,
நாவுக்கரசர் தேவாரத்திலும் பாடியுள்ளனர்.
சிதம்பரம், மதுரை, திருவாலங்காடு,
விநாயகர் சதுர்த்தி விழா உத்திரக�ோசமங்கை, திருக்கழுக்குன்றம்,
95
உங்களுககுத் சதரியுமா?
96
தீபாவளித் திருநாள்
இத்திருநாளன்று அதிகாலையில்
எண்ணெய் தேய்த்துக் குளித்து, வீடு முழுவதும்
விளக்கேற்றிப் பூஜை செய்து, பட்டாசுகள்
வெடித்துப் புத்தாடை அணிந்து இனிப்புகள்
வழங்கிக் க�ொண்டாடுகின்றனர். வட இந்தியாவில்
இத்திருநாளைத் தீபஒளித் திருநாளாகக்
க�ொண்டாடுகிறார்கள்.
நவராத்திரி விழா
நவராத்திரி க�ொலு
வீரம், செல்வம், கல்வி ஆகியவற்றைத்
தரும் முப்பெரும் கடவுளாக முறையே மலைமகள், அம்மன் திருவிழா
அலைமகள், கலைமகள் ஆகிய�ோரைப் ப�ோற்றி
அம்மன் வழிபாடானது, ஊர்தோறும்
வணங்கும் விழாவே நவராத்திரி திருவிழாவாகும்.
நடைபெறும் முக்கிய வழிபாடாகும். மாரி என்றால்
நவராத்திரி என்பதற்கு ‘ஒன்பது இரவுகள்’ என்பது
97
தீமிதி திருவிழா
ஆடிப்பூரம்
அம்மனுக்கு உகந்த திருநாள்களில்
ஆடிமாதம் பூர நட்சத்திரத்தில் க�ொண்டாடப்படும்
ஆடிப்பூரத்திருநாள் மிகவும் சிறப்புடையது. சிவத்
தலங்களில் அம்மனுக்கும், திருவில்லிப்புத்தூரில்
ஆண்டாளுக்கும் இவ்விழா க�ொண்டாடப்படுகிறது.
இந்நாளில், அம்மனுக்கு வளையல்களால்
அலங்காரம் செய்து ஆடிக்கூழ் படைத்து கந்த சஷ்டி திருவிழா
இவ்விழாவை மக்கள் க�ொண்டாடுகின்றனர்.
98
திருவாரூர் தேர்
• ஆடி மாதம் கார்த்திகை நட்சத்திரத்தை
முருகனுக்குரிய நாளாகக் கருதி வழிபடுவர். தேரில் பெரிய கயிறுகள் இணைக்கப்படும்.
இந்நாளன்று, அறுபடை வீடுகளுள் ஒன்றான அவற்றை ‘வடம்’ என்று கூறுவர். இவ்வடத்தைப்
திருத்தணியில் ஆடிக்கிருத்திகை விழா பற்றி இழுத்துச் செல்வதை ‘வடம் பிடித்தல்’ என்பர்.
சிறப்பாகக் க�ொண்டாப்படுகின்றது. க�ோயிலுக்குச் சென்று இறைவனை வழிபட
முடியாதவர்களான முதிய�ோர்கள்,
உங்களுக்குத் தெரியுமா? மாற்றுத்திறனாளிகள் ப�ோன்றவர்களுக்கு உதவும்
வகையிலும் அனைவரும் ஒன்று கூடி வழிபாடு
செய்யவும் இறைவனை வீதி உலாவாக அழைத்து
முருகனுக்குரிய அறுபடை வீடுகள்: வருவர். இவ்வாறு இறைவன் தன்னை நாடி வந்த
1. திருப்பரங்குன்றம் அடியவர்களுக்கு அருள் புரிவத�ோடு, தான்
2. திருச்செந்தூர் அல்லது திருச்சீரலைவாய் அவர்களை நாடிச் சென்றும் அருள்புரிவார்
3. திருவாவினன்குடி (எ) பழனி என்பதைத் தேர்த்திருவிழா உணர்த்துகிறது.
4. திருவேரகம் (எ) சுவாமிமலை
திருவாரூரில் தியாகராசப் பெருமான்
5. திருத்தணி அல்லது குன்றுத�ோறாடல் க�ோயில் க�ொண்டுள்ளார். இக்கோயிலின் தேர்
6. பழமுதிர்சோலை ஆசியாவிலேயே மிக உயரமான தேர் என்ற
பெருமைக்கு உரியது. இத்தேர் 96 அடி உயரமும்
360 டன் எடையும் க�ொண்டது. நான்கு
க�ோயில் சார்ந்த விழாக்கள்
நிலைகளைக் க�ொண்டதாக உள்ளது. ஒவ்வோர்
தேர்த்திருவிழாக்கள் ஆண்டும் சித்திரை மாதம் இக்கோயிலின் தேர்த்
திருவிழா க�ொண்டாடப்படுகிறது.
தமிழகத்தில் உள்ள க�ோயில்கள் த�ோறும்
திருவிழாக்கள் நடைபெறுகின்றன. கீழை நாடுகளின் லூர்து நகர் என
இத்திருவிழாக்களில் தெய்வங்களைத் தேரில் அழைக்கப்படுவது வேளாங்கண்ணி ஆகும்.
அமர வைத்து ஊர்வலமாக அழைத்து வருவது வேளாங்கண்ணிமாதா தேர்த்திருவிழா அனைத்து
முக்கிய நிகழ்வாகும். ஒவ்வொரு க�ோயில் சமய மக்களும் கலந்துக�ொள்ளும் ஒரு விழாவாகும்.
திருவிழாவிலும் தேர்த்திருவிழா குறிப்பிடத்தக்க
இராமாயண, மகாபாரதம் ப�ோன்ற
நிகழ்வாகும். பத்துநாள்கள் நடைபெறும்
புராணக்கதைகளையும் சமுதாயத்தில் நடைபெறும்
திருவிழாவின் இறுதி நாளில் மஞ்சள் நீராட்டிற்கு
முக்கிய நிகழ்வுகளையும் சிற்பங்களாகச்
முதல் நாள் தேர�ோட்டம் நடைபெறும். முதன்மைத்
செதுக்கித் தேரை அழகுபடுத்துவர். எனவே, தேர்
தெய்வத்திற்குப் பெரிய தேரும், பிற
என்பது நடமாடும் கலைக்கருவூலமாகத்
தெய்வங்களுக்குச் சிறிய தேரும் இருக்கும்.
திகழ்கிறது.
99
இசுலாமியத் திருவிழாக்கள்
ம�ொகரம் பண்டிகை
100
சமணத் திருவிழா
மகாவீர் ஜெயந்தி
101
102
மதிப்பீடு
103
குறுவினா
1. தமிழ்நாட்டில் வணங்கப்படும் காவல் தெய்வங்கள் சிலவற்றைப் பட்டியலிடுக.
2. ‘அத்தப்பூ’ என்றால் என்ன?
3. சைவசமயம் கூறும் மும்மலங்கள் யாவை?
104
நெடுவினா
105
திருவிழாக்கள்
�டி்கள்
ெகாடுக்கப்பட்டிருக்கும் உரலி / விைரவுக்குறியீட்ைடப் பயன்படுத்தி tamilvu என்னும்
இைணயப்பக்கத்திற்குச் ெசல்க.
நூலகம் என்னும் ெதரிவுக்குள் ெகாடுக்கப்பட்டிருக்கும் பண்பாட்டுக் காட்சியகத்ைதத் ெதரிவு
ெசய்க.
திருத்தலங்கள், வரலாற்றுச் சின்னங்கள், கைலகள் ேபான்ற ெதரிவுகளில் திருவிழாக்கள்
என்னும் ெதரிைவத் ேதர்வு ெசய்து, அதில் இடம்ெபற்றிருக்கும் விழாக்கள் குறித்த
காெணாலிகளின்வழி அவ்விழாக்களின் சிறப்புகைள அறிக.
106
Aesthetics - அழகியல்
Altruistic - பிறர் நலம்
Ambition - இலட்சியம்
Ancestry - பரம்பரை
Anklet - காற்சிலம்பு/ க�ொலுசு
Appreciation - பாராட்டு
Archaeology - த�ொல்லியல்
Architecture - கட்டடக்கலை
Argument - வாதிடுதல்
Art Gallery - கலைக்கூடம்
Astrology - ஜ�ோதிடம்
Astronomy வானவியல்
Bamboo - மூங்கில்
Barn - தானியக் களஞ்சியம்
Barter / Commodity Exchange - பண்டமாற்று
Battle field - ப�ோர்க்களம்
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
Palayakkarar system and the revolts of Palayakkarars against the
British
Velunachiyar, Puli Thevar, Kattabomman and Marudhu Brothers in
the anti-British uprisings
Vellore Revolt as a response to British pacification of south India
Vellore Fort
Early Revolts against British Rule in Tamil Nadu 8
SUMMARY
Prominent Palayakkarars of Tamil country and their resistance to the rule of East India Company
are discussed.
The wars waged by Puli Thevar, Velunachiyar, Veerapandya Kattabomman, followed by Marudhu
brothers of Sivagangai and Dheeran Chinnamalai against the British are elaborated.
The reasons for the Vellore Revolt and the ruthless manner in which it was suppressed by Gillespie
are detailed.
EXERCISE
VI. A
nswer the questions given REFERENCE BOOKS
under each caption
1. Burton Stein, Peasant State and Society in
1. Velunachiyar Medieval South India, New Delhi:Oxford
a) Who was the military chief of University Press, 1980.
Velunachiyar?
2. P.M. Lalitha, Palayakararss as Feudatories
b) What were the martial arts in which
Under the Nayaks of Madurai, Chennai:
she was trained?
Creative Enterprises, 2015.
c) Whom did she marry?
d) What was the name of her daughter? 3. K. Rajayyan, South Indian Rebellion,
1800–1801, Madurai, Ratna Publication,
2. Dheeran Chinnamalai
2000 (Reprint).
a) When was Dheeran Chinnamalai born?
b) How did he earn the title “Chinnamalai”? 4. K.A. Manikumar, Vellore Revolt 1806
c) Name the Diwan of Tipu Sultan? (Chennai: Allied Publishers, 2007).
d) Why and where was he hanged to
death?
14
Ambala
Meerut
Delhi
Bareilly
Agra
Lucknow
Gwalior Kanpur
Allahabad
Jhansi Banaras
Barrackpore
Arabian
Sea Bay of
Anda
Bengal
man and Nicobar I
Lakshad
(India)
(India)
weep Islands
sl a
ds
n
Not to Scale
Indian Ocean
in sight was shot or hung on the trees that e) India Becomes a Crown Colony
lined the road; villages were burnt....’
The British were shocked by the events
of 1857. The British Parliament adopted the
(d) Causes of Failure Indian Government Act, in November 1858,
There is hardly any evidence to prove and India was pronounced as one of the many
that the rebellion of 1857 was organised and crown colonies to be directly governed by the
planned. It was spontaneous. However, soon Parliament. The responsibility was given to
after the siege of Delhi, there was an attempt a member of the cabinet, designated as the
to seek the support of the neighboring states. Secretary of State for India. The transfer of
Besides a few Indian states, there was a general power from the East India Company to the
lack of enthusiasm among the Indian princes British Crown also meant that there was
to participate in the rebellion. The Indian a regular parliamentary review of Indian
princes and zamindars either remained loyal affairs.
or were fearful of British power. Many a time
Changes in the Administration
they acted as a fifth column. Those involved
in the rebellion were left with either little or British rule and its policies underwent a
no sources of arms and ammunition. The major overhaul after 1857. British followed a
emerging English-educated middle class too cautious approach to the issue of social reform.
did not support the rebellion. Queen Victoria proclaimed to the Indian
people that the British would not interfere
One of the important reasons for the
in traditional institutions and religious
failure of the rebellion was the absence of a
matters. It was promised that Indians would
central authority. There was no common
be absorbed in government services. Two
agenda that united the individuals and the
significant changes were made to the structure
aspirations of the Indian princes and the
of the Indian army. The number of Indians was
various other feudal elements fighting against
significantly reduced. Indians were restrained
the British.
from holding important ranks and position.
In the end, the rebellion was brutally The British took control of the artillery and
suppressed by the British army. The rebel shifted their recruiting effort to regions and
leaders were defeated due to the lack of communities that remained loyal during 1857.
weapons, organisation, discipline, and For instance, the British turned away from
betrayal by their aides. Delhi was captured Rajputs, Brahmins and North Indian Muslims
by the British troops in late 1857. Bahadur and looked towards non-Hindu groups like
Shah was captured and transported to the Gorkhas, Sikhs,and Pathans. British also
Burma. exploited the caste, religious, linguistic and
regional differences in the Indian society The Indigo Revolt began in 1859. The
through what came to be known as “Divide rebellion began as a strike, as the peasants of
and Rule” policy. a village in Bengal’s Nadia district refused to
grow any more indigo. The movement quickly
Peasant Revolts under spread to the other indigo-growing districts
7.3 of Bengal. The revolt then turned violent.
Crown
The peasants, both Hindu and Muslim,
(a) Indigo Revolt 1859-60 participated in the revolt, and women—
armed with pots and pans—fought alongside
Before synthetic dyes were created, natural
the men. Indian journalists in Calcutta wrote
indigo dye was highly valued by cloth makers
articles about the brutality of the planters.
around the world. Many Europeans sought
The 1860 play Nil Darpan (“Mirror of the
to make their fortunes by becoming indigo
Indigo”) by Dina Bandhu Mitra, did much
planters in India. They employed peasants to
to draw attention in India and Europe to the
grow the indigo, which was processed into
plight of the indigo growers.
dye at the planters factories. The dye was
then exported to Europe. By the early 19th
century, India supplied the vast majority of the
indigo to Britain. The system was oppressive.
The peasants were forced to grow the crop.
The British planter gave the cultivator a cash
advance to help pay for the rent of the land and
other costs. This advance needed to be repaid
with interest. The planters forced the peasant
grow indigo, rather than food crops. At the end
of the season, the planters paid the cultivators
low prices for their indigo. Moreover, the small Indigo Factory
amount the peasant earned was not enough to
pay back the cash advance with interest. So The indigo industry quickly declined
they fell into debt. However, the peasants again in Bengal. By the end of the 19th century,
would be forced to enter into another contract the demand for natural indigo dye began to
to grow indigo. The peasants were never able decline worldwide, as man-made blue dyes
to clear their debts. Debts were often passed came into use.
from father to son.
GLOSSARY
நினைத்ததை நிறைவேற்ற
orchestrated organized to achieve a desired effect
ப�ோடப்பட்ட திட்டம்
I. C
hoose the 7. Who set up the first Home Rule League in
correct answer April 1916?
a) Annie Basant
1. Which one of the following was launched b) Bipin Chandra Pal
by Haji Shariatullah in 1818 in East Bengal?
c) Lala Lajpat Rai
a) Wahhabi Rebellion
d) Tilak
b) Farazi Movement
c) Tribal uprising 8. Who drew the attention of the British to
d) Kol Revolt the suffering of Indigo cultivation through
his play Nil darpan?
2. Who declared that “Land belongs to God” a) Dina Bandhu Mitra
and collecting rent or tax on it was against b) Romesh Chandra Dutt
divine law?
c) Dadabhai Naoroji
a) Titu Mir
d) Birsa Munda
b) Sidhu
c) Dudu Mian II. Fill in the blanks
d) Shariatullah 1. In 1757, Robert Clive was financially
3. Who were driven out of their homeland supported by ____________, the
during the process of creation of Zamins moneylenders of Bengal.
under Permanent Settlement?
a) Santhals b) Titu Mir 2. ____________ was an anti–imperial and
anti-landlord movement which originated
c) Munda d) Kol
in and around 1827.
4. Find out the militant nationalist from the
following. 3. The major tribal revolt which took place
a) Dadabhai Naoroji in Chotanagpur region was ____________.
b) Justice Govind Ranade
c) Bipin Chandra pal 4. The ____________ Act, restricted the entry
d) Romesh Chandra of non-tribal people into the tribal land.
5. When did the Partition of Bengal come 5. Around 1854 activities of social banditry
into effect? were led by ____________.
a) 19 June 1905
b) 18 July 1906 6. The British Commander of Kanpur killed
c) 19 August 1907 by the rebels during the 1857 Rebellion
d) 16 October 1905 was ____________.
6. What was the context in which the 7. Chota Nagpur Act was passed in the year
Chotanagpur Tenancy Act was passed? ____________.
a) Kol Revolt
b) Indigo Revolt 8. W.C. Bannerjee was elected the president
c) Munda Rebellion of Indian National Congress in the year
d) Deccan Riots ____________.
VI. A
nswer all the questions VIII. Activity
under each caption 1. Identify the Acts passed in British India
from 1858 to 1919, with a brief note on
1. Deccan Riots
each.
a) When and where did the first recorded
incident of rioting against the 2. Mark the important centres of 1857 Revolt
on an outline map.
moneylenders in the Deccan appear?
b) What was the right given to 3. Prepare an album with pictures of
moneylenders under a new law of the frontline leaders of all the anti-colonial
struggles launched against the British.
British?
c) What did it result in?
d) Against whom was the violence directed
in the Deccan riots.
2. The Revolt of 1857
a) Who assaulted his officer, an incident REFERENCE BOOKS
that led to the outbreak of 1857 Revolt?
b) Who was proclaimed the Sahhensha- 1. Bipan Chandra, India’s Struggle for
e-Hindustan in Delhi? Independence (New Delhi: Penguin, 2000)
c) Who was the correspondent of London 2. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to
Times who reported on the brutality of Partition and After (New Delhi: Orient
the 1857 revolt? Longman, 2004)
d) What did the Queen’s proclamation say
3. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India (1885-1947)
on matters relating to religion?
(New Delhi: Pearson, 2014).
3. Indian National Congress
a) What were the techniques adopted
by the Congress to get its grievances INTERNET RESOURCES
redressed ?
b) What do you know of Lal-Bal-Pal https//www.brittanica.com
triumvirate?
Freedom Struggle
in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with:
Anti-colonial struggles in Tamil Nadu
Contribution of Christian missionaries to the development of education
and amelioration of the depressed classes
Challenge of the Justicites to the Congress in Tamil Nadu
Militant mass movement of the Congress in Tamil Nadu
SUMMARY
Contributions of Madras Native Association, Madras Mahajana Sabha and the nationalist
press to the growth of nationalism in Tamil Nadu are discussed.
Swadeshi phase of the Indian National Movement in Tamil Nadu, with focus on role played
by V.O.C., Subramania Siva, Subramania Bharathi, is detailed.
Non-Brahmin Movement throwing up challenges to nationalist politics during Dyarchy is
highlighted.
Non-cooperation Movement, E.V.R.’s differences with the Congress,the birth of Swaraj Party
at the national level and the Self-Respect Movement in the Tamil region are examined.
Tamil Nadu’s participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement organised to protest the
disappointment over Simon Commission and the Round Table Conferences are dealt with.
The elections under Government of India Act, 1935 and the formation of first Congress
Ministry in Madras under Rajaji are outlined.
Resignation of Congress Ministries following the outbreak of World War II, Quit India
Movement and Tamil participation in it are described.
EXERCISE
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
To acquire knowledge about the social transformation of modern
Tamil Nadu
To know the different social reform movements in Tamil Nadu
To understand the ideas of the social reformers
69
SUMMARY
1900
1910
1950
83
Diary of Events
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11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 165 12-09-2018 19:38:47
Learning Objectives
To understand the nature of political discourses that took place in Madras
presidency during the 1900s.
To unravel the emergence of Non-Brahmin movement and how it had paved the
way for the Dravidian parties rule in the state of Tamil Nadu.
To explore the nature of centre-state relations during the rule of various political
parties in the state.
To study the welfare policies of the Dravidian parties and its significant impact on
the society.
To examine whether any state level political will has any impact on national politics.
The chief aim of the study is to understand various dimensions of the social welfare
policies of successive governments in the state.
To explore the reasons for the fragmentation in Dravidian politics and in
consequences.
14.1 Political History of Tamil Nadu by the "Brahmin – non – Brahmin conflicts".
Scholars and political thinkers believed
Compared with rest of India, Tamil that understanding the conflicts between
Nadu has had a healthy administrative these two groups, (the Brahmins and non –
and political culture, more or less stable Brahmins), is necessary to understand the
economic life, and continuity of traditions South Indian Politics and society.
from the hoary past to the present. Madras
Presidency of South India came into Madras Presidency
existence due to the administrative and Simultaneously a few members
political needs of the British. The Madras of Non-Brahmin caste groups sought
Presidency was formed in A.D (C.E.) employment in industries, commercial
1801. The Presidency, as it existed during enterprises etc., Significant but a portion
the 19th and 20th centuries, comprised of non-Brahmin caste groups migrated
of the present states of Andhra Pradesh, from rural areas to urban pockets of the
Malabar region of Kerala, Southern Presidency and wanted to ascertain their
Karnataka, Southern most part of Odisha identity as ‘Dravidian’ and ‘Tamils’ and
and Union Territory of Lakshadweep. gradually challenged the monopoly of
powers and privileges enjoyed by the
Madras Presidency politics in the Brahmins in politics, administration and
early part of 20th century was dominated society.
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11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 166 12-09-2018 19:38:47
Presidency. In Bengal and in the rest of
North India a Sanskrit and Vedic centered
Indian culture was projected, besides an
Indo-Aryan or Indo-German group of
languages were acknowledged. Non-
Vedic, Non-Sanskrit cultures were not
recognized. The deciphering of Brahmi
script in 1837 by James Principe and
researches on south Indian languages
(Ellis in 1816 and Caldwell in 1856) came
to establish that Indian culture was not
homogeneous;
Ellis is praised by Tamil
enthusiasts as lover of
Tamil, Valluvar, Kural and
so on, without knowing
The word ‘Dravidian’ was used by the colonial and christian
scholars and non – Tamils to identify non- background of him. In
Aryan Tamil speaking people. At the same fact, he tried to forge valluvar as Jain, to
time Brahmins were identified as “Aryans” promote the "thomas myth" in India
and the custodians of Sanskrit civilisation
Francis Whyte Ellis
where as non-Brahmins were considered
as “Dravidians” and the custodians of Born: May 7, 1814,
Tamil language, culture and civilisation. Clady, United Kingdom
Died: August 28, 1891,
14.2 E
mergence of Dravidian Kodaikanal, India
Movement
Robert Caldwell
In order to protect and promote the
Tamil identity, culture, socio-political Buddhist and Dravidian traditions
and economic interest of non-Brahmins, also existed in India. In the south, especially
a movement called ‘Dravidian Movement’ in the multi-lingual Madras Presidency,
was started in Madras Presidency by a theories on Dravidian group of languages
group of non – Brahmins. and Dravidian cultural heritage led to
assertion of Dravidian identity among the
Dravidian and Non-Brahmin Identity Non-Brahmin.
In 1801 Madras Presidency was
formed by the colonial regime as a Two factors (1) Brahmins claiming
multilingual province (Tamils, Telegus, superiority over Non-Brahmins and (2)
Malayalees, Kannadigas and Tulus). Brahmins monopolizing educational and
India’s diversity could be noticed in the employment opportunities transformed
political developments of the Madras the Dravidian identity into Non-Brahmin
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11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 167 12-09-2018 19:38:48
identity. (In Maharashtra too Mahatma 14.3 Justice Party
Jyotiba Rao Phule launched a Non-
Brahmin movement on similar lines). The major political organization of
Dravidian also indicated the Non- that time, Indian National Congress was
Brahmins in south India. dominated by Brahmins had refused to
consider the demands of non-brahmin
members. Thus the non-brahmin leaders
of Madras Presidency began to think of
floating a non-brahmin political
organization. The prospects of political
reforms after the First World War, and the
possibilities of representing institutions
stimulated their move.
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 168 12-09-2018 19:38:50
iv) To create public opinion infavour of the elections, but many congressmen
Non-Brahmins demand. contested the elections under different
banners.
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11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 169 12-09-2018 19:38:50
medical education. On an initiative from and then he was elected as the president of
Dr. Muthulakshmi and others, Devadasi Justice Party. In the same year, the Justice
system was abolished in Tami nadu and Party passed a resolution that Tamil Nadu
women were enfranchised. Co-operative should be made as a separate state loyal
societies were promoted. Mirasdari system to British government and it should be
was abolished, and a under the direct control of the Secretary
number of irrigation of State for India.
schemes were
Periyar E.V.Ramaswamy who played
introduced in 1923.
a pioneering role in the Madras Presidency
Annamalai University
Congress, had tried his best to make the
and Andhra
Tamilnadu Congress Committee adopt
University were
resolutions in favour of proportional
founded during their
representation for the non-brahmins
regime. It was the Justic Party which
in political arena. He gave an effective
provided the most successful government
leadership to the Vaikom Sathyagraha and
though they were assigned only a few
campaigned against caste-discrimination
departments.
in the Cheranmadevi Gurukula, founded
14.5 Periyar E.V. Ramasamy: by congress.
When all his efforts failed to make
Peiyar E.V. Ramasamy congress adopt his programme, he left
considered the congress and launched the self-respect
decision of Rajaji’s movement in 1925. He shunned electoral
government to impose politics and instead campaigned for social
Hindi as a compulsory reforms, especially for eradication of
subject as a move caste system, removal of indignities and
to establish ‘North Indian imperialism’ gender based restrictions on women,
and destroying the Tamil language and and rejection of hereditary priesthood.
culture. Periyar, further, maintained that The self-respect movement carried on
the imposition of Hindi was a calculated a vigorous campaign against age old
effort to sub judicate the Dravidians in superstitious beliefs and practices in
order to ascertain the supremacy of the every sphere and questioned the role of
Aryans. religion in justifying and sustaining such
Madras Presidency has witnessed irrational traditions and inequalities. The
massive anti-Hindi agitations and Self Respect Movement campaigned for
Periyar was imprisoned by the provincial rationalism, and against denial of dignity
government. It is significant to note that in and equal status of individuals (including
fifteen years he went to jail twenty- three women) under the garb of tradition and
times and got the nickname as ‘jailbird’ religion.
(Siraiparavai). In 1938, Periyar was The Self Respect Movement ordained
imprisoned for his Anti-Hindi agitation its members to give up caste surname and
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caste-religious identities; it introduced the Periyar launched anti-Hindi agitations. A
self-respect marriages. It fought against large number of students have participated
not only untouchability but even against in the agitations organized by Periyar.
the caste-system and the caste based
disabilities and indignities imposed on During this period, the Communist
individuals. Party (formally launched in 1925) became
active in campaigning for socialist
The Self Respect Movement programme and organized labour
propagated not merely letter treatment of movements. M.Singaravelu, and their
women, but for equal rights, equal status associates were impressed by the social
an equal opportunities for women. Self reform programmes of the Self Respect
Respect Movement’s role in “Women Movement, which in turn extended
Liberation” was unparalleled and for that support to the economic programme of
E.V.Ramaswamy was given the title the communities, and these two
“Periyar” in a women’s conference. movements agreed to work on a common
Periyar’s journal ‘Kudiarasu’ ‘Revolt’ and programme (Erode Plan).
later ‘Viduthalai’ carried on the effective
propaganda of self-respect ideals.
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11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 171 12-09-2018 19:38:51
in general and particularly the youth.
He advocated Self –Respect marriages,
a marriage which was conducted in
the absence of Brahmin priesthood,
discouraged the people from performing
religious ceremonies and not to employ
the services of the Brahmins in any of the Mariamalai Adigal to organize the ‘Anti
social events. Hindi Movement’ in 1937. Thousands of
agitators including E.V.Ramaswamy
Decline of Justice Party courted arrests, and a number of agitators
By 1929, the Self-Respect Movement died in prison.
had become a formidable movement in the Salem Conference, 1944
Madras Presidency. In 1930’s the Justice
Party began to face decline in the province. In 1944, at Salem conference under the
There were three major factors responsible leadership of Periyar, a historic resolution
for this decline. Firstly, the party lost its was moved to change the name of Justice
support among the Depressed sections of Party to Dravidar Kazhagam (DK). Periyar
the society and minorities. Secondly the organised ‘Dravida Nadu’ conference and
Self-Respect Movement, under Periyar demanded an independent homeland for
had become more radical. Finally the ‘Dravidians’. Further, he pronounced his
elitist and pro-British outlook of Justice very famous slogan ‘Dravida Nadu for
Party had also contributed significantly Dravidians’ at the conference.
for its decline. Apart from separate ‘Dravida Nadu’
14.7 Anti Hindi Agitation demand, the Dravidar Kazhagam wanted
to establish casteless society, condemned
The decline of the Justice Party and religious rituals, traditions and
Periyar’s refusal to enter into electoral superstitious in Dravidian society. The
politics together with the growing Dravidar Kazhagam became very popular
popularity of Mahatma Gandhi, enabled in many rural and urban masses, especially
Indian National Congress to win elections among the students. Many non-Brahmin
in the Madras Presidency in 1937 and leaders and students have changed their
Rajagopalachari became the premier. name reflecting Tamil Identity.
He introduced total prohibition (ban Anti-Hindi Agitation 1965
on liquor) and abolished the Zamindari
system, and introduced legislations
removing restrictions on temple entry for
the depressed classes. Yet his measures
leading to closure of many schools and
introduction of Hindi as compulsory
language in schools provoked the admirers
of self respect and Tamil Nationalists like
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S.NO. PREMIER CHIEF MINISTER YEAR
1 A. Subbarayalu Reddiar 1920 – 1921
2 Raja of Panagal 1921-1926
3 P. Subbarayan 1926 1930
4 P. Munusamy Naidu 1930 1932
5 Poppili Raja 1932 -1937
6 P.T. Rajan 1936
7 K.V. Reddy Naidu 1937
8 C. Rajaji 1937 - 1939
(Note: Tamil Nadu was under Governor’s rule from 29 th October 1939 to 30th April 1946)
9 T. Prakasam 1946 -1947
10 O.P. Ramasamy Reddiyar 1947 – 1949
CHIEF MINISTER
11 P.S. Kumarasamy Raja 1949-1952
12 C. Rajaji 1952 - 1954
13 K. Kamaraj 1954-1957
14 K. Kamaraj 1957-1962
15 K. Kamaraj 1962-1963
16 M. Bakthavatsalam 1963-1967
17 C.N. Annadurai 1967-1969
18 M. Karunanidhi 1969-1971
19 M. Karunanidhi 1971-1976
20 M.G. Ramachandran 1977-1980
21 M.G. Ramachandran 1980-1984
22 M.G. Ramachandran 1985-1987
23 Janaki Ramachandran 1988
24 M.Karunanidhi 1989-1991
25 J. Jayalalithaa 1991-1996
26 M.Karunanidhi 1996-2001
27 J. Jayalalithaa 2001
28 O. Panneerselvam 2001-2002
29 J. Jayalalithaa 2002 -2006
30 M. Karunanidhi 2006 - 2011
31 J. Jayalalithaa 2011
32 O. Panneerselvam 2012 (Interim)
33 J. Jayalalithaa May 16, 2016 – Dec .5 2016
34 O. Panneerselvam Dec 2016 – Feb 2017
35 K. Palanisamy Feb 2017 - till date
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In accordance with the provisions In 1951, the Supreme Court struck
of Article 313 of the Indian Constitution down communal reservations in higher
Hindi was made as the official language of education. Immediately Periyar launched
the Indian Union on January 26, 1965. In a major agitation for the restoration of
order to protest the decision of the Union communal reservation.
Government the Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam decided to observe 26th January,
1965 as a ‘Day of Mourning’. Many leaders
of the party and its cadres were arrested.
Tamil Nadu had witnessed a large scale
of Anti-Hindi agitations. Because of the
agitations the cause secured considerable
amount of support among the student
community. On the other hand the
Congress party lost its base and support
in the state of Tamil Nadu. Meanwhile,
the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam had
withdrawn the demand for ‘Dravida Law and rules are only for the
people. People are not for the
Nadu’ and continue to actively participate
law and the rules
in the electoral politics of Tamilnadu and - Kamaraj
became a ruling party in the state.
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 174 12-09-2018 19:38:51
Kamaraj also introduced the noon-meal
scheme for school children.
Arundhati Roy on Dandi March
Resistance as spectacle,
as political theatre,
has a history. Gandhi’s
salt march in 1930 to
Dandi is among the
most exhilarating examples. But the
salt march wasn’t theatre alone. It was In 1963, Kamaraj resigned (Kamaraj
the symbolic part of a large act of real Plan) his chief ministership to become the
civil disobedience. When Gandhi and President of Indian National Congress and
an army of freedom fighters marched M.Bhaktavatchalam took over the reins
to Gujarat’s coast and made salt from of the government. The Food shortage
sea water, thousands of Indians across and anti-hindi agitation caused the un-
the country began to make their popularity of his ministry.
own salt, openly defying imperial
Dravidian Parties Rule
Britain’s salt tax laws, which banned
local production in favour of British In the general elections of 1967,
imports. It was a direct strike at the the congress party was defeated. The
economic underpinning of the British Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam formed the
Empire. government.
(Arundhati Roy, An Ordinary Person’s
Guide To Empire, p.307.)
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and to overcome newly amended electoral
In 1956, through 'states laws. It won a majority in 1967 elections.
reorganization Act' Madras Annadurai ruled for a brief period (1967-
Presidency gave up malayalam regions 69), yet he renamed Madras state as
to Kerala, Telegu region to Andhra Tamilnadu, passed civil marriages act,
Pradesh and Kannada regions to rejected three language policies of central
Mysore. Thus, Madras state became government and enforced a two languages
a state of Tamils. Kamaraj provided a (English & Tamil) policy in Tamilnadu.
stable government.
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 176 12-09-2018 19:38:52
More than, six decades of Dravidian Development Index). Today, Tamilnadu
rule contributed remarkably to the is in prominent position in promoting
development of Tamil. They steadfastly automobile industries, electronics, and
protected the interest of Tamil language, in pharmaceutical industries. it's new
Tamil people and Tamilnadu. A number economic zones are attracting huge
of welfare schemes were introduced to investments. Tamilnadu’s achievements in
alleviate the suffering of common people. infrastructural development are acclaimed
They ensured food security through by all. Roads, harbours, electrification
subsidized and later free rice schemes, and availability of skilled labour facilitate
nutritious meal scheme, free education industrial development.
until under graduate level, free electricity
for farming, abolition of cycle rickshaws There has been a manifold increase
and manual scavenging , cradle baby in the number of schools of different
scheme for the abandoned children, and categories. There is a manifold increase
welfare boards for various unorganized in the number of universities. Tamilnadu
workers, and even for transgender. As a has exclusive universities for women,
remedy to ruinous caste conflicts, engineering and technology, law,
‘Samathuvapuram’ and ‘Uzhavarsanthai’ medicine, siddha medicine, sports etc.
were created. Promotion of Tamil language, through
tamil university, ulaga tamil araichi
niruvanam, world tamil conference
and ulaga tamil semmozhi conference,
and script reforms, led to all-round
advancement of tamil language.
Glossary
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 177 12-09-2018 19:38:52
person contributes and receives according Regionalism – It is a political ideology
to their ability and needs. that focuses mainly on the interest of the
region or a particular state rather than the
Dravidian – The terminology denotes a
nation.
family of languages spoken in southern
Parts of India, especially Tamil Nadu, Reservation – It is also called a policy
Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh etc., of affirmative action mainly to empower
and Sri Lanka. the marginalized communities in socio-
E-Governance – Electronic Governance economic and political arenas.
is the application of information and Social Justice – It is a political concept
communication and technology (ICT) for which holds that all people should have
delivery of public services to people. equal access to wealth, health, well-being,
Federalism – It is a system of government justice and opportunity.
in which powers are distributed among Social Welfare - Services that are provided
various units of the government. by the government to help poor, needy
Political Alliance – Political alliances and marginalized people.
are formed by political parties in order Socialism – It is a theory which mainly
to prevent particular political parties to advocates that the means of production
capture power. should be controlled by the state and not
Populism - Political activities intended to by the private.
draw the support of the general public by State Autonomy – It is a theory which
giving them with welfare measures. stands for complete autonomy for state
Radicalism – People who advocate government in political and economic
their policies and programme through arenas.
aggressive means.
Evaluation
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3. Who introduced the kulakalvi scheme in Tamilnadu?
a) Rajaji b) Ramsamy
c) Kamaraj d) Karunanithi
a) 1885 b) 1947
c) 1857 d) 1965
9. Matching items
A B
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 179 12-09-2018 19:38:52
12. A
ssertion: Karunanidhi entered the Tamil Nadu assembly by winning the Kulithalai
seat in the 1957 election.
Reason : Karunanidhi became the Chief Minister of the State.
Directions: Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
in the context of the two statements, which of the following is correct?
13. A
ssertion -E.V. Ramasamy started the Self-Respect Movement.
Reason-The Self-Respect Movement is a movement with the aim of achieving a
society where Non-Brahmin castes have equal human rights
Directions: Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
in the context of the two statements, which of the following is correct?
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 180 12-09-2018 19:38:52
26. Write a note on Rajamannar Committee.
27. Explain the populist policies of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
government during 1991to1996.
IV Answer the following questions in detail
28. Find out the reasons for the emergence of Non-Brahmin Movement in Madras
Presidency.
29. Write an essay on anti-Hindi agitations.
30. Describe the circumstances that led to the formation of All India Anna Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam.
31. Bring out the social welfare policies of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam during 2006
to 2011.
32. Estimate the emergence of regional political parties and its impact on Tamil Nadu
politics.
Reference Books
1. Baker, C.J. (1976). The Politics of South India 1820-1937, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
4. M.S.S.Pandian, Brahmin and Non-Brahmin: Genealogies of the Tamil Political
Present, 2007.
9. V.Geetha, and S.V. Rajadurai, Towards a Non Brahmin Millenium - From
Iyothee Thass to Periyar, Calcutta, Samya, 1998.
11. Hardgrave, R.L. Jr. The Dravidian Movement, Bombay: Popular Prakashan,
1965.
181
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-2_Chapter 14.indd 181 12-09-2018 19:38:53
ICT CORNER
1. Click the URL or scan the QR code to launch the “Tamilnadu maps elections” page.
2. “Scroll the cursor” on the constituency map to know the representatives of that
constituency.
3. On the left window, click “Assembly Constituencies of Tamil Nadu” to know the
boundary of any legislative assembly constituency.
4. On the left window of the homepage, Click “Chief Ministers of Tamilnadu” to know
CM Time period.
Step 3
Step 1
Step 4
Step 2
Download Link
*Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.
https://www.mapsofindia.com/assemblypolls/tamil-nadu/election-
results.html
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UNIT
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evil, community, justice and kingdom) claims to have destroyed a ‘Tamil federation’
is a revelation of the Tamil polity. The which existed for 132 years. Similarly such
Sangam literary works have been grouped a Tamil federation of kings to fight foreign
into eight anthologies (Ettuthogai): invasion is also mentioned in ‘Agananooru’,
(1) Natrinai, (2) Kuruntogai, (3) Aingurunooru, a sangam literature. Hence the idea and
(4) Paditruppattu, (5) Paripadal, (6) Kalittogai, prevalence of Tamil nationalism is not simply
(7)Agananooru, and (8) Purananooru; and a consequence of colonialism. The roots of
there is a ninth group of poems called the Tamil nationalism are linked to the historical
Patthupattu (Ten Idylls).The early part of the role and significance of Tamil language and
first two books of Tholkappiyam, a work on culture in defining politics that could be
Tamil grammar, belongs to the same period. traced even in the Sangam age.
The famous post-Sangam literature The concept of State and the idea king
which was collected later as an anthology coincided with the territorial emphasis of
is known as the Kilkkanakku. There are 18 polity as the Greek city-state. The classical
works as part of this collection and the most Tamil country known as Tamizhagam
famous is Silappadikaram, Manimekalai and covered areas south of Tirupati hills up to the
Eighteen Minor Works (Pathinen kilkkanakku, tip of the Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari). The
which includes the Thirukkural) were written land was traditionally classified according
during this period. Prabandha literature to its nature into five geographical regions
consists of poetry of various forms: kovai, (tinai): the mountainous region (kurinji), the
in which the verses are arranged according forest areas(mullai), fertile plains (marudam),
to a particular theme (usually about love), coastal region (neidhal) and arid region
and kalambakam, in which the end of one (palai).
stanza/line formed the beginning of the next
Tamil speaking areas were divided
(usually about kings and bravery) and parani.
between the principalities of the Cholas (its
The best illustrations of this tradition are
capital at Uraiyur), the Pandyas (Madurai
the Pantikkovai, Nandikkalambakam, and
as capital), the Cheras in most of present
Kalingattup-parani.
Kongunadu (and Kerala) and the Pallavas
The ancient Tamil literature of (Kanchipuram as capital). Tamil country
Sangam age, Thirukkural, Silapathikaram, included several kingdoms ruled by kings
Manimegalai etc provide deep insights into (vendhar), major and minor chieftains (vel/
the nature of polity, society and culture. velar) who was less powerful than the crowned
Tamil language formed the core and essence kings. The Sangam poets sang songs of praise
of Tamil identity, culture, customs and about the velirs, especially the Seven Patrons,
traditions. Despite the diversity of land, for their generosity towards the poets. Kapilar
geography, rulers and chieftains spread across and Avvaiyar mention chieftains like, Aay,
the Tamil speaking areas the idea of Tamil Pari, Ori, Malayan, Elini, Pegan and Nalli..
country and confederation of Tamil speaking
The virtues of king did include the ideals
areas did exist. This literary finding(s) is
of Just Ruler with qualities of kindness towards
also substantiated by a stone inscription of
the subjects and bravery in the battlefield
Kalinga King Kharavela (BC(BCE) 165), who
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In praise of Citizen Kannagi
Extended Learning
Refer The Hindu website and read the article by Eric Miller. Share your views in
the classroom.
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against enemies. The sabhai or mandram the Cholas were represented by the tiger, the
was the highest court of justice presided by Cheras by the bow and arrow the Pandyas by
the king himself. Every village had its own the fish and the Pallavas by the lion.
mandram which met at a common public
The institution of ‘spy’ was considered as
place and was involved in organizing village
a necessary institution and the maintenance of
and community activities. Warriors were
peace and stability in the kingdom depended
respected, and a man who died in battle
on the effectiveness of this institution. Though
would have memorial stones erected in his
slavery as a form of institution was absent
honour and be worshipped in death. Even if a
yet capturing of slaves after invasions, and
warrior dies in battle field with a wound in his
slave trade or exchange for gifts did remain
back, it is considered derogatory in ‘Sangam’
as practice among the rulers to undertake
traditions.
construction and building works.
Lots of good practices of war find its
The practice of caste system or jati was
mention in sangam literature. Purananooru, a
unknown among ancient Tamils. The idea
sangam literature, hails the Pandyan king who
and concept of class with differences in status
announces all the women, children, sick and
based on professional distinctions did prevail.
elderly people, cattles, to move to safety zone
The caste system was alien and unknown to
before invading a country. The idea of justice
Sangam society. The division of society based
formed the conscience of State and king.
on class has been revealed by the Sangam
Justice is an essential element in a king’s rule.
poets who mention about social categories
A good king should never sacrifice justice.
(kudi): tudiyan, panan, and kadamban; or
Just rule and good deeds always will bring
arasar (rulers), vaishyar (traders), and velalar
everlasting fame to the king. An important
(farmers). Differences in status were accepted
political principle that prevailed was that
as inevitable, yet varna in the form of caste or
(Despite the nature of political system jati seems to be little known to Sangam society.
being monarchy) the legitimacy of the king
Though social stratification did prevail
rests with the consent of the people as long
yet legitimization of Manusmiriti or Aryan-
as he enjoys people’s support and he loses
Brahminical interpretation of caste as divine
legitimacy if he loses their support. Sangam
arrangement was not integral to the cultural
literature (Pattinappaalai) speaks about
universe or worldview of the ancient Tamils.
different types of taxations like customs duty,
The beginnings and early inroads of the
income tax, toll tax etc as specific source of
Aryan-Brahminical account of caste could
revenue to the State. Tamil kings and chieftains
be traced to later period of Sangam era.
ruled the land with simple administrative
The ancient religion of Tamils was based
structure of council of ministers, subordinates
on folk traditions. The worship of nature
and administrative officers. There were
and natural elements were more common.
officers to deal with foreign trade and customs
The worship of Murugan among the tribes
revenue which was an important part of the
of Tamil Nadu and the cult worship of
budget. Pandya inscriptions mention about
Murugan as the warrior God was based
officers for pearl fisheries (kalatika) and the
on folk culture. An earthly composition
chief scribes (kanatikan). In flags and coins,
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of God is rooted in the Tamil – Dravidian the results of this interaction as revealed by
traditions. It was only after the sixth century the themes and dedication of deity at temples.
AD(CE), inscriptions were written in Tamil
Women were highly respected and
as well as Sanskrit. Sanskritisation gradually
performed a variety of jobs and duties
spread to public space with the evoking of
including as bodyguards to the kings, yet
the doctrines of benevolence to Brahmin(s)
power and authority rested with men. Women
and divine blessings to the king .
participated in public assemblies but rulers
The seeking of blessings from the and administrators were mostly men. Women
Brahmin soon became a source of legitimacy formed significant part of social rituals and
for the Tamil king after this period. Along functioned as pivots of the family despite
with the Sanskritisation, Vedic rituals, the inheritance rights and formal authority
worship and orientation to social (caste) remained with men.
system as advocated in Manusmiriti found
In narrating the role and status of women
their passage to transform the professionally
in Tamil society we need to mention about the
stratified class structure of Dravidian society
tradition of Avvaiyar (meaning respectable
into a hierarchically classified social (caste)
women). More than a name, this was a title,
system with Vedic divine sanctions.
literary canon, given to distinguished women
The State and king were being seen as one who made contributions to Tamil literature.
and the same. The hereditary principle and There were as many as four to six women who
evoking of divine rights with earthly symbols held this Tamil literary canon title at different
were prevalent among the Tamil kings. The times based on different sources.
idea of territorial State provided inherent
Avvaiyars of Sangam age and Cholas
reconciliation to the changing dynasties
age are best known for their extraordinary
and geographical changes as boundaries of
influence upon literature, culture, moral
principalities were drawn and redrawn. The
universe, nature of polity, war, peace and the
governing principles of power and location of
art of diplomacy. Sangam age Avvaiyar lived
monarchy also moved from culture specific
during the 1st and 2nd century AD(CE). King
to power centric based on authority. Thus
Athiyaman Neduman Anchi of the Velir
in later period, during the post-Sangam era,
Dynasty was her chief patron and considered as
the king gradually became the sole source of
contemporary of literary legends Thiruvalluvar
authority.
and Kabilar with notable contribution of
The Pallavas maintained that as they verses in Natrinai, Kuruntogai, Akananooru
were the descendants of Brahma, the kingship and Purananooru. She is also credited as the
was of divine origin and was hereditary. The most gracious and scholarly diplomat who
Pallava period witnessed the penetration of undertook diplomatic missions for King
the Aryan culture of North India into the Adhiyaman Neduman Anchi. Avvaiyar, a
South as well as the assimilation of some poetess and friend of King Adhiyaman, ruler
of the patterns, ideas and institutions and of Tagadur, is supposed to have helped in
rejection or modification of certain other avoiding war between two kingdom states.
aspects. Tamil devotional culture was one of
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King Thondaiman, ruler of With the advancement of civilization
Kanchipuram, had sent him a note to the next stage through socio-economic
declaring his intention to attack Thagadur and technocratic developments, emerging
Avvaiyar spoke “Oh Thondiaman, how new ideas got stumbled by the existing
different indeed are your clean and shiny belief system and functions followed until
weapons from those of Adiyaman, always now. Albeit of these stumbling blocks, the
stained with blood and under repair.” constructive impact made by the thinkers
Thondaiman had far less experience in war and thinking is ever-lasting on the basis
and was unlikely to win — she was making of mind-capturing of the people. Ideas
this clear under the guise of praise. Another are dangerous than the technocratic
famous Avvaiyar was from the Cholas age, revolution, positively.Quite apart, pen is
around 10thCentury AD(CE), who wrote more powerful than sword.
moral universe for children and advocated
ethical principles for all. Whilst her works ACTIVITY
Aathichoodi and Konraiventhan were
"்றை குடி கூழ்அறமச்சு நட்்ரண் ஆறும்
written for young children, Mooturai and
உறைொன அரெருள் ஏறு" (குைள்: 381)
Nalvazhi were written for older children.
Thirukkural
All these classical works not only
reveal the cultural and literary traditions
of the ancient Tamils. They also serve as
Tamil
historical testimony to the nature of Tamil Identity culture
society, socio-cultural and religious beliefs, Philosophy
livelihood, vocations, professions, role and
status of women, marriage, gender, class
structure, origins of caste system, kinship,
polity, governance, ideas of justice, wars,
peace, diplomacy, naval warfare, maritime
“An army, people, wealth, a minister, friends, fort; six things
traditions, trade, commerce, shipbuilding
Who owns them all, a lion lives amid the kings”
and seafaring skills, economy, land, water
systems, agriculture, art, dance, poetry, (Kural: 381)
music, architecture and relationship with the
In your note draw three columns as given
neighbouring countries and far away places.
in the text book
Introduction POLITICS
what I know? what I want what I have
Politics intends to create change- to know? learnt?
oriented awareness in the society. It is not
necessary to adopt and follow the existing
social system which the present politics do.
This awareness can be initiated by ideas and
ideologies of society-laden thinkers.
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The definite part of thinkers is as follows: focuses on social justice. The political
ideologies in Tamil Nadu are a combination
Being the basis for the social changes and
of all three left, Right and centre ideologies.
subsequent events including the change in
the public minds; 15.2 Ancient Political Ideas
Having taken political decisions which had Thiruvalluvar
an impact on social turning points;
Serving as best brains behind the major
political decisions which has benefitted the
diversified communities;
To convert social ideas into common which
assisted people’s advancement belonging
to various communities
New political ideas are supported by
the activities of the political thinkers which
kindles interest and rational thinking of the
common people. The interaction of those
thinkers with the contemporary society makes
a new framework for the entire system.New
political decisions which intend to create great In Arathupal of Thirukkural, Valluvar
changes for the emerging generations were was a great enunciator of morals; In
undertaken.The day-to-day life of common Inbathupal, he has become a poet and
people may be engulfed with many changes by in Porutpal, he is known to be a political
the political decision of the thinkers.At world philosopher. The political philosophy of
level these kind of thinkers made changes
Thiruvalluvar is applicable across times
in the socio-political systems. Such great
even today.
thinkers made their extra-ordinary presence
throughout the past centuries in India in Seven Parts in Porutpal
general and Tamilnadu in particular.
Porutpal consists of 7 parts, further it
National political thinkers, Tamil political has 70 verses / couplets. They are Politics-25,
thinkers, Socialist thinkers, Thinkers of social Ministry-10, Defence-2, Wealth-1, Army-2,
justice are the different parts of modern
Friendship-17, and citizens-13 respectively.
categorization. In this part we can discuss
about different political thinkers of Tamilnadu “்றை குடி கூழ்அறமச்சு நட்்ரண் ஆறும்
who made out-standing contribution for the உறைொன அரெருள் ஏறு“ (குைள்: 381)
social changes.
“An army, people, wealth, a minister, friends, fort; six things
Political ideologies in Tamilnadu is rich Who owns them all, a lion lives amid the kings”
with ideas, beliefs, opinions and attitudes (Kural: 381)
towards society, polity and economy. This
is evident from the ancient political ideas Thus, in porutpal, at the first verse itself
of Thiruvalluvar, where as Bharathiyar is a valluvar differentiated the six categories
nationalist and Singaravelar is a communist. essential for a state. Thus, different parts
According to periyar, Dravidian ideology
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of government are ministry, army, wealth, words of Valluvar regarding government
people, friendship and citizens, which and state is applicable and suitable to all
determines the rule of a king. Moreover, over the period as well as every organization
these components are categorized for king in the world.
in a separate way, thus contributing a lot
Welfare state and King
of ideas regarding administration of a state
and assets for a king. To put it in simple words, Valluvar’s
political system is based on welfare state.
Nature of a king – 25 Chapters
For instance, in Iraimatchi (Qualities of a
In porutpal, Valluvar mentioned ruler), he says
about nature of a king in detailed manner
முறைசெய்து காப்பாற்றும் மன்னவன் மக்கட்கு
in 25 chapters starting from Qualities of
இறையென்று வைக்கப் படும். (குறள்: 388)
ruler (Iraimatchi – chapter 39) to idukkan
azhaiyaamai (Unfazed in the face of trouble ho guards the realm and justice strict maintains,
W
– chapter 63) in 25 chapters, in the name That king as god over subject people reigns.
of “Arasar”, “Vender”, “Nilan Aandavar” (Kural: 388)
“Mannavar” he has indicated 46 times about
If a king delivered justice by doing the
the king.
duties honestly, he may be regarded as a
The King must possess the leadership God. Ideal path and welfare – arrived kings
qualities such as, Education (40), Listening can be respected and kept on par with divine.
Ability (42), Wisdom (43), Fending off This kind of view is not only applicable to
Faults (44), Seeking the company of great monarchical period but it also applicable to
men (45), Avoiding mean–minded (46) present democratic period.
Rationality (47), Priority for time for action
Features of State
(51), Assessing and Assigning tasks (52),
Embracing the Kin (53), Doing duty without The characteristics of a state is to
forgetting (54), Justice (55), Knowing the maintain ethics, the eradication of wrong
right place (50), Refraining from Terrifying doing activity, mandating impartiality of
Deeds (57), Compassion (58), Espionage justice and protection of honour.
(59), Spirit (60), To avoid laziness (61),
அறனிழுக்கா தல்லவை நீக்கி மறனிழுக்கா
Perseverance (62) and Determination (63)
மானம் உடைய தரசு (குறள்: 384)
which should be the requisites of a king.
These above-mentioned qualities may also Kingship, in virtue failing not, all vice restrains,
be possessed by good people. In courage failing not, it honour’s grace maintains.
(Kural: 384)
Ideas on Democracy
Valluvar lived in the period of King’s path is the peoples’ path, king
monarchy. However, his ideas and ideals should act as a guide for his subjects, if he
are also applicable for the present leaders of does harm or evil activities, it may influence
democracy. He also indicated the nature of all. It is because of his position as a leader,
state and government in the king’s rule. The his discipline and private life will spread
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to all in the kingdom. Moral and ethical indefinite agonies among the people. Those
life is quite essential for the ruling kings. tears are most powerful and may annihilate
Indicating “Respect” in a broad manner the entire kingdom.
relating it with nation, Valluvar gave priority
அல்லற்பட்டு ஆற்றாது அழுதகண் ணீரன்றே
for great honour which may be equated with
செல்வத்தைத் தேய்க்கும் படை (குறள் 555)
the courage. He stressed that king must be
loyal to the nation, it is the honour of nation. His people’s tears of sorrow past endurance, are not they
Sharp instrument to wear the marches wealth away.
Ideal State and Welfare of people
(Kural: 555)
In the monarchical rule, the integrity
Sad tears of suffering citizens may
and ideal governance for all periods were
dethrone and destroy the entire government,
advocated by Valluvar. People of all regions
says Thiruvalluvar. Tears were equated with
expect rain for their growth; likewise,
army, thus Valluvar’s visualization stands
citizens of a nation expect integrity and
unique among others.
ideal rule of the king.
Autocrats and Dictators like Hitler,
வான�ோக்கி வாழும் உலகெல்லாம் மன்னவன்
Mussolini and Czar were the negative
க�ோல்நோக்கி வாழுங் குடி. (குறள்: 542)
players for whom, Thirukkural served as a
All earth looks up to heaven where raindrops fall; funeral sound.
All subjects look to king that ruleth all.
Government’s Budget
(Kural: 542)
A king should be an able handed
In this couplet Valluvar indicates “Kol”
administrator in increasing the income of
as ideal rule which not only applies for
government. Further he should be an expert
monarchy but also for democracy.
in handling the budget.
குடிதழீஇக் க�ோல�ோச்சும் மாநில மன்னன்
In Iraimatchi, he said,
அடிதழீஇ நிற்கும் உலகு. (குறள் 544)
Whose heart embraces subjects all, lord over mighty land இயற்றலும் ஈட்டலும் காத்தலும் காத்த
Who rules, the world his feet embracing stands. வகுத்தலும் வல்ல தரசு. (குறள் 385)
(Kural: 544)
A king is be who treasure gains, stores up, defends,
This means that for a King, who protects And duly for his kingdom’s weal expends.
his citizens with love and affection, his feet (Kural: 385)
will be embraced by his subjects with love.
This is an everlasting phrase propounded by At first point, a king should search for
Valluvar related to good governance. the different sources of income. For this,
he calls it as “Iyatral”. Then, the second
Against Tyranny
point is that, all such resources should
In the chapter “Kodungonmai”, (Cruel be put together, which is called as “Ettal”.
Scepter) Valluvar explained it in negative Third, the resources thus collected must be
words. The suppressive and exploitative protected with all precautionary measures
rule of evil king may kindle unknown and which is called as “Kaathal”
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Fourth one, is most important (i.e) “People’s-welfare” is the basic foundation of
allotting the resources to various sectors for his contribution.
the welfare of the people, this he called it as
To put it in a different way, Valluvar’s
“Vagutthal”. Thus iyatral, eetall, kaathal and
contribution to politics is applicable to
vaguthal are the four ways of utilizing the
the present democratic governance for the
income to be expertise by the king of nation.
welfare of all the people.
It is a primary duty of the king.
The qualities that were indicated by
These innovative and practical ideas
Valluvar for a king may also apply to the
were accepted by political and as well as
citizens. Thus, he used the words “Idukkan
economic exponents as the basic idea of
Ariyamai”, “Kalvi” for “Vazhum Uyirku”,
socialistic society.
“Maandharkku” which is for all the people.
Relevance of Thiruvalluvar
The political ideas advocated by
The Educational qualities that are indicated Valluvar in porutpal highly circumvent
by Valluvar for a king may also apply to the around morals and noble principles.
citizens. Thus, he used the words “Idukkan “People’s-welfare” is the basic foundation of
Ariyamai”, “Kalvi” for “Vazhum Uyirku”, his contribution.
“Maandharkku” which is for all the people.
To put it in a different way Valluvar’s
The political ideas advocated by contribution to politics is majorly applicable
Valluvar in porutpal highly circumvent to the present democratic governance for
around morals and noble principles. the great welfare of all the people.
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15.3 Nationalism Significantly, a new age in Tamil
Subramaniya Bharathiyar literature began with Subramaniya Bharathi.
(1882 – 1921) Most part of his compositions are classifiable
as short lyrical outpourings on patriotic,
devotional and mystic themes. Bharathi was
essentially a lyrical poet. “Kannan Pattu”
“Nilavum Vanminum Katrum” “Panchali
Sabatam” “Kuyil Pattu” are examples of
Bharathi’s great poetic output.
Bharathi is considered as a national
poet due to his number of poems of the
patriotic flavour through which he exhorted
the people to join the independence struggle
and work vigorously for the liberation of the
ஜாதி மதங்களைப் பார�ோம் - country. Instead of merely being proud of
உயர் ஜன்மம்இத் தேசத்தில் எய்தின ராயின்
வேதிய ராயினும் ஒன்றே - his country he also outlined his vision for a
அன்றி வேறு குலத்தின ராயினும் ஒன்றே free India. He published the sensational
“Sudesa Geethangal” in 1908.
We shall not look at caste or religion,
All human beings in this land,
whether they be those who preach the
Bharathiyar's "Panchali Sabatham"
vedas or who belong to other castes are
(The vow of Draupadi) is an iconic
one.
work that pictures India as Draupadi,
-Subramaniya Bharati the British, the Kauravas and the
freedom fighters as Pandavas. Through
Draupadi’s struggle, he euphemised the
C. Subramaniya Bharathiyar was a
struggle of mother India under British
poet, freedom fighter and social reformer
rule.
from Tamil Nadu. He was known as
Mahakavi Bharathiyar and the laudatory
epithet Mahakavi means a great poet. He is Bharathi as a Journalist
considered as one of India’s greatest poets. Many years of Bharathi’s life were spent
His songs on nationalism and freedom of in the field of journalism, Bharathi, as a
India helped to rally the masses to support young man began his career as a journalist
the Indian Independence Movement in and as a sub-editor in “Swadesamitran” in
Tamil Nadu. November 1904.“India” saw the light of the
Bharathi: A poet and a Nationalist day in May, 1906. It declared as its motto
the three slogans of the French Revolution,
“We may have thousand of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. It blazed
sects; that, however, does not a new trail in Tamil Journalism. In order
justify a foreign invasion.”
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to proclaim its revolutionary ardour,
Bharathi had the weekly printed in red In Madras, in 1908, he organised a
paper. “India” was the first paper in Tamil mammoth public meeting to celebrate
Nadu to publish political cartoons. He ‘Swaraj Day’. His poems ‘Vanthe
also edited and published 'Vijaya', a Tamil Matharam’, ‘Enthayum Thayum’, ‘Jaya
daily “Bala Bharatha” an English monthly, Bharath’ were printed and distributed
and 'Suryothayam' a local weekly of free to the Tamil People.
Pondicherry.
It is not surprising therefore that soon away to Pondicherry, a French territory at
a warrant was waiting at the door of the that time, and continue to publish the “India”
“India” office for the arrest of the editor of the magazine. Bharathi resided in Pondicherry
magazine. It was because of this worsening for sometime to escape the wrath of the
situation in 1908 that Bharathi decided to go British imperialists.
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Annual sessions of Indian National Congress
and discuss national issues with extremist
Indian National Leaders like Bipin Chandra
Pal, B.G. Tilak and V.V.Subramaniam. His
participation and activities in Benaras Session
(1905) and Surat Session (1907) of the
Indian National Congress impressed many
national leaders about his patriotic fervour.
Bharathi had maintained good relations
with some of the national leaders and shared
his thoughts and views on the nation and
offered his suggestions to strengthen the
nationalist movement. Undoubtedly, his wise
suggestions and steadfast support to the cause
During his exile, Bharathi had the of nationalism rejuvenated many national
opportunity to mingle with many leaders leaders. Thus Bharathi played a pivotal role in
of the militant wing of the independence the freedom of India.
movement such as Aurobindo, Lajpat Rai Bharathiyar as a social reformer
and V.V.Subramaniam who had also sought
asylum in the French ruled Pondicherry. The Bharathi was also against caste system.
most profitable years of Bharathi’s life were He declared that there were only two castes-
the ten years he spent in Pondicherry. From men and women and nothing more than
Pondicherry, he guided the Tamil youth of that. Above all, he himself had removed his
Madras to tread in the path of nationalism. sacred thread. He had also adorned many
This increased the anger of the British towards scheduled caste people with sacred thread.
Bharathi’s writings as they felt that it was He used to take tea sold in shops run by
his writings that induce and influence the Muslims. He along with his family members
patriotic spirit of the Tamil youth. Bharathi attended church on all festival occasions. He
met Mahatma Gandhi in 1919 in Rajaji’s advocated temple entry of Dalits. For all his
home at Madras. Bharathi entered British reforms, he had to face opposition from his
India near Cuddalore in November 1918 and neighbours. But Bharathi was very clear that
was promptly arrested. Even in prison, he unless Indians unite as children of Mother
spent his time in writing poems on freedom, India, they could not achieve freedom. He
nationalism and country’s welfare. believed in women’s rights, gender equality
and women emancipation. He opposed child
In his early days of youth he had good marriage, dowry system and supported widow
relations with Nationalist Tamil Leaders remarriage.
like V.O.Chidambaram, Subramanya
Siva, Mandayam Thirumalachariar and
Srinivasachari. Along with these leaders he
used to discuss the problems facing the country
due to British rule. Bharathi used to attend the
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for the people and nation. That is why he
His meeting with Sister Nivedita, is respectfully called as Bharathiyar. Even
Swami Vivekananda’s disciple, added today, after many decades, Subramaniya
women’s rights to his already wide Bharathiyar stands as an undying symbol
repertoire of social issues from caste of Indian freedom and vibrant Tamil
to Independence to spiritualism. He nationalism.
took up the symbolism of Shakthi as
the image of modern women; powerful, 15.4 Communism
strong, independent and equal partners Singara Velar (1860-1946)
to men.
Bharathiyar – A Visionary
Bharathi as a poet, journalist, freedom
fighter and social reformer had made a The emergence of Swadeshi and Home
great impact not only on the Tamil society rule movement in India in the initial part of
but also on the entire human society. He 20th century aroused the thirst for freedom.
followed what all he preached and it is Reforms were made in Hindu religion in
here that his greatness is manifested. His accordance with the existing society. These
prophecy during the colonial period about movements played a key role in creating the
the independence of India came true after feeling of Indiannes and Nationalism in the
two and half decades after his demise. His political Scenario.
vision about a glorious India has been But these movements are religious in
taking a shape in the post-Independence nature. Moreover, those who participated
era. Bharathi did not live for himself but in these movements are from upper social
class. Freedom sought by these people are
political in nature neglecting the interests
and economic upliftment of farmers and
Bharathiyar passed away on 11th
labourers. This affected the majority
September 1921.It was a travesty that
Indians who are poor and belong to farmers
only 14 people attended his funeral,
community. Further, caste discrimination
fearing repercussion from the British
existed within Congress Party. Particularly,
and caste ostracisation.
in Tamilnadu there existed a clear difference
between brahmins and non-brahmins.
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In this context, Singaravelar played a sought support from Congress members.
pivotal role in spreading rational ideas and
Indian freedom includes economic
scientific perception in to politics. He also
freedom of workers and farmers.
played a key role in connecting welfare of
farmers and workers in to freedom struggle The welfare of farmers and labourers
and spreading socialist thinking in to should also be the motto of Congress
politics. party.
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action of Periyar. After visiting USSR, Abolition of Zamindari system
Periyar was influenced by the Communist For People
ideals. He changed the name of self-respect
movement to Self-Respect Social Justice Voting rights for all
Party. Singaravelar made his contribution Right to contest in elections for poor,
in framing the policies and principles of labour and farmer communities.
the movement. He also wrote extensively First socialist conference was headed
in Periyar’s Republic magazine against by Singaravelar in 1925, in Kanpur. He
superstitious beliefs. These writings were spoke about socialism without violence.
simple and can be understood easily. Also, he resolved for adopting Communism
Singaravelar has a deep faith in the according to Indian circumstances. A
philosophy of Communisim. He urged socialist should play a role by being in the
the Congress party to support labour member of Congress Party, he advised.
organizations. In the name of Madras Eventually, Socialist block was formed
Socialists, he telegraphed Congress High inside the Congress Party.
Command. In all the Congress Committee Life and Services
meetings he argued as a Communist
representative. Since his childhood Singaravelar
did not believe in the Varna System and
In1923, it was he, who organized the superstitious belief. As a result of this,
first May Day celebrations in Chennai. In he established Buddhist Association and
the same day, he announced the formation of propagated against Varna System and
labour-farmer political party. The demands superstitious beliefs during 1880 itself.
of his new political party are
Born in a rich family and well versed
Eight hours work with law, he served as a member in Chennai
Right to form union Municipality and also in health sector.
Right to strike as a last resort to Due to the endemic diseases in the down-
pressure labour demands. trodden areas, he gave priority to health
Three level committees for reviewing and education. He also fought for rights of
the demands. labourers. Based on this, he played active
Minimum wages role in Congress Party. Later, he joined in
Shelter with basic amenities Periyar’s Self – Respect movement.
Medical and life Insurance
Provident fund facility Though he entered into politics after he
Earned leave crossed the age of 50, he actively propagated
Free Medical assistance and wrote about communist ideas for more
Maternity leave than thirty years. He was fondly remembered
Put an end to contract basis and called as the first communist of south
India.
For Farmers
Free water for agriculture
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15.5 Dravidian Ideology Periyar was attracted towards Gandhi’s
entry into politics and hence joined congress
Periyar (1879-1973)
and became actively participating in freedom
movement and social reforms. During that
period in 1920’s Congress was dominated by
upper class people. But Periyar took Congress
to the down trodden and successfully organized
temple entry movements as a true Congress
man. Periyar was very much disgruntled by
the practice of Varnashrama in Congress party
Introduction and left it. He joined Justice party and formed
the self respect movement later. After this, the
Periyar E.V.Ramasamy is regarded as
contributions and activities of Periyar became
the best political thinker in Tamilnadu. This
inseparable from the politics of India and
is because he is the foremost reformist in
Tamilnadu in particular.
our state. Let us see about him in detail in
this lesson. In the name of nation, if a group of
people exploit other groups that is not the
real freedom which a nation fought for,
said Periyar alias E.V. Ramasamy. Periyar
The original name of Periyar is vociferously criticized against Nation,
E.V.Ramasamy. He was born in the year Race and Nationalism at various levels.
1879 in an affluent business family in All Nation, nationality and nationalism
Erode. Even during his youth, Periyar are similarly related concepts. All these
criticized the superstitious beliefs in his differentiations indicate the “Self Respect”
family and surroundings. He did not of the entire population of a country.
enter politics at the early stages of his If anybody speaks about nationalism
career. But still, he occupied posts like in Tamilnadu, I wonder, that will they
chairman of Erode municipality. think about “welfare or botheration about
people” questioned Periyar.
Periyar fought against superstitious Nationalism as exploitation
beliefs, enslavement of women and social
There are people who may not bother
backwardness which existed in Tamilnadu
about Indians, Tamilians and the self-
from time immemorial based on his
respect of the people. They deceive people
wisdom and self-respect throughout his
to believe in nation and nationalism for their
life. It is because of this, he is fondly called
own welfare and betterment. If self-respect
as ‘Thanthai Periyar’. Various scholars
is submerged in the name of nation and
on Social Justice say that the Dravidian
nationalism that will be the crime against
ideology enunciated by Periyar on cultural
India, stated Periyar.
lines shines all around our country.
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An iconoclast and rationalist social reformer
His work and his legacy
For the average Tamil, Periyar today is an ideology. He stands for a politics that
foregrounded social equality, self-respect, and linguistic pride. As a social reformer, he
focused on social, cultural and gender inequalities, and his reform agenda questioned
matters of faith, gender and tradition. He asked people to be rational in their life choices.
He argued that women needed to be independent, not mere child-bearers, and insisted that
they be allowed a equal share in employment. The Self Respect Movement he led promoted
weddings without rituals, and sanctioned property as well as divorce rights for women. He
appealed to people to give up the caste suffix in their names, and do not mention caste. He
instituted inter-dining with food cooked by Dalits in public conferences in the 1930s.
Over the years, Periyar has transcended the political divide as well as the faultlines of
religion and caste, and come to be revered as Thanthai Periyar, the father figure of modern
Tamil Nadu.
Courtesy ; Arun Janardhanan, The New Indian Express, 13.3.2018.
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like rich-poor, owner-worker, powerful- Language should not be misused
powerless in that region. Those people of as weapon for separatism. If people are
high value and egalitarian-longing are not dependent upon Central rule for all kinds
equal to the nation which gives priority for of amenities, there is no outcome in it. If
God and Nationalism. languages are officialised at Central level,
By showing other nations as evidences, will the poor people relieve out of hunger?
Periyar also criticized Indian nationalistic To put it in clear way, are Tamil labourers
feelings and patriotism. Because these exploited only by the Tamil speaking owner
feelings are exploited as weapons by certain class?
dominant groups.
Casteless Society
India – A Land of Diversities
Periyar’s protests and speeches always
Whether “Nation” as a concept is
centre around, “Tamilnadu for Tamils
suitable for India? Periyar raised a pertinent
and Dravidian nation for Dravidians.” His
question and answer as well.
ideologies include Common plan, common
“Madras is not a separate nation and work plan, Islamic conversion, separate
cannot function separately,” says some of Dravidian nation for which he fought
our friends. Once ‘Madras’ was a nation. against the dominant communities.
Also now, “Dravidam” it is. The culture and
other practices are different from Bengal His argument was that the dominant
and Mumbai. English language is the communities misused Tamil, Tamil
main base for the familiarly among these nationalism, Tamil race for sustaining
different nations in India. If British Empire the power in Tamilnadu. It is with the
and its language is relieved from India, help of Tamil leaders, they injected Tamil
Hindi may become the national language. nationalism in the minds of the people for
Instead of calling India as a nation, Dravida holding the power for a long time he said.
Nadu, Andhra, Bengal can be separately Consequently, Periyar put an end to the
called as nations respectively. For instance, demand of separate Tamilnadu and upheld
Dravidian nation had its culture, language, the ideal of casteless society.
civilization and rule for thousands of
Thus, casteless society has become the
years on accordance with historical facts.
top most priority for Periyar. Other ideals
Undoubtedly it is known to all the people.
like separate Dravidian nation, abounding
“Dravidian Nationalism” proposed by dominant communities, distortion of
Periyar was to a large extent against religious capitalist class became secondary priorities
dominations. for Periyar.
On Language
This may be the only ambition and goals
Each and everyone have their own rights for Dravida Kazhagam, claimed Periyar. “The
to protect their languages. These rights can caste feeling, thus divided the Dravidian race
be protected and provided under Dravida, and Dravidians became slaves for Aryans”
Socialist Republic Rule. No language can be stated Periyar in his writings published in
enforced. the 1950’s in Tamilnadu.
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Pure Tamil Movement : Pure-Tamil
Glossary Movement, a movement aimed at freeing
the Tamil language from alien language
Political Ideology : It is a certain set words, particularly Sanskrit.
of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines,
myths or symbols of a social movement, Social Freedom : The concept of
institution, class or large group that interpersonal or social freedom refers
explains how society should work and to relationships of interaction between
offers some political and cultural blueprint persons or groups, namely, that one actor
for a certain social order. leaves another actor, who is free to act in
certain ways.
Political Movement : It is a social group that Home Rule Movement : Between the years
operates together to obtain a political goal. 1916 and 1918, the Indian independence
movement was sperarheaded by Dr.
Social Movement : It is a type of group
Besant's home rule league.
action. Social movements can be defined
as organizational structures and strategies Politics : The activities associated with the
that may empower oppressed populations governance of a country or area, especially
to mount effective challenges and resist the debate between parties having power.
the more powerful and advantaged elites.
Discrimination : The unjust or prejudicial
Dravidian Movement : Dravidian movement treatment of different categories of people,
developed in Madras Presidency which especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.
comprises the four major ethno-linguistic
Violence : behaviour involving physical
groups in South India.
force intended to hurt, damage, or kill
Self-Respect Movement : The Self-Respect someone or something.
Movement is a movement with the aim of
Peace : It is the concept of harmony and the
achieving a society where backward castes
absence of hostility. In a behavioral sense,
have equal human rights
peace is a lack of conflict and freedom
Labour Movement : A movement organized from fear of violence between individuals
for the betterment of labourers and heterogeneous social groups.
Justice Party : Communal division between National Movement : A national movement
Brahmins and non-Brahmins began in the is a social and political movement for
presidency during the late-19th and early- obtaining and maintaining national
20th century, mainly due to caste prejudices identity and autonomy among a group of
and disproportionate Brahminical people that some of its members consider
representation in government jobs. a nation.
Casteless Society : Of a society, an Ideal State : It would be a nation state that
egalitarian society without caste structure only exists in the realm of ideas and does
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not exist or cannot exist in the material world. Everyone has their own concept of “ideal
nation state”.
Welfare state : a system whereby the state undertakes to protect the health and well-being
of its citizens.
Evaluation
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10. Bharathiyar was born in
(a) Ettayapuram (b) Trichy (c) Tirunelveli (d) Chennai
11. Who started the self respect movement in Tamil Nadu?
(a) Annadurai (b)E.V.R. Periyar
(c) Maraimalai Adigal (d) Singaravelar
12. Who said that “ Tamilnadu for Tamils and Dravida nation for Dravidians.”?
(a) Ilangovadigal (b)E.V.R. Periyar
(c) Singaravelar (d) Maraimalai Adigal
13. In which year a labour protective law was passed in british India?
(a)1914 (b) 1924 (c) 1926 (d) 1928
14. Why did Periyar left Indian National Congress?
a) Ahimsa b) Varnashrama Dharma
c) Personal differences d) None of them
15. Assertion: Bharathiyar went to Pondicherry and hide himself.
Reason: Bharathiyar was the editor of 'India' a Tamil daily spreading Nationalism.
Directions: Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
in the context of the two statements, which of the following is correct?
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
II Match the following:
16. Cholas - Madurai
17. Cheras - Kongunadu
18. Pandyas - Kanchipuram
19. Pallavas - Uraiyur
III Answer the following questions very shortly
20. What is thirukkural?
21. How many Parts are in Porutpal?
22. Who is the writer of Kuyil Pattu?
23. Explain Bharathiyar's ideas on women empowerment.
24. Discuss Bharathiyar as a Journalist.
25. Describe the views of Periyar on God.
26. Write a short note on Singaravelar's role in Labour Movement
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27. What is Singaravelar's ideas on Politics?
28. Describe Singaravelar’s Life and Services to Tamil Society.
IV Answer the following questions shortly
29. What is Thiruvalluvar’s ideas on Welfare state and King?
30. Explain Valluvar's views on Tyranny
31. Describe Bharathiyar's views on British rule.
32. Explain Bharathiyar's views on Nationalism.
33. Examine the ideas of Singaravelar on Congress Party.
34. List out the demands submitted by Singaravelar in 1922.
35. Enumerate the ideas of Periyar on Dravidanadu
36. Write a note on the Social reforms of Periyar.
V Answer the following questions in detail
37. Write a short note on the thiruvalluvar’s ideas in the society.
38. Discuss Singaravelar as a labour leader in Tamil Nadu.
39. Elaborate the Socio-Political contributions of Bharathiyar to Tamil Nadu.
40. Explain the life history and contribution of Periyar.
41. Trace the background of Political thought in Tamil Nadu.
Reference
1. Padmaja, R, Purushothaman, V.P (2000). Sanga Kaala Mannargalin Kaala Nilai. Volume 1.
International institute of Tamil Studies: Chennai.
2. Pope .G.U , “Thirukkural: English translation and commentary”, Kazhagam 2017 edition.
3. Rajaram.M, “ I sing the glory of this Land: Translated verses of Bharathiyar”, Rupa Publica-
tions, Chennai, 2018.
4. Vasanthakumaran .P , ” The godfather of Indian labour : M. Singaravelar” , Chennai : Poorn-
ima Publishers, 2003.
5. Veeramani. K , “ Thoughts of Periyar”, DRAVIDAR KAZHAGAM PUBLICATIONS , chennai
,(2012),
6. Palanithurai. G, “ Caste Politics and Society in Tamilnadu”, South Asia Books (1 July 1994)
7. Puranannoru….. See ‘Purananooru, moolamum thelivum', Manimegalai prasuram, pg 82
Internet Sources:
http://15hsactn15.blogspot.com/2017/07/the-sangam-age-society.html
https://allmyearthlythoughts.wordpress.com/2017/06/02/avvaiyar-the-story-of-the-
many-women-who-carried-that-name/
http://vijeejournalist.com/2016/10/avvaiyar-the-diplomat/
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KEY TERMS
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Independent – சுயேச்சை வேட்பாளர் Politician – அரசியல்வாதி
candidate
Polling process – வாக்களிக்கும் நடைமுறை
Information – தகவல்
Popular will – மக்கள் விருப்பம்
Innovation – புதுமை
Popularity – பிரபலம்
Identity Politics - அடையாள அரசியல்
President of India – இந்திய குடியரசுத் தலைவர்
Imagined - கற்பனை சமூகங்கள்
Communities Progress – முன்னேற்றம்
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Political Ideology - அரசியல் லட்சியம் Protective - பாதுகாப்பிலான மக்களாட்சி
Democracy
Political Obligation - அரசியல் கடப்பாடு
Promulgation - நடைமுறைப்படுத்துதல்
Political Parties - அரசியல் கட்சிகள்
Psychology - உளவியல்
Political - அரசியல் துருவமடைதல்
Polarization Public Opinion - ப�ொதுக் கருத்து
Political Power - அரசியல் வலிமை Public Sector - ப�ொதுத்துறை
Political Rights - அரசியல் உரிமைகள் Purchasing Power - வாங்குந்திறன் சமநிலை
Parity
Political Science - அரசியல் அறிவியல்
Post-Modern - பின் நவீனத்துவ பெண்ணியம்
Political Self- - அரசியல் சுய நிர்ணயம் Feminism
Determination
Patriarchy - ஆணாதிக்கம்
Political Sociology - அரசியல் சமூகவியல்
Post-Colonial - பின் காலனிய பெண்ணியம்
Political - அரசியல் இறையாண்மை Feminism
Sovereignty
Positive Rights - நேர்மறை உரிமைகள்
Political System - அரசியல் முறைமை
Political Theory - அரசியல் க�ோட்பாடு Post-Modernism - பின் நவீனத்துவம்
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Radical Democracy - தீவிர மக்களாட்சி Seats – இடங்கள்
Real Sovereignty - மெய்யான இறையாண்மை Security deposit – பிணைத்தொகை
Real Will - மெய்யான விருப்பம் Social activist – சமூக செயற்பாட்டாளர்
Realism - மெய்மைவாதம் State legislature – மாநில சட்டமன்றம்
Reason - பகுத்தறிவு Sub-continent – துணைக்கண்டம்
Recall System - திரும்ப அழைத்தல் முறை Superintendence – கண்காணிப்பு
Recognition - ஏற்பு Satyagraha - சத்தியாகிரகம்
Referundum - மக்கள் ஒப்பம் Scheduled Castes - பட்டியல் இனத்தவர் மற்றும்
and Scheduled பழங்குடியினர்
Regional Alliances - வட்டாரக் கூட்டணிகள் Tribes
Religious - மத அடிப்படைவாதி Secessionism - பிரிவினைவாதம்
Fundamentalist
Secular State - மதச்சார்பற்ற அரசு
Religious - மத சிறுபான்மையினர்
Minorities Secularism - மதச்சார்பின்மை
Renaissance - மறுமலர்ச்சி Self-Rule - சுயாட்சி
Representative - பிரதிநிதி Seminary - இறையியல் கல்லூரி
Representative - பிரதிநிதித்துவ மக்களாட்சி Senior Citizens - மூத்த குடிக்கள்
Democracy
Separation of - அதிகாரப் பிரிவினை
Representative - பிரதிநிதித்துவ அரசாங்கம் Powers
Government
Service Sector - சேவைத் துறை
Republic - குடியரசு
Sessions - கூட்டத் த�ொடர்கள்
Reverse - தலைகீழ் பாகுபாடு
Discrimination Simple Majority - சாதாரண பெரும்பான்மை
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Society - சமுதாயம் Unethical – நன்னெறிக்குப் புறம்பான
Soft State - மென்மை அரசு Unfair – நியாயமற்ற
Sovereignty - இறையாண்மை Urban local body – நகர்ப்புற உள்ளாட்சி அமைப்பு
Speaker - சபாநாயகர் Utopian Socialism - கற்பனையிலான சமதர்மம்
Spirit - உத்வேகம் Universalism - பிரபஞ்சவாதம்
Spoils System - அரசியல் சார்ந்த அரசுப் பதவி Vice President of - இந்திய குடியரசு துணைத்
முறை India தலைவர்
Standing - நிலைக்குழு Vidhan Sabha – விதான் சபை (சட்டமன்ற
Committee கீழவை)
State Legislative - மாநில சட்டப்பேரவை Voters` list – வாக்காளர் பட்டியல்
Assembly
Votes – வாக்குகள்
Structure - கட்டமைப்பு
Ward – நகரின் உட்பிரிவு (வார்டு) /
Structural - கட்டமைப்பு செயல்பாட்டு குடும்பு
Functional அணுகுமுறை
Approach Weaker sections – நலிவுற்ற பிரிவினர்
State of Nature - இயற்கை நிலை Withdrawal - திரும்பப்பெறுதல்
Statelessness - அரசற்றநிலை Writ of Certiorari - சான்றாய்வு / நெறிப்படுத்தும்
நீதிப்பேராணை
State - அரசு
Writ of Habeas - ஆட்கொணர்வு நீதிப்பேராணை
Suffrage - வாக்குரிமை Corpus
Sustainable - நிலையான வளர்ச்சி Writ of Mandamus - கட்டளை / செயலுறுத்தும்
Development நீதிப்பேராணை
Summit - உச்சி மாநாடு Write of - தடை நீதிப்பேராணை
Supervision - மேற்பார்வை Prohibition
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