Anthropology as Cultural Critique AN EXPERIMENTAL MOMENT IN THE HUMAN SCIENCES George E. Marcus and Michael M. J. Fischer Second EditionAisne Saco - chicken Mehl Fab toy Contents Place Inerodoton co the Second Edition Inerodscton [A Gtiss of Representation nthe Human Sciences Ethnography and lterpectve Anthropology Conveying Other Cult Experience: The Person, Sat and Emotions “Taking Account of Worl Historia Pla Pconomy: Kaowable Communities in Larger Stems “The Repatiation of Anthropology as Cltral Critique Tivo Contemporary Technigues of Calta Criiue in Anthropology A Concluding Note Notes References Index wr 6 19Preface In the United States and elsewhere, recent decades have witnesed a profound challenge tothe purpose and styles of theory that have {uid the socal scenes sine tei late intent racy anthropology and ater relted disciplines could be sigufcanly ‘stbuted to an nstationsl or profesional cris which paral the inlctual exis that me perceive Tete a marked devine of ov rnment interest in and support for, research ina numberof fils, Inclingatheopoiogy. Entolmentsbave Seen declining nationally sandergaduate programs of anthropology, among othe dsines of ‘he soul setences and humanities; the numberof teaching research poston in universes has radially deceased; graduate programs Rave declined in number, ax potential scholars seek more secre o> fessions ip law, business, and medicine. “Treas indeed steady been the painfl los ofa generation of highly tained antropology PhDs to other ocupatons. Those lucky ‘rough ta hold tenured appoinmens do not erape demoralztion {nd vulaerabity to eyicom, For them, the profesional ales ofthe tame that applet immediately receding generations bave changed markedly. For one thing they are onder: hee work addtesses essa ew psnertion of graduate students than each ode, who ate ‘vor ofa period of cutbacks. Alb, chy ae well aware, more than ‘eto he marginay of thei dcipline pel a terms Of howe itis valued or how smpciously bel by those im power at home {who ate ultimately responsible for providing funding) of by the powerful broad who are exersng fat more car and dsrimination {the granting of research penis). One rest isthe prevalence of strategy of doing whatever necesar to ensue solvency (ot exam ple the creation of applied programs andthe taloring of courses and Festarch proposals largely 10 meet the demands of certain constiaen ‘des or pounblepateons). ‘Yes however valid, his picture of demoralzation and enim i perhapsto dre. Demographic uends and fashions in graduate educe ‘Son have been cyclical inthe pas andaelikely to be in the ature eissh + Pre chaps 2 healthy development that in this period offxpmenation| tnd dant, younger anthropologists im secure postions ae not com termed with sapercalpey toward thes ment, and not burdened ‘sith preserving an authortative pose for large bodies of exer grad de seidert. Many were professionally schooled daring te policlly ‘eltconsious amonphere of the 19605 andi these quieter, But more Aesperateimes in academia, they are fe to pay and experiment with ideas in thee discipline oan unprecedented degre. We bev hati 's jn such poste insvtonal effects of an otherwise dite peiod that sciologaly explains the experimental moment. "Whi they desc full eparate estment, we give the above Kinds ‘of instiutional factors that shape contemporary wends lie futher ‘enon in this essay. We reject the notion thatthe inlet ei, ‘on which we do focus, might be merely a reflection ofthe underying hy of interests involved sn the inatiatonalerss we have outlined ‘Thee ate inded connections, bt we have chosen to emphasize the inllecual response m anthropology tothe conflsenceofcersn de Xelopmens inthe hacory afte dspine and ecrsn pola, e0- ‘nomic, and socal changes in the world which ae most dicey ‘hllenging its practice We Bleve these obe of more specific impor tance in understanding che curren salience of problems in eth ‘ographic description and weting than is sheistitoal situation of Anthropology. "he dea for this essay was developed by Marcus daring year at the Insitute for Advanced Stady i Princeton in 2983-83, and he setched 3 fis version ofthe argent while there. The Insitute is ‘nded an ideal seting for taking stock of broad inscua erends, ‘ur the deeper impetus forthe esnyongnaed inthe callestive think ing and dsussons among membees ofthe Rice anthropology depart ‘ment, who share an interest in pushing contemporary inerpeeive Anthropology coward a more politically and hstorcaly sense en teal anthropology. Consequendy, Marcus invited is colleague ‘Michael Fischer t be a coauthor and to continue thee ongoing di logue withthe ai of a weiten produc in mid During the fall 1983 at Rue, Marcus refined he organising rps sment for the say and produced 3 rough, complete deaf ofthe prevent ‘work, In the pring of t98q, cher eas the argument, subtly Teworked the fat deaf, and added most ofthe commentary that Constete the examples tnd clone anaes of txts inthe fal Yersion, ‘Through the summer of r98q, we worked jointly on this version, 20d in was collaboration i the roe saayingseoe sik Pree Many collegguss have contributed to this projet dey o ini seal beyond thee wetngs. For Marcus, the fear atte Instat was 2 special ime and place for inating the esa; cher would ike ‘cknowledge the stimoltion ofthe Department of Anthropology of ‘he University of Brasilia the springer of 1982, where hed ‘sted his ideas about the funcoon oferiqu for anthropology and ‘raed an esay (28) om changes in the cureeninerpreie tend ‘of antiropolial theory. Portions ofthe presen esay wet present tl tothe Rice Circe for Anthropology, and wo the Rice Humanies Seminar onthe Cltere of Capital, during 1983~84. Arguments ‘were ko tied out a8 seminar, organized by Mares and James {ifr athe School of American Research, Santa Fe, on "The Mak- ing of Ethnographic Texts n Apc 1984. We ae ratefl 10 the Participants in al these evens for the eis and encouragement that we received “The authors owe a special de of gratitude othe historian Patricia Seed who carefully read and eid the manuscript ata cil point of revision when they lacked the needed perspective on their work (0 ‘ake certain important improvements in syle organization, and low fof argument. We ao wish to thank the several relres lor pesss, ‘nhowe atte eadings of he mananrp aided us in ou ral visions {nd editing In parciag we ae gratefl othe following eaders who tmade themselves known tos: Iran Karp, Michael Mecker, Renato Rosado, and David M. Scheider.Introduction to the Second Edition ‘Michael M. . Fischer and George E. Marcus ‘Tur Phojscr o” Axriorotocy as Curomat CCnirique: Past axp FUTURE ‘Anuropology as Cultural Critique was par ofa wae of ec revi sions during the 1980s of exiting modes of interpreting society ard Calre There were several initives within anthropology that con teened an exchange of perspectives across the boundary of anhre ology and disciplines ch sear sedis, pllonophy, and hseory ‘rth which st alas had strong, but undewloped, afte ipethaps best exemplied in the volume Wrting Culture also poblised in £986, but ao bythe inauguration of rich journal a Caturl An thropologs, Public Culture, ad Positions and bythe annual Late Ed tion serie), Pariculriy important in these exchanges was the ex ronment of new tansdiscplinary approache—inciudng feminism, deconstruction, fl and media studies, cecal cultural sade and Science studies™and the efor to revive area studies programs with fresher ideas about how to perform comparison. Many problems that vere theorize in 2 general ay inthe 1980r came to hae very CON ete contents inthe 19908 equirng new method of inguty ade search mre. We think there re four iets that could sly be reasesed in rereading Anthropology as Cla Citi a we fs from the r9905 into the 20008." fi nf hig ep fo dad a ug aga grat Cp omy es re ‘Certo ne Shon hed int meng een parka (oe ter cape ase a oven hal ered ar al {Seen ple Meer Si la a ite ond Repent pgs oe ite emt nn na ig a eng ‘iced apne he ne sy a ve i en Fer wh nd fl th dct side hart ie eS to ag as Se en aksi + Iodacton oth Send ton {LTH NATURE OF CULTURAL CRITIQUE “The notion of “rig” at opposed to mere exscism) dees from the cghtcath-century Enlightenment effort to clay concep tvalute te rlason between thei logical rounds snd thei degree oF ‘diy: We have learned oer the past tre conaries ha universality ‘Snot necessary, or even usual, characterise of reliable and useful Concepts need one of the fundamental contbations of asthro- ology a a compartve stad af ealturalproceses hasbeen 0 iss {pon the elation Sennen the prodction of knowlege and its diverse Contexts or rounds, This ies eve of geomety—which wa often though tobe an example of universal dedotve reason inthe days teforenon-Eackcan gomeres were aborted and pu (0 practical ie-asof concept of kshipo chlearing, of grammatical notions ‘time, space, oF persoood {Clu rtques as wed in Anthropology ax Call Ceitique, {erred noe merely to conitons forthe vali of knowledge, bt to methods of inguiry dete evaluating cultural and socal pacts. ie cred thee predecessor ayes of clturalciique from the 19308 thot informed thove ofthe T97er and 198os: the early Frankfurt, Schoo in Germany, suteliam and sales in anthropology in France, fn documentary reali in Amris daring the er ofthe Great De- presion "A we pas into the eal went ist centr clara eriqe faes new challenge fo massive demographic sft that hve challenged the idea of culturally homogeneous sation states tansatonal com ‘munication and vistal medi in new modal, which arguably ae ‘ectng transitions profound in modes of aionaity and cognition “Ss thoe care fom oe to ieracy and the new tchnoscenes, Mthich provide both novel echnologies affecng masses of people tay through the production af toxteties and publicly shared isk] as trl ae new conceps and metaphors forthe way we at nthe word ‘Met importantly for sneeopolgy these conditions requ new forms of inguy and writing tha attend co the various new ators find proceises inthe word. We canna simply invoke tational mor “sms or plea dcloges of evaluation New forms of utural er iS Cpr at ro pa sil * Iaradtion tothe Second Edition tiqu mast een in he spaces of negotiation among inresing mm her of detailed spheres of expertise and interests The tetional thnography done by singe individual wring with 9 diincve Soze of diciplnary snd personal authority inceasingly may have yield to expt callabortive projets. Although collaborative peo ces—borh with key informants eg. Franz Boas and George Hunt mong diferent rcial sient (eg. the Indonesia projec in which {liord Geer gor his art)—have slog history in anthropoony, the noms fr eenographic wring have remained individuals; and ‘orn for collaborative writing ar les well acute or recognized than i ete laboratory sietes or some ofthe her ld sciences Sach at ecological or brolopal field sciences or the medial clic Scien, Inthe ies we spoke of collaborative and dialoie writing Foc makipl readership. But what was insufctenly sessed was the Akegee ro whic the objects ofthese cllaboraie project ate Ds jst fic ehnogsaphic arenas to be described within dhe waditional prac ticesolfeldwork, but ar rather areas that are puzzling all cliabo ‘stors—informangs and experts as wells eograpers and clued ‘eaaltors, "The fact of overlapping and also asa inelecral interests mon, all pares to an ethnogaphic pre requires an ariculation among Sothropolognt of ew conditions for soch esearch or which mete the Maliowekian or Basan professional eos nor more recent a Fssbionabe theorists of "the Other” wil do Callboratrs under these new condions are no quite informants in he adtional mod, oe are they fll parmets inthe anthropologst’projes. Bu at least they ae roughly equivalent tthe athropologsin soil and stele tual postion, and the sorting ou of the slates and eiferences bound this equivalence i one ofthe key operations ofthe collabora ‘on tha connate contemporary ethnography. 'No longer then the projet of anthropology the simple dicorery cof new wordy and the translation ofthe exotic ato the familia oF the defamiliaeztion ofthe exo. I sereasingly the discovecy of ‘words hat at familie o fll understood by no oe, ad that al ae {seach of puzzling ot Fr instance ach projet vole the acl tls of loblzing process, partly f we give up the asamp tion that mnoderiy and the historia fore tha are now redefining encase everywhere and if we ay atention tobe was thatthe end of the Cold War might lobe the endof polar or thre trode smplicatons, Tat there might wel be poweralaleretive Tinergent modernise within soiled balzation, equring the soreof exploration that lileknown “peoples” once were sbjet toi lnthopology, ithe new working assumion of ongoing est ce search Cocrunat cntrigue In the 19s we argued that amtropog 0 lve up cots promise from the 192as tobe the comparative study of cures and soiees round the worl, needed wo “repatrate” el that, study howe Societies with as ch detail and igoe a8 comparative “ater” soe ties Since then thas become neeningly obvious tht this notion of reputation waka bit too simple and inary, that many ofthe most inreresing process of social and cara formations are rascal, ‘operating across any distinct clural boundaries, In the 1980s wea {ged thar various forms of multlcale or moliited echography Would be necesary sa conceptual flanework, if ao alway a peat Cl possibilty for individual ethnographer a6 Beldvork sata). ‘What we meant by "mulloal” or “mulsited™ was more than stedyingsytematic clea variation —for example, ting ow the ‘same region eransformed from vlge to town fo urban tig, {sesing cultural change across daspors migrations or following the "Social biography" of commie. We had in mind also he difclt process of studing, sa socially mobile new Black tecbnocats in South Ain whowe doonsalfect working-class people in Soweto, but whose worlds of census, nail, and economic statistical indexes ‘onl indirectly map, or mode in aggsegate approximation, the expe ral words ofthe later The mulated projet here woul Follow ‘ut and make explicit the numerous lyers of mediation ad incom rensirabily making shes and expt Or perhaps beter e, ‘we had in und the inability to extricate moral action fom negate results, ain one relation no marer where one i located in the sys ‘em) 0 ecological sues whereitsimpossible for one to avoid contr ing to the problem unless one cout impel seer all es with the monetary economy Complies ofl sot ar integel tthe po ‘iioning of any ethnographic project, oflering interesting possiblities for peoductiely Incensing the vcartographic™ precio of ethno szaphic anal, bat at he cost fay easy "aking of sides” The view that we argued fo, and that became more obvis though the #9905, is tha Seldwork shouldbe ecogized ana complex web of interactions in which anthropologists in collaboration with others, conventionally sox + Inraducton ob Second ton conceived informant and located in a vary of often contrasting Serings ace connections amid network, mutations influences of ‘alr forces and changing soil presars-Aenaein the 19805 a8 "xpeimenation eth new genes and les oF writing, inelading those Caled collaborative or dale. Whats ear now show hi carer ‘phasis preaged the direction ofthe curent emaking ofthe sry ‘orn that have defined eldwork and research rates shemales, CortmaL cRITIQUE™ Anthropology 35. icp has both an expernenta edge and a dep onseratine hinterland Some anthropologists have bee exit 10 the en ofa rs of representation of he adequacy of the stor of past concepts or of thee capacity to rete new frames of objective scription They have ben Soin part from an insistence on indepth tthnograpic Knowledges in const ro what many anthropologss fee ae the supercalites of mach curl studies wing about eth nograpic topics, speed precy by radical eigues of past ames fof marion and representation, Noneteles, the destabizing of foundational Knowledges in many arenas of instramental practic (he law the sence, politeal economy) continues to proceed apace—this tndoed isa central and dirincive hnographic fac of the contr ‘ry ef. Leading practioner in these srenas are among the fs 20 culate she seat tha atonal conceps and methods are i ‘ceningly outrun by real-world evens Tes these same practiiones ‘who migh become colleagues of anthropologists in mapping the mer ene new worl of late modernity, colleagues working with diferent ‘imate oa bot sharing a pszioment and euros abou the em plex interactions of ongoing social and clara silts ‘Of paricular ieee the wee of ethnographic metbods by no anthropologists, be they engineers and architects who need 0 kao ote about wes sociologist of cence arguing tha plesophers of {since ae empirically nate o wrong, cial lea scholars public ral poessonals interests in ow those nstaion ctaly work and aflec lies, or invesoiative journalists who explore horizons of Knowledge beyond topical timeframe Some anthroplogins ae on ‘comfortable with what they seas toa ey appropriation of methods tnd concept which they consider thei wn fr example, te recent ‘pproprationby itersy tudes ofthe anthopologee notion of ul© Inioacton othe Second Eaton ture" and even of ethoographic practices). However its much more productive for anthropologists, en the curtent ypecuidity of nfo tration andthe consequent configuration of seed disciplines, 0 orb the best ofthese appropriations into ew models of work for themselves that i to ute these appropriations as ls to how they tight systematically remake the tation of ehnography ia new ci "More generally, we now Bnd ourcnes arguing that i isto thea ‘vantage of erica! anthropology ta recognize the fact tha antrop ‘gyno Tonger operates under the eal of dcovering new world ke feplorers of he fiteethcenary. Rather we step imo a steam ofa ready exiting representations prodaced by journalist, poe anthro Pologiss, historians, crete writers, an of couse the subjects of Study theses. And heer, a primary faming ask of ay th ography is to juxtapose thse pressing representations, tempting to underscand dhe ders conditions of production, and to incorpo ‘atethe suing anal ul ito the suateyes which define any con Temporary Geldwork foe. Ln a sense, this eed Uo incorporate the Bel of seresentatons ay exiting social ats igo the antral fins pacts of ethnography thet impels both a malted terrain for ‘heater and new norm and recognitions fo the lationship en tel othe ration of fork Experimentation with genres and modes of writing, we argued in the 19805, was ne onl aeial of what the fs generation of mod: fe anthropologists had doae, but was of alu in expvimentig with fnew forms of ethnographic practices 26 well. New modes of Weng ‘ised further iss of epistemology, whch touched dictly upon Stns of thinking about search aod how knowledge ener fom Tod ofthe rhetorkalpennssnenes of ethaograpy ssa node of com ‘monicton in compesing regimes of epreeennon. For example, + reading of canal knowiedge about other lures parsed throw ‘session and popular media raises the tandards of precision ro which academic accourts ay beheld and even shifts the scursie space and functon of anthropology in is own home society somewhat, 2 from an easily established and ientiableauthorave role as ine pretrs of cultural dferences among peoples. Anthropology sustains this wadivonal function, but explcly opeating now ‘witha the teal complicated additonal crcl premise that many others pac "ee variants ofthis sume function, and furthermore that thse otbess tl be found odo soi any contemporary arena tha an anthropole [Es chooses to make an object of ethnographic study In the mid we began by wring about wo highly visible chal lenges othe validity of past ethnographic meshode and knoe: "Edward Said’ casing mo anttopolgy a form of "oneal: ism? and Derk Freeman’ cling into question the accuracy of Mar fart Meads Fieldwork and famouriterpretaons of Samoans. We ted these challenges as fois fo the internal critiques of anthopolon, fring tat certain new tends then apparent in anthropology were realy addesing thes challenges. The 198s in fact was 3 pci of lorescence for sophisticated intrpetive methods as well yng ies ino the nature of iaterpetation ial across 3 variety of mally infornig currents ranging fom feninism to porcolonal oes me dhs sedis, clr sade, and scence tubes, Anchropology os tion among the hasbeen 3 partner, boomer, an teacher Ten worth considering the degre to which anthropology and it tshnographic methods of eetealingiry have been Boctowed and ‘ape by nom anthropologists, The fil of cence ties 3 prime ‘example, nor only because anthropologists have been contributing to this eld through their own ork, bu alo besuse historians afc tc and technology have found sothropologclcencrps and met fdsto be laminating and practi tok for hee ow work Powcolonal tudes comnts of eeveral ream of thought, ome of sntich continue or modify the Kind of work Edward Sid bled foster for example, Gayatn Spivak mone ina more Derngean and feminist ‘iretion Homi Bhabha ina more psychoanalytic direction), oer of ‘which ee grounded diety inthe reanalysis of historical mates from the Indian subcontinent (che Subatem Seis listrins, led by ‘Rana Guha}. Of interests the degree to which poston stds have been generalized o anyother postclonal sacens rom Jmses Joyce cand vo Afoca and para of Ass), but alo the degree which they are grounded special isthe India scontinet, a {real have ben founda be of lesitedeevanc in othe oetons, focexample, among Chinese scholars open to perspective for prod ing new erinques of tha own history ad culares Like theories tf dependency cater which worked bes for Latin America, Ac, ‘tnd Orioman Turkey sac theoreti ininatressof global or wold hi toccal import, have both unveralzing and lal valence. With tthnograpiciatence on indepth knowledge of localite and the Interactions wich global proces, anthropology prover eo beask + Inrodacton othe Sein tion Important contributor to sch discussions of aernative moderns, ‘lovato ongoing efforts o resonaract sea studies programs forthe Thm index of this emergent fonction of anthropology ami i courses shout clare and change heft tha testes in Aico Sthich one shanned sothopology at dicipine of eolniation are how establishing anthropology departments aes not only rac Cat sues of development but also concepaal sats aboue cultural four and social ie This equally tue forthe rst-world societies in the increasing potential For sathopologets to ply 2 role orig public dscwsions about science and technology, ole hat aslo ‘Ben played by the special of medial anthropology but which snow xpatding to her arenas de to the emergence of rk a6 2 pu “Sanctr om the example of commutes subject 0 sk from nd ‘tal pollaon or nuclear power generation, oro bodies and fe self Feeney the countepoine of ew medical technologies and ongo Ing ervronmenal tect. ‘othe fcr that ongoing ethnographic research has lst tational prominent function if aot 4 monopoly—within offal knowledge mains ofthe Wen of daconerng and speaking athoratiey for “ural ference among the worlds peoples i ota alarming o 38 ‘vstting an even for asheoplogyas long predicted or Feared. We ‘anes tha even inthe sf from the 298 0 the 13965 the plies ‘of knowledge that were signaled by the appearance of books Ike A “hropology as Calta Cotigus, Writing Calter, Debating Musi, tnd the Flamer ofthe Late Editon series Mave ataly presented new opportunites forthe long needed renewal of anhropoogy sell Some of hee opportuise have certainly been exploited ove the past cade; others twat abe expo. Whether they wil or mot depends ‘spon the courage, ingens, ad openness anthropologists in exab- thing fresh forms of authority for themselves hae cra sem 10 ‘eit with he way other rated disepines and elds of knowiedge ‘being reconfigured, These forms will depend on the articulation of ‘pew nore and equate welr of etbnoprapbic practice in which Calsoration and logue aren longer ase theories and seinen ‘Sfethnographi wsting nor che reveled esence of what anhropoo {ss hove been doing all long, but become she staring points for hovel research Landscapes, agenda, and relationships stimulated by the equally ew objet of study that antheopolonss pose for them sehen and forthe general pic New Tories ‘Theor chapters of Anthology at Calta Critigue haters 36) ‘Mbt stony cont of sor werk appeaing the ery T9808 {hat ccmed to be doing someting difet=-een experimental Srthin be fom ofthe acroplogl monograph They so edo {Send etinoyapy nam se of cual cue tat woud be Shope by aking up tops and ssid objets of sy ha were ter amhropoigy or had only ben aed seonday ess ‘prema gee of workin the past for example sas of modern ‘edie, bin recoolgy Knship inthe West, bon py —al those nest ha ian antl took them apse oe would tere be qui, Dut at silos? Arh ny we od the idee ot spurt to sgl thi thes asene, coset th our ‘linha the eto of mde te Wes and ofthe home svi {es of earoplogy a Eur Amen ipo had always ben {ong impli and tencay of amply pena faced Shen but had ely been inde ap the secondary oe mney ene. By the te 1g gon, mow of the character of wsting ad exec within the radtonal eae ofthe monograph that we wend Spernentl have now become quite mainteam, i ot the main. Steam Thaw cnsprie the daceton tat we provided n chapes 5 {ng fhe new and inte ere nthe person, and eno {®omainng fox for ethnography fhe popes among who Bede ‘ork hd radians een don, slong withthe aio modes Cree tha came to case the reo and eas of ‘Shnographic wring, and sso a he new ways which cog fers wee contextsiing sd contrasing eb of dyn er {uso ory and plc economy Te omer ero the tay sotorar aw caren the many works oman by qutons Siena se pea he eating ok explora ofthe constr of gltlizavon though ethnographic ‘studies of its local and regional expressions. a ieiinthe are of new pc tvoling new ames and new ub- into dy that ct aro the sro des between the atonal Tndibemrdan that prev dnd te ject ater of thropology—for which systema research programs are neded ae trl ar ed wondels ad orm fr ding ctograpy By the "gon this posing which we til inthe room, ache nancyxiv * Inaction othe Seamd Editon workout in teams of a statement ofa “eparated” move! of clued {risque based on enhancing existing senepes of defamiiataaton, legs dstintive syle of argumentation in anthropology i fa fromm ‘he mainstream. But does remain, web, a key area ofthe mest ‘mportatchallengts forthe discipline. These new topics deal ceaally sth the questions of modernity, but notin the form of parochial ‘Hons of modeenity that could be limited 10 the West or to Euro ‘Americans Rather at take in gustons of ate or post modernity ae (de enmnttocal procte that are reshaping the expressions of co tures themes, Sach new topic arenas require the recutation i ‘ry litferent creummeances of the older frames and ways of prodcing ‘chnograpi case ses we were writing Anthropology ar Cal “Gute fr the frst te now these would be the experimental areas ‘hat wre would start with—acoas hat ate dificult to represent by spe ‘ie texts or monographs in experimental transition like the ones ‘ve focused upon inthe early 19Hos to express what tuned otto be ‘rotoomintsear tendencies So hee, we vey belly esrb thee rene of ew work that might elt the project of elt erg ‘ha we ried fo oaline and exemplify he later chapter (5308 6) ‘of Anthropology as Cala Critique “These mowed om big tpi of nan pilenoghie section ‘how whother sachin un isk, sol Hee hth ow defi ion othe specific of aman eng ma ered to expo Ins fa melfsceed medi of commento, he robles ponies of which uno on a Gian Norar the only hes forces, who developed cceoed computers andthe Irn Sern, who were amon he Be hey usr or rn heh teh cor where ace 0 eu iatnancousiloraton a. theron the lobe euent or ermsting viable ed compe the They aio bec inporatfor exp nceasing ub tory of Com cain Hasnain, commer, egal Ahn manager nd aa Indeed; rowing pr mart in cbeopes comnts mips shed peso of oncabes dt wich we hae at bo pata Knoic ar wih our ced ang {wtih an eft or scar oinsrant job owing eh eae {nd ed goods), Cyberpace concrete aerate terete tatonr such ~decrsonizanons calgon othe sev + Inradaton othe Send Eton ration state ax well as rains eal concepts of intellectual prop fy the iabiity of lal moral standards, boundaries between pate ‘sd publi, and perhaps norons of Weny and gende, or te no tion of easm apd simulation. Ia his aw sting, one can empricaly and ehnograpiclly observe how diferent ars interact with ma hines in mule cotta. More inportaty forthe argument f An thropology as Cutwal Cig, sofware and hardware descopers, ser an cen, patent and copyright lawyers fanciers and others fare among dose who regularly myth the concep By which they ‘tadionally operated have been overtaken by the word i which hey now operate, that new concept and methods eed tobe orl, Sach people talking about ther own words of expertise mht he ‘hough of a “organi inelcrsle” who togetr with anthro ‘gst are exploring the emergent now worlds about which they share a ‘mutual cursity. AS we noted the nature ofthe Bldwork relationship insuch 3 world sno longer one of someone From one cure ening lke chido apprentice the basic element of another lately table alare fom elders oe other hey informants. Making prallsted ber Space and urinary contests of every fe the eld of ethnogeapie Study requires mazkedly diferent norm of eldwork and wring han ‘we could appreciate inthe 1980 vents that were poliscaly emergent inthe 1fos have procedetat a pce thas clea warsformatine. The 979 lami evolution in an, fhe collapse ofthe Soviet Union in 1989, andthe end of spat i South Aca though the erly 1990s signaled new tlainshipe he: tween the West and other repens of he wold The eat has ot been, sone well-known political sient argue te substation fr ape ‘vious struggle berwen soca and cptait vison of modernity of Strugles herwcen regional ciiizational blocks (Christina Ademocrase, Islamic eligious, Confucian entepreneiial) that daw ‘pon longstanding hac and religous ident stactres ty gression vis-a-vis one another Rather he poli changes the ‘conomic ices af the lobal economy have generated snce ‘enced, massive demographc shite and reorganizations of scties that suflered collective traumas though world wa, decolonzsion Struggles, civil wars, and effors at total command sconomiey Fiat ‘World postindastal soci in Europe snd Nowth Ameren at ex peincing new waver of immigration tat challenge the trationsoni + Inodaston th Stand Eaton uniyng nation-state mchaixms. The sultant pits of imi ion std mulealuran ae ne only policy ses but challenge 0 modernist anhropslogil and socal scence model of the relation Feewcen peoples and nations, Pare of what the moch-dsputed erm “Pounder eer specie dis challenge of people with ile he value sroctoes ling in these social Spacey Pehaps this 6 fern the multiethnic makizelpoos worlds ofthe ret premoder: “pies, but the conditions of work, education, and fener ite lon are quite diferent for thowe worl where eh and religious frvup could live in most separate occupational and residential en lives Instead the iaues of Pybeidzation, of mul of eltural ‘dentfcaion, of fsb nid sbi integration shape the wosabulaey ‘Of dscoutes about sociey in comtemporary worlds and about me Foome of treatin, inequalities, and power relations Much of the above ned vocal of contemporary sail dis “eter tur depends upon analog wi he ae eho ofthe wens enue eed ance ofthe ea infor tratonTeecerintcad ofthe canal and pgs ces ‘Then pided mosh ofthe “nconal”and "areca vocab Shyer sca hea Symons dnl andl abies {absent sng sel seo enti sures Scores fr consiigsvalracton. Aswithmmunlo {STimens ch expe te coneptl asec) ening is sn SsRacdenuts roto eee oe rift ik of altar ‘dsc pases cen out of mutation, semble, al ‘amity omic owt Or perhaps more saat ol to Taste rned olka the eos dene around clock somemerary soe sonst theme for uel met hore wh nich co desi explores compar, a coms the {Sec nae al ith peso, ear ome ‘Rvcsgested posing chro hid nds even accom taviel by ssa usformatios profound 0 ae of hes 2g cond ind revlon The er ah ow be ndesood ito the pepe ofthe cumulation of sper histor sha {Np Bu he aly unique Ueno ofthe eoneipocey peri a ‘ech we fd oul ented at avery ape can ony be at qeetantyundemond bys honey nomed crt soi ence ‘Stns of eweleone ase th which we ret tograpbers sol + Idan oh Second Fon icneeoeratcanehubreataotoa ‘nthe say of pono ote sondoel mots te sei san ee See gethanretanetts are created or ifected by loca conditions. a Ano Fivatty ... "Sone Deraitep Srarsstents nour Enxoks oF Outssion ano Commivston” tn euracon oo in Suh A ding hen cl tggn we ech read Aropology as Calta Crtgue--peay forthe time years an greed tht thas a up ell Othe ‘ne we would not are co second edn, Ba asd fm the fore fing teaser we abo wanted to ake some dies post Eri ipecin coment nh le orig srtpoon and cerain of ts patel whch we have eae ‘changed. We are ispredt do this by he en examples of Bon slow Matnowshs marble append so he two lume study ofih + Inrudacton tothe Second Fton arden magic in the Tobiand Islnd,” one of the subsites of which ‘have bred room abo hist ton fae Sectve introduction, a wel a. Gregory Batsons 1958 epilogue (0 1s ge work Nae, Mabmoway uml parca pve tnth the means vo end wih some marginal commentary oh ou rg Tal toxe Tht is the Best means, we bei, to express doubt, to make Tmendimens and t invite free response without intesering with fhe tone and argument ofthe ext which we still suppor. Conrunat cnrmigur wien warrive cutrune ‘Wil here wee song orp in prtpation and eri impeas Inthe production of thes two volume in euospc w were eraps ‘Toute expen hing the diferences betwen he former Ud the ieee fhe two works emerged fom a cea oc on the hnecersacs of emegape wring, sed gen the sweep of the nome of mocalledpstnoder hey snd polection i ee yin eyangto Become aural ste probaly nena {Rach works would be esd, sometime interchangeably in ‘Sn, Borin tnoplogy Catal Cite thre ws acest {kage terwen textual cigs af ebnograpies snd the impice onthe or changes i such ean programs, ab esona inuropoloy tar sacking or marked in Wri Caltere For «oth io in oon hop ant {Seon cre cts aad fk ep deny hich {faced nwhat has hppened veh pant dead ands ozorsing (cnarrens 5 4x0 5) _Aswe noted the repatriation frame shat we enmpove although asa {ary move in the dection of egirng the same standard of got for sae + Invodacton to the Second Eton both xis when drawing compara eons ws ro simple for the work of compartve nas nc te went century. Ines ing etigue of conventions epesetaton of diferente daring the 1980 aswell changes nthe worl tht ocd artenton on tas

specialized discipline of the universy expec in the United States le Haskell 977) Divisions of seadec labor, specialization by di lin, the taking on of distinctive methods, analy language, aed standards, all became the order ofthe day. Ambitious generat ‘els ofthe aneeenth century—those well tablished ke storys1 + Ohsper Teo and the upstans, like antbroplogy—ere now mere dicnines none mletde of othe; tht grand projects Recme te pe Salis of tener sade. Finding am sone place the nies a8 oe of he ail scenes amhropolgy hasbeen the, most Sort apd er Sicplnary of dpe toto he dlght and dept ofthe 3c mic esabishment Soci colar athopoigy Eres Becker iment in is say The Lot ence of Man (197) ha sare tthe marge ofthe soci scene, ed Uneasy t 5 hora atnesship wth archaeology and biologie acvopolgy nd ofen Teer of commined ont he descpton ofthe mos lien, rote and “prtive™ofcstoms While bh the toric ad spt {Hhonincee etry vison sel sre antropaogy, and whe Some rea commu wo general sence of Ma epeally nthe {Exchingo the see otropoogte have race become more Specalncd in ther tbo std ecmackably ine in he ners {Ris has caused an hage problem for socal and carl a thropoloy, sine che pubic Sc any oer scholars connie to think of anthropology ners os ec cetyl an x to understand te important shin he cena ous of hn sbBeld ‘Sang he aly vente ery “Thea mades dine kind ofmethod he center of socal and call anthropology ini new Basins placement 25 socal tne, One soncied of eexospecoely a8 4 "revoltion i a {Rroplogy Gane 1984) he change hs Ben more recs 0 fave occred sv cominsous tain and remaking ofthe 2 thopoloy ofthe pas Boon 198s). Thin dice metho was ct topaphy is main inert was ringing topcter seo a ne {puted profesional pace the previa spate proce of cl FEcing dat among ton- Western peoples, done primary by amateur ‘hla ous on he sen andthe smc heorang and an ‘done by he academic ancropalog Ethnography breech proce in wich the antropologse lsety Carns cond, and engages nthe aly hte of another ‘Sere Dan expec eed ane Seldwork method then STs scant of hs callre,emphasting decnpie deal. These ‘Xioun ave the primary form inch Beldwork.procedares the ‘ther stir, andthe ethnographer’ personal and theres elle ous are sce peofenas and her reader. One sey ‘Stamhropoogys est suin te new worl of seem roe Sons and specaiesons the dvs of subj to which has 19 + Btbography and Itai Antnpalgy ui pie eon While il eid by ea tonal inset in spe, scaled pomive wesc srhroplogss havedone search inal kinds of sete, indading Wenern ones on tops fanging fom elon to economics. Theoret ane ology has always Been ereatey parse exigent hoxrenrc) generalities about man onthe ban of speeches fale cscs invested frathand by he cboraphic method The tanstion ro the ethnographic hov complex history ‘hich has nor yet hen writen for example there were many da {ingushedsemprofesonal tnogeaphen working n rsh colonial es cach of which ats tent soy of ethno Hom hat te meoplewhoxe veson of sthopegal practes nly rad tally Brame abortive)! Nonetheless one anthropologist now femembered fy Both American and Bish anthropologist foam ofthe ediogzaphic metho: Broniw Malone, whose pening caper describing he mtd hs int major work A ona’ ofthe Western Pai 933 heres pare forthe po {son emerging deperment of Bris and Atercanunvestic SirJames Fse wrote an apoting peace tothe bok, and Mal inowsk fst promoted hoppy ss super way to pus the {Sablsed gots of inctcntceteyauhroploy. Howexe, Mal inowsh's opening capes now fer cen ee ssc sateen of themahod whch became th setanive ution fr snd ark of "Neanntormed dicpin “The predicament of moder il cals anthropology, hen, ‘shat sete for he prmary function of sytemtcly desing Catal divest acronthe word whe he ecompassng pot of Schein a generalized scence of Man had efecveywithted nthe tearsormation of academic onsnieaon that we have mentone. The formidable nla chalngeand section of hoppy forse se among an ary of changing lms to lager purposes win the fone of Western sacl out has eumuned hae {err socal and kul aeroplane since During yao and 19305, Ament ntropoogy pro- ceeded under he covering perp of cla lth and Br ‘shsocal anthropology ander thao fentnshan, Theater, whch tr wl dus inthe nee ection, as csc thon fo hin Ing about eld materiale orgaiingctirographc acount ay aan in European oc hoy that war domertcted for hat had Become the specie dexcipane and somparse purpose of thropology Like fnconalm,utatl lsvam ws cally ase20+ Chapter To of methodological gidelines,* which facilitated the predominant in tecet of anthropology im recording cultural diversity. Howecs, ‘hrough academic and broader eologia debates inthe United tates ‘during the 19208 and 1950s, the expression of clr eltvism de ‘eloped more ara doce, o postion, chan asametho. waned as {sen opi in American anehropology by the end of Word War I {only onake comeback nthe presen, 8 we shale) Forts pat Fantionalist theory remained closely ted tothe mehodologeal con ferns of doing ethnography atthe core of ahropology. Conse ‘emt became angen covering discourse abou theory and frethod among American anthropoogias(parsclarly after World War land the demise ol explosions abou cultural elacivis) as ithad been among British anchropolonss. Yet widely Meniied by is public withthe postion of euler rslativism, anthropology did Keep a generals radon alive inthe “American social seencs. Anthropology made esenal contributions to debates arising within the soul Scenes, about rationality the “xistenceof human inves the exlaal malleabiiyof human n- Sctutions andthe nature of tradition snd modernity ina chaning troll the ied States coral anthropology waka song all of Ind inflcneeom liberalism. It has provided an empl Based and {ihc formed ela to challenge the redton and nlc of bua diversity characterising the werk of other social scenes in thai perhaps overzealous commitment to 2 mode of generalizing aw ‘ducoeriog scence Further, t Id the groundwork forthe iq of the idea that there could bea value sol Science, an dea which twas popular inthe 1950 but wae increasingly challenged during the ‘een? “Tn if the locus of onder and the source of modern anhropolog's major nell contibucon to cholrship wer tobe dented i ‘wotld be the enographi research proces teh, bracketed by it 40 Junfiations One the capmaringo cura dversty, mal among taba an non-Western peoples, nthe now uncertain tation of a= thropolog'snineteetrcemury peojct. The other isa cultural taque of oracles, fer undeplaed in the past, bu having today 2 ‘enewed potential for development. Because of the current crit of {spresentaton and he iteret i the thetorcs of dsiplines, we ae paracularly concerned im eis say with only one pat ofthe eth Fogeaphic research process—-cthnography a a writen product of Fetiwork tober than with eldwork experience ele There 2 0 Iman ways that she cenaly of ethnography in modern socal ad 21+ ethnography and interpre Ambrepoogy ‘alta anthropology might be diced, One in terms i deve genera gee wna he rn le ipl inthe profesional Sefton sod prateof soba Wel deal by wth each * mee From a nstational perspective the sgcance of ography canberra ote at has oedin th poesnal tee latiopalog Fes the reding and teiching of exemple th ‘cjraphic tents have bee the major eats of eoneying to stadt ‘vist sthropologits do and what they Know: Rather hen becoming {Eted an ote eld sc work fn rope, san aly ‘lan, and thir mattis perl soc the aig of ew conceptual snd theoretical prosens, Ths can piv» conser ‘athe, ato ext to the nepal due of anthopaogy, itv can pps sid Saks po nd fel nt Alsi work, ater hams reptcing oftheir ptt and ha Srcumsancs that em tohav cog bid n chapng the ems ‘tantroplopea debte This sour of shore het under tepated sack, thn ey we wl Sonne the dep co which ‘Scapa nga nsloscne soa het oral cotext of production, eds dcurape esings of the ‘sich woul ther despa aera socal or caltural forms Second, ethnography avery penonal and amaginaive vehi by which anvoolope are expected to me contin fo the ‘rec and ill dcntony, bo within ther dope ond Beyond In ome sem, because he oe she dd eldwork clone the thnoprapher t more autonomously in charge of thn med of ex Pron than the cane wah he expoory genes of the dt Fine, Reyes and mle projet on i ome rou of ne abi sje ae ncresugy common, bt he chop! ‘ting fom a argely ange earth expenens to wich only he or She as practical aces nthe academic communi” As we wl nly ver rece have the restive pref hs sada een 6 ieeapond ona wie vee ‘Third nd mor portant, thnography hasbeen the inary activi which has aunchl cars sd exabsed reputations. Toe Sgnieance of ihe expectation that al eophye antnopelopss ‘oul beet by dort na foc language, and ning frrngemen cannot be oveemphasiel sin wharves hy oon do ltrs atropology provides + bode aude for dive inary shan any ther Sucpine—an ofen tomanaed en ian owas wh al sthepolgt share Tis unexamined22+ Chapter Teo comensus about the nature of ethnography hasbeen profoundly af {Shed by song intemal ciqer of antroplogy drng the pe ‘cae or more ich arc having Sena on the may enor fesse mom bing write, ln iateton o what ke al has ben he etal practne of social and altura antropogy le seems to be age Purca esl ofthe sent and vlnrsiity ang amvopologss {thc uneasy pacaent ofthe apie n the moder oganizaon academia amd the posit sol scene talig of foal Sets an reach dene No hv ale ar a “Bropology hasbeen ay lo clog poss daring the post ‘Wonk War I high pened of th seo ini. This, however, as only made anhrapoupiot al the moe seine sbou ho uncon ventional thd. Atul some have argued fora moe rgposs Xpprosch to reerch dougn and dat ckation in fliwork (or Pally the cope stvoplogy oF ehposcenee move of the Mos, dean nthe ns set snd hough there has deve peda format Jp for ting Sbou eldwork(s partispant Eecvaton, evenly as buns messy, site experenee {Surasto tbe poste sovalacience von of metbod® "Wah euro the water produc felony the pnt omen tion thar have embodied chnogephie writing have nepraed tnoch ofthe pra oncoaton of antropaag’ inet ce {iy pro nso dong. thy have slowed forthe possi of quite 2 Uiferen vison of soil tory and reser than he dant posits soem wich men nchropogy has Been eat. The Kesce abou ethnographic wring has ben broken prec erase the cof epraenston has changed the lepiacy of poset fab for socal soence gene, snd thie wend smopology as Ta prec Inthe wasn fom he nncenthcnry gad son of antiroplopea sce ot Mant went ety ies a “ttnctereonpansston sound the chnograpie method he eer STat amon of soa ad cara aehropoly were rea thn te prac of ethnography nwo wae Fn che rete enur teneney so make vecping global satements was rele. As St edinograper the anroplogst oss hs efor on iferet Soro holm: not to make sana abd stents, bt repre Slut a parcuar way of Hes fly sponse. The nature of hn Falls’ whar tment provide fl pure of clnly observed ty oles one ote csnetones of tweet cory eno 25+ Ethography and Interpret Antvopology Py that iscurrenty anderoing sno rue ad cevison, swe will fen. The point ss however that ethnographer ke ona esponsbiy {ora eas providing acc to an vce ore compete vow athe cares they deseribe. The esenc of halt epreenaon in mo temethnogahy ha not een to produce scl or an ene opea {cough the ase ssmprionsuporing te sutory af he ee ogaphic writer n hat he command hi sort of background know ‘abut conentoa ement of clare sod emake erate ‘onncsons song them Second the comparative dimension ofsthropolgy’s lbs vision ss loge by an ray chee el te Ineasremen of relate progress towed “rata slash Snag ht ean Sed ae eon op oe ‘epaphc text The underdeveloped cela npc side fee ‘opraphic desertion foto on cular! oer theres takesto the prenmed, mutually amar word shared bythe we And his readers. One ofthe key contemporary cations foram ‘hope knowledge has eed fom th them compare sido ethnography, and 0s andergsing import eon. “Theloowe ef gente commeton that came to efiecnoapic texts and for the bass om which thy hive Been eluted ating he ‘ast sity years of socal and clr ntropelogy have been elie ‘ely lileledeinographic asm by Masi at Cashman (983), ong other.” The allan nner cetry Tels ton ean ia mode of wing that ker eps he elt of ol world or form of ie As the ery scholar] Pen 1973) tas si for example, f+ dergte dvenson Dickens nor “The flo purpose he dveron it 200 ad sper hat see of surance and abundance ad ehy tht seas wo wn om ery page and every eps ol the velop.) Say ‘sethnographin are wnten alld oboe by mean of ps ot foc of analy steno whch consony evoke 2 scala cits al oral. Close atenon to desl and fedunant demonstrat thatthe writer shared and expeenced ths whole ther mod se fete aspect of east wang. ofa, wha ves he opener suthory and the text a pervane senso once rely the erie {clam o represents worl! ron one who bas Know it stand an, whch us fogs an timate ln beweenchogrphicwning Sd elon This alain to realsm docs not men that ethnography has en Joy he save fey or pay the agaation nag se24 + Chapter Tuo she reais nove has ably to experiment with ism ad ‘Senco tamen thee conventions ony very rect and Ror uncon oven Rate, oer nhl roca O te Mtoyrot iesethnoraphy bos desoped sparta and fom aie ry mandpeine nur) Knd of ean, ed othe dominant snc sSrrtve onc whchitbos tern fae, Ednoeaps are Idsimares ih ave and explorer acount mech mah Aare on wae romance corer bythe weer of people and Flac unknown othe eater Whi chnorapy encompsned some Thats sense of mance ad dacney, abo anemped nt sen ‘aidan am race ear Ehnopaps Todo th she ain mon that eography 3 2 nce Sloped wat she of saleaging clara ders threatened Sh soba Wenonah ae fii “Tcchmogeaphee would copa wean he mtn of ha Iran hey wold ne in the esord fr he ge “Deparsve prot of artropolgy which was suppor the Wes fn gal of svat and economic pres. The sage ou a 8 story see pope along ws mor subdued romani i over mou! has veined stongin ethnography tthe present. The aren rote thwtee ies no longer sve wel enous 0 ‘et the mold in wach eogaphers now wot. Al peoples 2 tow at est known an shred and Wesernzaons mach 00s Fics noone contemporary atl change to support the mos of Snopes fer ct oe ota. Yer the ncion phy ean ot outmoded eae {elaine mats hve worn -The clr of wold pe flosneed toe constantly rdncovered shoe people feéiment hem {Bchangng histones scamstanes, pclae when cont ‘Eorineamarayes os prt te ag 8 emotes os an raf spscomdgnne=-pontmoder, posto, posraditioa ‘Ths conning, funtion of ctbogrphy reqs new naeanve tori and debate sous what hy might Be atthe Beat of he rented of experiments sith the pase sonentions of eth ‘papers, rough treatment of thee contentions would ere spe tae ay ich has ec nated wher, Mares an Cahn Tosicand Clifrd 98yb). We wil denny and ses some ofthe i ove deta we coment on expen etnogaphies in the em chaper, Ht weeny wh ome fa om the perspec of Rr prio rede of chnographin = gd chnoppby, 25+ Ethnography and ert Antropol ateveits parila arguments soe tat ines a sense of the com tions of flor, fever ay ies of mito proce as plat validtion of the feldwork tethod tat ill ids he Snthropolgse “was thet) of rant actos carl and fis boundaries the conte! snd lng exe fii Nous des, tus demonstrating bth the ehnogapbe’s langage Oompetnce andthe fet tat be has cesly opted ae ‘eeings an subject) of lam, Te late two gene cha. erst of tography ay parca, hey pts fo etree hangs that are ocuring Te schevert of te els po of be lise poarayal of cle as gotten the major emphasis pat eh sac enw hon tonal he hora couse hat ha dominated sol and clara! sthropoly, Was Sse facta: However, om the rose on cheat dts ston and ints imathpoloy she, reasons weil discs a theneat Seton; rarnlaing an explaining cet claret {Ep there's pont of view, hs atu hts is von {ths work" 5 Matos puttin dase statment ofthe ee ‘owanhic metbod 1933p 33) was rm fection on thi tk of {eldwork and festare of ehmograpic wing tat inerpreve a thropolgy emerged ‘Tue EMERGINCE OF INTIAPRETIVE ANTHROPOLOGY Interpretive anthropology is covering lb fora diverse set of eflee tions upon both the practice of ethnography and the concept of ‘aur Irprew out of the convene the tts and 970s of eat ftom the then-dominane version of wil theory the sociology of alee Parsons; rom classe Weheria sociology; and fom the sl taneous impact ofa numberof philosophical and imelectul fashions, including phenomenology, strocraism, sracttal and teanforme ional igus, semis, Frankfurt School rt theory, and he. renews. These theoreti resources provided the elements fr the {appearance of unprecedeately sophateated discussions concerning ‘he primary aspiration of ehnogrphy, present rom is modern cep ‘Hn, clic the “native poin of view” and to clacdate how deren ‘altura consrucons of eatyaffet soil action. At the sae sme, ‘hese theoretical influences were also applic to examinations of toe communicative proceses by which the anthropologist in the eld fins knowledge of his subac' systems of cultural meaning in oer "o reprsent them in ethnographic teat, The vl of ehnogeaphica6 + Chapter Two inepetatio came to et onl undertandings nd dncason of erate pono vel. Inerpacve atropsogy, As, operates I ols muaneosh prowdesactuns of oer orks Pont tide and eles aboot pemologcal groundings of sch accounts “deny on development in anthropological thought dang set decades ho ened os the sh tes fom be tM and socal structure ndergid bythe goal of" tal erie to mening smbol ad language, ado a renewed ‘SSSgison cca totehonan eer, hat oa ie mast fae Tl become he mgt of mann erg theopley hun pes pnty tothe mod of the mse” seo rea heh had ben ested to mangle n perspec Sr iatcad ephasd the std of Behan objective) mes Sedan anced te decd ses Howey smc the emergence of intepetive anropuogy have ive sate Gen to hows almost whut hing noted the elt to conceive of ‘Stare pamarty a soem of enn has comet focus on he eo SF Imerpreton soc ha i om ehsopraphy asa proces of iwc “thc metaphor of cultures text, poplar by lion Gers lugpsdisete to math tv the diference erwen the beh ASTI a0 the elt! ert. According to th ie. socal UES Sin be Send for thee meanings by he obser fs as ‘tte and poken mates move conventional sre. Wha’ more Teron he eoprahereas symbols actin, buts do the ob edhe acosin soon 9 one another The ta quton ‘Shui evoaure mophor of erpretation heading of xs Tent the obverver andthe ebered sands fin the ata proces Ota Ths has ed the presen domino ra tin ‘tac anbropology about how mterpeaton ae conse by {Rubropolope wt mone rn fom the erpetations fs ‘Slomanee Whar hs happened ae so mich tht athopoloss uote range iced of rary cso hat hey have nes eivgue op he anisorauned sence encompassing behavior Serene babe hart anracton so ores ich pose Roca erpretaion asa challege ro lng term poss he SS STISEE se them vo ngage nse ranging eval fle ance hcr conrad paciceo soggy. Unde th hegemony of ote sacl soem this pst bad Boon masqcrding, elo fat ameteed upon by anhrpologss or othe amend ke 27+ Eshnoraphy an trpetv Amroploy any ote. The ateacton of interpretive anthropology atthe moment ieee opted inguin te ne of ehnoaapbe ‘cforing wich nto he st al aro ke ‘de, pred in whatever theoreti direction, but ao one palatable ‘ours ofnpraton for eter socal snes aang ce own pretcameny stimulated by the cotemporty ci of repent ton; history, anthropology has Been near them nnn Anion a 3 sal scene, bu far inthe singularity oft sect ‘nd method ‘One an tae the growth of inerprediv anthropology mossy by reviewing the changing sles of ethnography sinc the 920s ‘mescan ebnopaphy (om the latter centr so the Zosom) was deny dane and in own way enpetinenl ening from Adolph Bande’ cfr to wit an cdhnograpicly informed novel about Pueblo Indians (1978 [18g tthe documentary eos ‘ot Tran oso aap cars facing mine shang tog Es {pean contact; om the commited ertusasm of Frank Cushing ‘Roce bythe decaf ts meron ncaa be deed Search of Ruth Benedic for organizing sce and cmovone ato Sate in er Pater of Clare (934) From the toon onthe wring of thnograhy was inresngly informed by the funeioalisn developed in England under Bronsaw Malnowskl and AR. RadlifeBrown. Functional was 2st of tthe gucsons designed to gid te ding and wring of thnogeapiys it was not a theory of society, although parley through Rachie own, i was strongly nfueaced by Durkeimian soaolgy. Thee methodological quetions were to ese that an eth: hoxraphr would sins sak how ary parla nsiion or bel tes imerelated with ober sitions, to what extent cotibuted {ote pestence citer ofthe soocuarl syste a whole ro Driclar pattems of sil acon. Funcom wee pacany fond of showing how the otecileeconomi institution of ocey were infact stacared by kishp or eelon how the ual system ‘Sinulaed cononepedocon tnd oganed poi or how ye ‘were or idle ris or speclations but charter that coded and {egulited social lations inconalt uerions were excing in tec day, contrating shamly with the projects of nineeenhentry aheoplogcal though, conceming for example, the tracing of the difsion of cate tee oof the erolaton of ssitutone independent 0 tho Yared socal coments. To ask sich questions became part of