Forensic Photography -for Criminology Students and Practitioners Waynefred H. Villarba Ph. D. Crim.TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface About the Author Acknowledgment Introduction Table of Contents Table of Figures Cuarter I Photography - definitions, historical background ; and principles — Definition of Terms A. Photography, . B. Police Photography” C. Forensic Phoberaptiy’” Historical Evolution of Forensic Photography A. The basic components of photography B. True Photography C. Criminalistics Application D. Legal Foundation of Photography Evidence E. Criminology Education The Principles of Photography References CHAPTER IT Photographic Rays - Its Nature and Character i A. Light _ White light Additive color mixture Stibtractive color mixture ‘Production of colors Attributes.of color Iv vil ng “vii “2Bending of light Kinds of object as to how they behave to light Sources of Light . Forensic Light Sources References CuapTer 3 Photographic Films and Papers A. Black and White Films _ Characteristics of black and white films B. Color Films Types of color films C. Photographic papers (Black and White) “D. ce oBraphic papers for (Color "nining) Reférerices Carter 4 MONS > Camera . Camera Camera Classification. Methods of Image Formation Lens. .. Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations Types. of Lenses as according to their . degree of correction to these lens aberrations ST} KR .. Focal Length . Types of Lenses as according to focal length Lens Diaphragm “ Photographic Perspective and Correct » Viewing Distance . Focusing 17 21 24 25 27 29 32 £O B8eEeRL. Methods of Focusing 52 M. Depth of Focus or Focus Range me 55 N. Parallax 56 O. ‘Shutters on 56 P. Exposure : 58 a. Exposure with flash b. ‘On-camera flash c. -Off-camera flash d. Umbrella flash e. Ring flash . Q. Photographic Filters : ‘ 66 R. Camera Care 69 References 71 (CHapTEr 5 Photographic Printing and Chemical Processing A. Chemical Processing ; 72 B. Film Processing : 73 C. Film Processing Procedure ~~ , 74, D. Developer Formulation . 7 E. Stop-Bath mee 78 F, Fixing Bath Formulation 78 G. Photographic Printing 78 a. Conitact printing b. “Projection printing or enlarging H. Enlarging Procedure for’. ° Black-and-White Negative Equipments for Paper Developing Color Printing Process a: Color film processing b. Color printing K. Color Compared to Black and White a.. Problems in color photography References 82 85 86 SeCuarrer 6 Application of Photography in Police Work A. introduction - General Applications 95 Identification purposes Recording and preserving of evidences Discovering and proving of evidence Recording action of offenders Court exhibits Crime prevention Public information Police training PSNATE ON B. Specific Aplications 100 _ 1. Ideritification photographs "2. Crime Scene Photography General consideration Perspective/camera position Lenses Lighting Marking the field of view 1. Rulers 2. Identification data 3. Location markers f. Photographers Log C. Specific Crimes 116 1. Homicide or Murder - General, Consideration a. Crimes involving firearms b. Hanging c. Drowning d. Electrocution e. Explosion 2. Robbery case 3. Sex offenses 4. Arson or fire 5. Traffic/ vehicular accidents Paap: 6. Articles of Evidence Ln phy bead D. Surveillance Work Se bee saregn gs T37 E. Fingerprint Photography a 139 a. ess of fingerprints Plain or black fingerprint on white background White fingerprint on black or dark background Black fingerprint on colored background Black Fingerprint on Multi-colored Background Fingerprints on Glass Fingerprints on. papers , Fingerprints on Mirrors __ b. Equipment : - F. Questioned Documents Photography, . oe 144 a. General use . : NOopoNE, b. Areas of photographic concerns . ae G. Ultraviolet Photography ©. - 148 a. Reflected method. : ; b. Fluorescence method — c. Light sources d. Forensic applications bot H. Infrared Photography 152 a. Reflected Method b. Luminescence method References ; ae “457 CHAPTER 7 Coes - Photographic Evidence — . BASIC RULESON ADMISSABILITY | co . 159 A. Technique for Demonstrating Evidence, Prints, » 156 B. Degree of Enlargements . . sapene 161 C. Perspective/ Correct Viewing ‘Distance/ ee Normal Viewing Distance er pecs e 162 D. TestifyinginCourt os 164 E. Point of Objections : / ~ 167E, “Misleading Photographs we 168 G.’ Photographs and Eyewitness Compared 177 L Failings common to both Exaggeration : Minimization Elaboration “Omission: :* : “Reversal.of left or right. Optical illusion” =< °" 2. Shortcomings of eyewitness a. Perception error b, Language problem c. Memory lapse ~ d. :Hallucinations : _ 3: Shortcomings of photographs : “a. Single viewpoint b. Compression of time c. Necessity of interpretation by uy : So ae op a trier of facts ; oe References : oo Je 197 CHAPTER 8 : Digital Photography CAL Digital Cameras °° -. ‘ : 199 _“B.. Computer’ Printers. pel 202 C. Scanners JEN fe SG ee 205 D, Uses of Digital Photography. : “in Law Enforcement © fe 206 “1. Automated Fingerprint : “> Identification System (AFIS) "2. Crime scene reconstruction “3. Computerize facial sketching 4 Integrated ballistics identification system :E ‘Legal Foundation of Digital Photography 217 1. Rules on electronic evidence: . moe 2. Resolution of the International. “Association for Identification (LAD 3. Guidelines for ensuring adsl of digital +? photographs _ ‘S References ep ks : : 223,le] § @ Auk WR: ‘rt t ag G e oO yx we “ry we . oS & o 0, Figure .10-A Figure .10-B Figure. 12-A Figure’ 12.8 Figure .12-C Figure. 13 Figure 14-A e-15-B . LIST OF FIGURES Cami mera obscura... - The “Bashful. Model” The prism ‘The additive color mixture The subtractive The different bending of ° light as it passes glass blocks . Different kinds of flash units Different studio/laboratory light sources Polilight machine and its accessories Diagram of image formation of a color negative Drawings of different - camera designs and formats Photograph of cameras with different film format. The parts of a’single-lens-reflex (SLR) camera A diagram of a convergent or positive lens Diagram of divergent or negative.lens Diagram of a Kodak Ektar lenis : Illustrations of the different lens «defects or aberrations Camera lens of different focal length (side view) Camera lens of different ~~”. focal:length (quarter view)... ° The f-number indicator on the lens mount Illustrations of the different diaphragm openingFigure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figuie Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 16-A 16-B 17 18-A 18-B 19 20 21 22 23-A 23-B 24 25 26-A 26-B 27-8 27-B 28-A »28-B 29-A. 29-B 29-C 30 31 32 33-A 33-B Figure 34 Figure 35-A Photograph with a long’ or wide depth of field Photograph with a short depth of field Scale bed:on a lens mount Split-image focusing Illustration of the split-i image : focusing method Shutter speed dial Exposure or light ‘meter Daylight developing tank and reels Contract printers A black and white enlarger Acolor enlarger .: The author doing enlarging work A Sketch of a simple darkroom’: A special identification camera A “Graflex: identification camera Close-up. lens Extension tubes Photomicrograph of bullet Photomicrograph of a cartridge shell Identification of a suspect Identification of a civilian Identification photograph of a Cadaver Photomicrograph showing a sequence of writings Series of photographs of a crime scene Photograph of a murder victim Photograph of a victim of shooting Photograph of an empty shell and. bloodstains on the floor: Photograph of a victim of‘drowning Photograph of a'steel-safe allegedty opened-with a twisted paper clipFigure 35-8 Figure 36-A Figure 36-B Figure 87-A Figure 37-B Figure 38 Figure 39-A Figure 40-A Figure 40-B Figure 40-C Figure 40-D. Figure 40-E Figure 40-F Figure 40-G Figure 40-H Figure 41-4. Figure 41-B Full view of showing the contents of the steel safe Photograph of a victim of. .. sex offense-full view». : Close up photograph:of the victim showing the injuries’: - Photograph of a suspected, arson ~ partial burning , Total burning : Photograph showing the . location and position of vehicles in a traffic.accident Crime photographer taking a photomicrograph of.a firearm Tools and, paraphernalia, recovered froma vehicle of a robbery suspect Key of an attaché case A revolver found at a:scene of a crime Bullets and shells found at the scene of a crime submitted for ballistics examination A kitchen knife used ina stabbing case‘submitted for blood: examination Printing press.used in... counterfeiting P50.00 bill Photograph of a printed counterfeit dollar bills, Photograph of a fully... grown marijuana plants Photographic surveillance with the use of a night vision Photographic surveillance with the use of telephoto lens 124 125 “125 126 127 129 2182: 134 134 135 135. 135 136 136 136 137° 137Figure 42-A Figure 42-B Figure 43 Figure 44 Figure 45-A. Figure 45-B Figure 46-A Figure 46-B Figure 46-C Figure 47 Figure 48-A Figure 48-B Figure 49-A Figure 49-B Figure 50-A Figure 50-B Figure 51 Figure 52-A Photograph of a lifted fingerprint (Questioned) Photograph of a lifted * fingerprint on a fingerprint card (Standard) Comparison chart of fingerprint Photograph of a fingerprint developed with white powder on a frame of a handgun Photograph of a cheque taken with ordinary lighting - procedure Photograph of the same chequie taken with sidelight or oblique light clearly showing erasures « Sidelighting shows indented writing Is the date really Mar. or is it May? Js the amount really $500.00" : or is-it'$5.007 Photograph taken with transmitted light Diagram of reflected method Diagram of fluoresceticé method Photograph of a document taken with visible light Photograph taken tinder ultraviolet rays showing chemically erased writings ~ A P20.00 bill taken with visible light Ultraviolet photograph shows ” the invisible security: features Infrared focusing marker on a lens mount Photograph taken with visible “ight 140 140 141 142 145 146 146 146: 146 147. 148 149 150 150 151 151 152 154Figure 67-C Figure 68-A Figure 68-B Figure 68-C Figure 69-A. Figure 69-B Figure 70-A Figiure 70-B Figure 71-A Figure 71-B Figure 72-A Figure 72-B Figure 73-A Figure 73-B Figure 73-C Figure 73-D, Figure 74, Figure 75 Figure 76-A Photograph of aismhall!™: «3 )::3':.-7 pencil that was.used to:show +: the size of the same object’ ¢=:: An underexposed photograph. A normal exposed photograph: : An overexposed photograph +: Is this an aerial photograph of a coastline of an'island?.. : The preceding’ Photograph:(A) was cropped from:this ::..5° 5 is photograph during enlargement: A bright light from the side. produce a: shadow:in a-hole showing its depth’ 2s." The absence of shadow brought« 2 by flat lighting gives the... impression of a level-ground ::' Photograph of aman with an. extended right hand?. : Photograph of aman with §:- +! an extended left hand? :s0:.. +. Photograph: of a'skid mark «..: curving tothe right? ; Photograph of a skid mark. ’ curving to. the left? : Home Optical illusion on form: Optical illusion.on light « Optical illusion on length... ; . !: Optical illusion on angle-: <>: : or curvature x Photograph showing the a AS enlarged dot of a photographic: screen used in publishing work: Photograph. of a digital camera” connected-to.a. computer-unit; Bubble-jet printer SSS 182 182 * 183 183 1840" 184 185. 185 186, 187 5° 188 2. 188 190 23190: 191 191 . 192 199°Figure 76-B Figure 76-C Figure 77 Figure 78 Figure 79-A Figure 79-B Figure 79-C Figure 79-D Figure 79-E Figure 79-F Figure 79-G Figure 80--A Figure 80-B Figure 80-C Ink-jet printer Laser-jet printer Photograph of flatbed scanner Photograph of Automated: Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) accessories An actual photograph showing a magazine of a firearm and the position of the body of the victim Another actual photograph showing the gun and the. body of the victim A reconstruction photograph showing the position of the male and the female victim ' A reconstruction photograph showing the trajectory of the bullet that killed the male victim A reconstruction photograph showing the possible position of another gunman, if there was one A reconstruction photograph showing another possible position of the gunman. A reconstruction photograph showing a third possible position of the gunman Photograph showing the creation of facial features of a person Photograph showing composites with different disguises : Photograph ofa personbeing , searched on the database 209 209 210 210 211 a 212 . 213 214 214: Figure 80-C-1 Photograph of.a’person. being: Figure 80-D . Figure. 80-E Figure 81 Figure 82-A Figure 82-B Figure 83-A __ “Figure 83-B Figure 84-A: “Figure 84-B searched against criminal: mugshot database Photograph showing facial reconstruction of a injured face’: Photograph showing the ageing process of missing-children A computerized bullet comparison ‘microscope » compatible with IBIS: Original photograph :of the princess, crewmanand Dodie, on a‘holiday taken with a digital camera A manipulated image. ° fromthe original photograph. An original digital Photograph of the Author’ , A manipulated digital photograph of the original. phowograph of the author: A “fantasy” (composite) photograph done-with ° the conventional film based photography : Another fantasy photograph done in the same photographic process 28. 215 216 217 219 219 221 221 222 222Puorocrapay — Derinitions , HisTorica BacKGROUND AND PRINCIPLES DEFINITION OF TERMS e A. Photography 1. Literal definition: The word photography is a derivative of two Greek words phos which means “light” and graphia meaning “write”. Therefore photography best translates to “write with light.” (Herschel 1839) 5 2. .Modern definition: : Photography is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light, upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical processes involved therein. (Aquino 1972) 3. Technical/Legal definition: Modern photography may be defined as any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic recording of the images of scenes, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light and infrared rays. This definition is broad enough to include not only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new process that. may be developed. (Scott 1975) mo B. Police Photography Police Photography isan art or science which deals with. the study of the'principles of photography, the preparation of 1photographic evidence, and its application to police work. (Aquino 1972) Cc. Forensic Photography - is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene’and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial. (Redsicker 2001) HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY A. The Basic Components of Photography 1. Light - the days of cteation . “In the beginning; God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the spirit of God was hovering over the waters. , : And God said, “Let there be light” and there was light: God saw ‘the light was good, and he saparated the light from the darkness. God’called the light “day”, and ~ the darkness he:called “night”.’ And there was evening, and there was morining - The first day. (Genesis, chapter 1, verses 1-3) “2. Equipment (1700) The ' portable camera obscura (Latin for dark chamber) was ised by artist or paiitters to get accurate perspective of natural scene anid scale of their subjects. FIGURE1 Cantera Obscura (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak)3,. Chemicals (1726 -.1777). : Light sensitivity: of silver nitrate and silver: chloride solution was discovered and investigated. In 1800 Thomas Wedgewood and Humphey Davy produced photograms. B. True Photography 1839 is generally known as the birth year of photography. William Henry Fox Talbot.explained:a process he had invented (calotype) at the Royai Society of London. The “Calotype” used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with. Hight sensitive compounds. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre made a public demonstration in. Paris “Daguerreotype” in collaboration. with Joseph Nicephore Niepce. oe 5 be i The “Daguerreotype” formed an image directly on nthe silver surface of a metal plate. : With Talbots “calotype,” the fixation was only partial while Daguerre’s Daguerreotypes,.images were ‘made permanent with the use of hypo. - 1848 - Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as binding medium... : 1850 - Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evard introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy sutface:” 1851 -. Frederick. Scott Archer: -:publisheda “wet plate” process when collodion - a viscous liquid thatdries. toa tough flexible and transparent film-réplaced a albtumen. : 1885 ~ Gelatin entulsion printing paper » was 2 commercially introduced based films-in 1889.’ : BoDuring this time; the cameras wére crude; the lenses could not form a true image; and. the sensitive materials required long exposures and could not ‘reproduce colors in . shades of gray. It was in 1856 when John F.W. Herschel coined the word “photography”. * 1861.4 James Clark Maxwell researched on ‘colors. 1890: - full corrected lenses were introduced. 1906 - a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray. 1907 -. Lummiere color process. was introduced, .a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green, and red filter. . 1914 - Uv. 8, “Lesean Kodak made:a color subtractive process called Kodachrome. 1935 -folor process came out together with electronic flash. 1947 ~ Edwin if dan introduced “Polaroid” the one-step photogra hy. + : 1960 - LASER was invented making possible Holograms (three dimensional pictures). 1988. The arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital camera that recorded images as a computerized. file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to.a16 MB internal memory card that used’a battery to keep the data iti memory. This camera was never marketed in'the USA. . The fist commercially available digital camera was the 1992 Kodak DCS-100. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensorand was priced.at $13,000: The first Consumer camera. with a : Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the’back was the Casio QV- 10 in 1995 and the. first camera to use compact flash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996.-.In 1999.the Nikon D1 a 2.74 megapixel camera was the first digital SLR with a price of under $6,000. This camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses which meant that film based Photographers could use the same lenses they already own. In 2003'Canon introduced the 300D camera also known as digital rebel, a 6 megapixel and the first DSLR priced under $1,000 to consumers. « Criminal Applications .. “The. history of forensic scietwé and ‘criminal investigation is both rich and exciting. The discoveries and observations of our predecessors is: likewise surprising and comforting. ‘The great men and women who:paved a path of enlightenment in crime investigation continue to teach us long FIGURE 2 “The Bashful Model” 18: (Courtesy of Charles E.-O*hara).after their deaths. These are the aspifations that we should aspire to endow. .We'are fortunate to work in a profession with a strong foundation and a bright and seemingly efidlless future.” (Thoriaas Ww. Adir, Editor ‘The scene’): 1854--"An Englishman, Maddox, developed ‘a dry plate ‘photography eclipsing Daguerte’s wet. plate on tin method. This. made practical the photography of inmates for prison retords. 1859 ~ In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in photography. It was-used to demonstrate evidence ina California case. Enlarged photographs of signature walepresented i ina court case involving. forgery. 1864 - Odelbercht first advocate the use of photography for the identification. of criminals: and the documentation of evidence and crime scenes: . Early photographs of accused arid arrésted pérsons : Were. beautifully posed as example of the Victorian ‘photographers at 20 to 30 years. Later, every major police force in England and the United States has.” Rogues’ galleriés” full face, profile'and full body shot. : Tn Europe and the United States had “Rogues Gallery” (photograph of criminals) became an. integral Part almost all police departments. 1882 - Alphonse Bertillion who initiated anthropometric measurements:for personal identification was also irivolved ‘in various’ means of documentation by photography which « developed into a fine science for criminalistics whenhe photographed crimé.scenes.and formulated: a technique: of contact photography to demonstrate erasures on documents. 1902 - Dr. R.A. Reis, a German scientist trained in Chemistry and Physics at Lausanne University in Switzerland. Hecontributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic science and established the world’s earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic community and the Swiss police. His interests included photography. of crime scenes, corpses, and blood stains. He made a trip to Brazil in 1913 where his experience in criminalistics was presented to the Western Hemisphere for the first time. 1910 ~ Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic comparison’of bullets and cartridge cases which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics. Victor Baltazard, Professor of forensic medicine at Sorborne, used photographic enlargéments of bullets and + cartridge cases to determine weapon type and was among the first to attempt to individualize a bullet to a weapon. , D. Legal Foundation of Photographic Evidence - 1. For Black and White Photographs 1859 - Daguerreotype was used in a civil case, Lueo vs. United States, 23 Howard 515 to decide on the authenticity of photographs in comparing signatures. 1874 - In a criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence, Underzook vs. Commonwealth, 76 Pa. 340. 2. For Color Photographs 1943 - Civil litigations Green vs. City and county.of Denver, 3 Colo..390 142 P.2 D.277 involving color photography of spoiled meat in violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public. 1960 - Incriminal,case, State vs. Conte 157 Comm. 251 A.2d 81 showing the graphic wound of the victim. 7E. Criminology Education _ 1902’ - Dr. R.A. Reis professor at the University. of Lausanne Switzerland set up one ofthe first academic curricular in forensic science. His Forensic Photography Department grew. into Lausanne Institute of Police Science. . : 1950 ~ August Vallmer,.Chief of Police of Berkeley, Califonia ~ established the School of Criminology, at the University of California, Berkeley. Paul Kirk presided ‘ove the major of criminalistics within the school. 1954 -.In the Philippines, the school which pioneered criminology education is the Plaridel Educational Institution now the Philippine College of Criminology‘at 641 Sales St.,- Sta. Cruz, Manila. : THE PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY. Different authors of photography books have -different approach in explaining the principles of photography but to our mind, the one expounded by Atty. Avelino Aquino in his book . “Police Photography - its principles and ‘practice’ is the best articulated. -»A. photograph is the-mechanical and chemical result of photography. “To produce-a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials. . : Lights reflected or radiated by-a. subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights must be excluded: The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by - placing the sensitized: matérial inside'a camera. Fhe amount of light on the sensitized. material after exposure-is ‘not immediately visible to the eyes. ‘To:make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process. The visual-effect that results from the chemical .processing is 8dependent on the quantity and quality of the exposing light. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development. Too little will produce a transparent or white shade. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.10 REFERENCES: Aquino, Avelino, Police Photography ~ Its Principles and Practice, 1978 Eckert, William G. “Introduction to Forensic Science”, 24 Edition, CRC Press. 1997 Hilton, Ordway “Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents”, Revised Edition, CRC Press, 1993 http:/ /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera Redsicker, David R. “The Practical Methodology of Forensic Photography” 2" Edition, CRC Press, Washington D.C. 2001 Scott, Charles C. “Photographic Evidence — Preparation and Presentation”. Vernon Law Book Company, Kansas City,Missouri, 1942 The New Student Bible Expanded and Updated, Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1997. The Scene. Journal of the Association for Crime Scene Reconstruction. Vol. 13, Issue 1 January to March 2007Puorograpuic Rays — Its Nature anp CHARACTERISTICS A: LIGHT Light is one of a number of known form of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave motion, Actually, there are other theories that explains the behavior of light (ex. Quantum theory) but for our purpose, the wave theory is the only one considered. This form of energy travels at a speed of about 186,000 miles per second in air, but they differ in wavelength and frequency. Wavelength is the distance from the crest (highest point) to the wave to the next succeeding crest while frequency is the number of waves passing ina given point in one second. The product of the two is the speed of travel, The speed of the various radiant energy is constant ata given medium, but varies with other media. For example, the speed of light in ordinary glass is only about two-third of its speed in air. Actually, it is only the wavelength that changes, frequency remains constant. However frequency is much more difficult to measure, wavelength could be determined with accuracy. Hence, we identify a particular radiation by its wavelength. Wavelength is measured by the angstrom. unit or in terms of milli-microns (English system of measure) or nonameter (metric. system of measure) which is equivalent to one over one millionth of a millimeter. The different energies in the electromagnetic spectrum are the following: Cosmic tays, Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet tays, visible light, Infrared rays, heat rays, Hertzian waves, and the alternating current oscillations. 11The energies that are.capable of being recorded on sensitized materials are the X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, and infrared rays. They are sometimes referred to as the four photographic rays of modern photography. The wavelength of X-rays is from 01 to 30 nanometers, Ultraviolet rays from 30 to 400:nn, visible light from 400 to 700 nn, and infrared rays from 700 to 1,000+ nn. Actually, the wavelength of infrared rays extends beyond 2,000 nn but the longest wavelength that the present sensitized materials (films) could record is only up to this limit. The ‘Webster Dictionary. defines light asa radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seenby thenaked eye.-The . scientific definition of light i is. the aspect. of radiant energy of _ Whicha human observer is aware through the visual sensations which arise from. the stimulation of the, retina of the eye. “Lights rays witha wavelength of 400 to 7000 mnisreferred to.as visible light because it is only ‘within these wavelengths that the human eye is capable of perceiving. Those with shorter or longer wavelengths are commonly referred as invisible tadiations. ‘ . By definition all lights a are visil le. For this reason the word ” “visible” is superfluous, int that common. expression “visible light.” What the eye, cannot see are referred to as radiations. : “Light energy has several effects o onan object. It is either / jeflectod, absorbed, transmitted or converted, The varying 12 combinations of this reflectance and absorption are what gives us the wide variety of colors:which we are able to perceive, at times, other light are neither reflected or absorbed but is transmitted through the object. This transmitted light passing through the object. and allows a viewer onthe other side of the object to perceive | these light waves,The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to be converted to another wavelength, This conversion is » known as luminescence. There are two types of luminiscence: the flourescence and phosphoresce: Flourescence is’ the ability of an'object to convert one wavelength to another as long as the active energy source is irradiating the object: . - : In phosphorescence the ‘object not only converts the “wavelength while being irradiated: but continuous to reflect the new wavelengths for a’period of time after the energy source is removed. White Light When alt the wavelengths between 400-700 nanometers are presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity, we get the sensation or perception of colorless or white light. If a natrow bearn of white light is allowed to pass through a prism it ‘will bend the light of shorter wavelength more than those with longer wavelength thus spreading them Out into'the visible spectrum. These are the colors of the rainbow - the red, orange, yellow, green, blué,indigo, violet. IGURE3 The prism breaks its white lightin its different wave- ‘length producing the colors of the rainbow. (courtesy of Eastman Kodak) 13.. lf we divide the wavelength of visible light (400-700 nano.) equally into three (from 400 to 500 nano., from 500 to 600 nano., and from 600 to 700 nano.) we will produce. blue, green, and.red colors. These are known as the three primary colors of light as differentiated from the three primary colors of painis, dyes, and coloring matters ‘which are’'the blue, yellow, and red. Additive Color Mixture If we get three projectors with. beams of lights. projecting individually blue, green and red and have the three beams overlap over the other, we will note.that the portion where the blue and green lights merged over the other, it will produce a cyan color, the green and red lights a yellow color, and the red and blue lights a magenta color. At the center where the blue, green and red light were combined in proper ratio, we see white light. In this aspect, cyan, yellow, and magenta.are known as the three secondary colors of light, For practical purpose, white is the presence of all colors while black is: the absence of all colors or the absence of light. _ FIGURE4 . Additive Color Mixture -. (Courtesy: of Eastman’ Kodak) 14 SaneSubtractive Color Mixture This time, the light beams of the three projectors will be covered each with cyan filter, yellow filter, and magenta filter and have the beams of light projected one over the other. The cyan filter will transmit blue and green light but absorbs red from white light. A yellow filter will transmit green and red light but absorbs blue from white light. Similarly, a magenta filter will transmit FIGURE5 The Subtractive Color Mix- ture (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) " red and blue light but absorbs green from white light. At the center where the three beams of light are merged together will produce black. In simple terms, cyan is the complementary of red, yellow is the complementary of blue, and.magenta is the complementary of green. The range of colors which can be produced by subtractive mixture of three dyes is quite large and makes it possible the modern processes of color photography which depends on the subtractive principle. Production of Colors There are a number of different ways in which color is produced. One need to know the variable quantities of color so it will be possible to evaluate color as quality. 1816 1. Absorption The color of most ordinary objects are due to the fact that they do not absorb the same amount of light at each wavelength, : Scattering The color of the blue sky is due to the scattering of light by the atmosphere. Variation in the density of the atmospheric gases act in such a Way that they scatter light _ of the shorter wavelength at the blue end of the spectrum much more they scatter light of the longer wavelength of the red end of the Spectrum, Thus the sky is bluest when it is clearest, and white:when it is less clear. . Interference Coler.can also be produced by interference of light “Waves in thin film like in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating in water. ‘The light reflected from the top surface of such a film undergoes a reversal or phase but the light reflected from the bottom surface does not undergo this type of change. This phenomenon is also responsible for the color pattern known ‘ag “Newton's ring” which sometimes cause trouble in color printing work. » Flourescence This happens when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it at another waveléngth. . Dispersion — Color may arise from differences in the refractive or bending power ofa transparent medium of light of different wavelength. The rainbow is a good example of this phenomenon.Attributes of Color According to the modern scientific definition of color, it is not legitimate to ascribe color to an object but only to the light reflected from it.. Thus any. color perception has three characteristics, any one of which can be varied independently of the othey,two. These are hue, saturation, and brightness. Bending of Light When travelling in open space, light travels in straight line. However, when light comes in contact with an. object, it may be bended in the following manner. FIGURE6 REFLECTION OF LIGHT TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT Object absorbs green and Filter absorbs green and blue, looksred. blue, looks red. REFRACTION ‘The different bending of light as it presses through glass blocks. (Courtesy of Eastwian Kodak)Reflection - is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface. a. Regular reflection - happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface. : b. Irregular or diffused reflection - occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object. Refraction - the bending of light when passing from one medium to another. Diffraction - the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object. Kinds of object as to how they behave to light. 1. Transparent objects - allows sufficient visible light to pass . through them.that the object.on the other side may be _ dearly seen, Translucent objects - allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be recognizable but sharp detail and outline are obscured, Opaque objects - so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if not impossible. Sources of Light 18 1 Natural light source - those coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, fire; etc, While-all of these sources could now be used for photographic use, for practical reasons, the discussion will be limited to sunlight only. With sunlight there are actually several sources. Primarily those coming directly from the sun, secondarily those being reflected by clouds or the sky. The intensity of sunlight falling on an object in open space varies depending on the weather condition, time of the day,or even time of the year. For a more accurate exposure setting at daylight, only one characteristic is considered - the kind of shadow casted by an object in open space. 1. Bright sunlight - a lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow. 2. Hazy sunlight - objects in open space cast a transparent shadow. 3! Dull sunlight - objects in open space cast no shadow. a. Cloudy bright - objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly visible. b. Cloudy dull - objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are already limited. . Artificial light source Light sources of this category are man-made and.is divided into the continuous radiation and the short duration. a, Continuous radiation are those that can give illumination continuously. The common light source of this kind are the fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamps, carbon arc lamp, photoflood lamp, gas lamp, ete, b. Short duration (Flash unit) A flash unit gives a brief flash of light produced by a burning metallic wire (flash bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash). At this time, the flash bulb is no longer available in the market but the electronic flash remains very popular. The electronic flash offers a great light output in a compact, lightweight and economical form. It does not have the effect of heat and glare during setup that 19are common with continuous light sources. Because it is battery-powered, itis most convenient for field work “where AC current is not available. Like any other artificial source, flash units allows the photographer to control the direction; quality and intensity of light to achieve the desired result. FIGURE? A. Different kinds of flash units B. Different studios/laboratory light including an umbrella reflector 20Forensic Light Sources 1. Ultraviolet lamp Ultraviolet lamps used in forensic work come in variety of shape, sizes, and power. Some units are portable battery operated and are easily carried and can meet the yugged and rigorous demand for field work, The ultraviolet radiation is broken down into the long wave U.V., the medium wave U.V. and the short wave U.V. The long wave UV is used in a wide variety of applications in medical’ and forensics, The. medium wave UV is often used in chemical analysis and in curing and hardening of different. items for indusirial applications. The short wave UV is used for variety of purpose‘such as to sterilize air and place of work. It is an effective germicide, destroying many biological contaminants. 2. LASER - Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation Although developed years earlier it was in 1970's that it was discovered ‘that by illuminating certain items with LASER, they would flouresce or could be made to stand out in sharp contrast from their background. ' This was especially significant in locating dried biological stains such as semen, urine and saliva, as well as stains that had been washed. The LASER stimulation of these items, provided a way for the criminalist to finally see, locate, and visually record evidence that they know that they had been missing. The only drawback of LASER is their cost, they are quite expensive. LASER is.also known as coherent light. 211 3. Alternative Light Source (ALS) The Alternative Light Sources was developed in mid 1980's as a far more inexpensive alternative to forensic LASER. The ALS uses a variety of band pass filters to Provide ahigh intensity beam of non-coherent light. These multiple band pass filters allows the Operator to match the LASER frequency available at crime scene, . Additional wavelength were included to allow the ALS to Operate in » the UV, near UV, and IR spectrum. ALS technology had advanced toa point whereby using the combination of filter FIGURES . Polilight machine. including its accessories: Goggles and Photographic filters. ‘and ‘an adjustable iris to control'the width of the ‘transmission band, various wavelength from UV to'IR may be digitally selected. This allows the operator to scan an almost endless variety of wavelength instead of being restricted to the specific band pass filter capabilities, ae! 7 4. Forensic Light Sources (FLS) The FLS.is a term being applied to a wide v: iety of relatively inexpensive light sources which use filtered luminiscient fingeprint powder which also falls within the strobe shift of most biological powder. This will enable a criminalist to search latent fingerprints of rough surfaces, The white light source used with the FLS is as simple as a maglight type handheld flashlight or a spotlight with the1999 REFERENCES: Evans, R., “An Introduction to Color,” John Wiley & Sons; New York; 1948 . ‘Bastman Kodak Company, “Color as seen and photographed,” Kodak Handbook,'1959 - ‘ : “Forensic Light Sources,” Naval Crimitial Investigation Service, Death Investigation Division Training Manual, “Geman, E., “Laser Powers and Their Applications,” Laser Sonics Operational Publication, Coopet Laser Sonics, II., June.1985 Manzel, E., “Lasers in Physical Eviderice Examination,” ‘Laser Topics ~ March 1986 , Omnichrome Inc., “Evidence Developed Using Forensic Light Sources,” a training manual of Omnichrome Inc., Chino, Ca., 1987 Webster Universal Dictionary and Thesaurus, Tomonet Publications Inc.; Canada 1993Puorocrapmic Firms an’ Papers A. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS ‘ emulsion, §ray or anti-halation backi 1. Emulsion basically made up of A black and white ‘film is ing, and a support base, Photographic emulsion consist of crystals of light- sensitive compounds (silver nitrate) evenly distributed throughout plastic base material. are universally sensitive to Silver halide emulsions some wavelengths of blue the ultraviolet radiations and light. They can be made sensitive to other colors of light and the near infrared radiation by the addition of special sensitizing dye. Gelatinis universally used as the medium that holds the crystals in emulsion, - Gray or antihalation backing This layer is placed between the emulsion and the plastic base of a film to prevent whatever light that passes through the emulsion and reflected by the base back to the emulsion which forms a “halo,” My Base Generally film base are made of plastic material, ¥ serve as a support to the emulsion 25Characteristics of B & W Films The characteristics of a B & W film are speed (sensitivity to - light), spectral (wavelength or color) sensitivity and granularity or graininess. Although films are universally manufacture in about the same way, there are controlled variations in procedure, choice and préportion of chemicals used in processing films of different characteristics. 1. Emulsion speed The different indicators of emulsion speed are as follows: a. ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed in arithmetical value. b. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating, which is expressed in logarithmic value. | c. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values. The different emulsion speed ratings are: ASA 12 DIN 12° IsO: 12/12 ASA 25 DIN 15° ISO 25/15 ASA 50 DIN 18° IsO_ 50/18 ASA 100 DIN 21° ISO. - 100/21 ASA 200 DIN 24° ISO - 200/24 ASA 400 DIN 27 IsO 400/27 ASA 800 DIN 30° IsO 800/30. ASA 1600 DIN 33° , 180 1000/33 In the market, ASA 100 commonly referred to as the Plus X, the ASA 200 as the double X, and the ASA 400 as the Tri-X. 262. Spectral sensitivity The. different classificati il sensitivity are: ms as according-to a.’ Blue sensitive film - sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only. b; Orthochromatic film ~ sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only. <¢.:Panchromati¢ film sitive to ultraviolet radiation to blue, green, a ed: light or all colors. d. Infra-red film - sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to blue, ‘green red light « and infraréd-rays. 3. Granularity or graininess | .. This refers. to the size of the meiallic silver giains - that.are ‘formed: after development | exposed film. _. Generally, the sizeof metallic silver graifis are dependent - on-the-emulsion ‘speed of the: film and the. type: cof developing solution that is used in processing. The rule . isthe lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain-and conversely, the higher the emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger.are the grains. Likewise, a film developer will. produce a finer grain than a paper developer when:used for film processing. B. COLOR FILMS A calor films a multi-layer emilsion ‘coated on the same support or base. .The top emulsion is sensitive to blue “he light only. Since green and red light passés through it without effect, the blue light alone makes the exposure. A yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion absorbs any unused blue light and prevents-it from reaching the two lower emulsion layer. The yellow color in the filter layer have no permanent effect'on the appearance of the film because. it is destroyed during processing. The midclle emitilsion is sensitive to green light but not to red light. ‘Like all emulsions, the middle layer is also sensitive to blue light but the blue light cannot reach it. a7 ‘8HO o> GAY ae § pee nt @ bb Sh rs pet “Bb “eb The exposure in this layer is therefore made b alone. The bottom layer is sensitive.to red sensitivity to green light is so low as to be ne FIGURE9 Diagram of an image formation of a color negative. (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) : Image Formation in. Color fe Negative Film : Original. subject, represented schematically by color patches, ght alone. These base which has an Cross section of color negative lm, Silver halide grains exposed. the camera have. been | Cross section of color negative p film after ihe silver grains have been bleached, . * Residical color couplers. the exposure in this layer is made by red li three emulsion layers are coated ona film anti-halation backing. 1. Types of color films “Color negative. 28BO Negative or non-reversal film The suffix(’color” js given to negative or non- reversal. film. This-film yields either a negative or a positive image depending on how itis used. Examples are: Kodacolor, Fujicolor, Agfacolor, etc. b. Reversal film The suffix “chrome” is applied to reversal material. This film when processed a positive image or transparency for projection viewing. Examples are: Kodachrome, Ektachrome, Fujichrome, Agfachrome, etc. Like the B & W films, color films also have emulsion speed with the same indicators (ASA, DIN, ISO) and the same ratings. : Films whether B & W or color comes ina variety of sizes and number of exposures. : « \For sizes, there are 8mm., 16 mm., 135 mm., 120 ‘mm, 127 mm for roll films and the 2-1 /2" x 3-1/2", 4" x5" x7", 8" x 10", 11"x 14" and 16" x24" for sheet films. For number of exposures, there are 12 exposures, 24 exposures and the 36 exposures. C. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS (BLACK AND WHITE) Modern photographic papers are basically composed of a light sensitive coating (emulsion) on a paper base)or support. The emulsion suspended on a gelatin is generally made of silver halide salts. To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical solutions and water during processing and —_— 2930 as well as the variety-of degree in humidity and perature, the base is made of wood pulp. “I. Characteristics of a photographic paper a. Emulsion speed 1. ‘ 2. 3. Chloride paper ~ has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing. : Bromide paper ~ has a fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or enlarging. Chloro-bromide paper - isa multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and enlarging. The contrast of an emulsion also affects the printing speed. For some papers the lighter the contrast . grade, the slower the speed. b, Exposure and development latitude ‘can deviate: Latitude-js thg degree or amount of which you ideal exposure or development 88 Of print quality. 1. Exposure latitude ‘ Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide exposure latitude so exposure must be critical at all times. : 2. Development latitude Papers that do not change appreciable in contrast and image tone with reasonable variations in development has a good latitude. However, for best quality the developing time should be as near as those prescribed by the manufacturer.CG Contrast range or grade In black and white printing, it is often necessary. to adjust the paper contrast so they can ‘yield a natural- scene result from negatives with density range that are either too high or too low. Some papers are available in several contrast range or grade while others have built-in contrast control effected by the use of a filter on the enlarging lens or on the énlarger light source. In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are indicated by numbers ~ numbers 0 to 5. 1. 2. 3. Numbers 0 and 1 are used ‘on over-exposed or low contrast negative. Numbers 2 are used on normal exposed or -normal contrast negatives. Numbers 3 to 5,used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives. (d. Physical characteristics Under this category, photographic papers comes in different surfaces base thickness or weight and color. ae oy | Surfaces.of photographic papers vary in surface texture or degrees gloss or sheen. They are the glossy and smooth, semi-matte or silk, and the matte'or the rough surface. Base weight or thickness Under this category, we have the light weight, single weight, medium weight, and the double weight. “Color maybe “cold” or white with a very slight blue cast, and the “warm” or “cream” where the white has a slight yellow-brown line. 31D. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS. FOR COLOR PRINTING -~ are essentially similar to the film used in the camera except that the emulsion layers are coated on.a paper: base and contain couplers which, are colorless. Colored couplers are not used because the print would then be unsuitable for direct viewing. Printing a. negative in complementary colors-on a non- reversal print reverses both the tone scale and the color of the negative. Thus, the final result is a:positive reproduction within the accuracy limits of the photographic processes of _.,,the tones and colors of the original subject. 32. Photographic papers -— both color and black-and-white are supplied in rolls or sheet in varying lengths or sizes.REFERENCES: Encyclopedia of Practical Photography Edited by and Published for Eastman Kodak Company AMPHOTO - American Photographic Book Publishing Company, Garden City, New York, USA; 1979 Encyclopedia of Practical Photography. Edited by and ‘ Published for Eastman Kodak Company. AMPHOTO - American Photographic Book Publishing Company. Garden City, New York, USA. 1979 Film - Volume 6, Pp. 956-959, 1055-1058 Papers - Volume Il, pp. 1853-1860 ’ Kodak Color Films, Eastman Kodak Company, Fourth Edition, 1961. 33CAMERA A. Camera - is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image; with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image; a means of holding a film to record the image /and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is. B. Camera Classifications: Camera are classified as according to: 1. The size of the film they use or format of the picture they produce. . * a. Large format cameras These cameras have bellows and use sheet films in the size 4"x5", 5"x7" and 8"x10" b. Medium format cameras Some of these cameras are folding type with bellows and some are rigid-body with film size of 120, 220, 70mm. The double lens reflex camera falls under this category. c. Small format cameras Those with film size 126, 110, 35 mm., 16mm, and 8 mm. 2. The viewing/focusing system a. Those with focusing mechanism at the back of the camera. Neb.... Those with optical viewfinder. Medluretormiat’ Singte-long reflex A Twin-ons reflex” RIGIO-BODY_ DESIGNS 35 rin 1924 BELLOWS DESIGNS onanl 7) Monerail téchnicaiview FIGURE10-A Camera Evolution (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) 35FIGURE 10-B Photograph of cameras with different film format Nomenclature : " Stuater Dist A remem IO, Fien Avance trier : ote cee tue Syne Contact [AE Set Pin tor BE Fiexter FN 2 omc Aecussory Stive Fin Rewand Lever : Pinder Reioasa Burton ‘Settsumar Lock Lever : : “+8 “Remind Crank, w= Rawend Kn ~ Eapoeire Cernpensavion Ota Action np. tWattery Crienbar Cover oe sr" Safety Steppe RE Vath Pit neon ne er “_. Exposure Compensation ‘Lock Release Button Stop-sown Sie i —— Mamnination Window ‘nooenesnoee Battery Chick Hutter Depth-of-Feld Seate wd f . Ne Posto ane Fe USiNg 19g ne i So Boyoser FIGURE 11 The parts of a single-lens reflex camera SLR (courtesy of Nikon Camera Corp}3, Overall design and functions a. View camera .. System cameras Its rigid body design accepts a wide variety of lenses, viewers, film backs, and accessories (hundreds of them) can be attached or inte adapt to scientific, technical, arc hitec astronomical, underwater, and many other kinds of photography. Example of this type is the single-lens reflex camera. c. Digital cameras This type of camera digitalize the image which can then be put into a computer and enhanced through a software package such as Adobe Photoshop. There are two types of digital cameras: 1, Those with fixed memory This camera has 4 limited number of imageitcan capture. The user will then be for to erase the image or download it into a computer. 2. Those with removable memory This camera allow the user tol replace a variety of storage cards in much the same fashion as film is exposed and replaced witha new film. Removable media varies in size, in price, and compatibility with computers and other cameras.Other features of a digital camera: 1. 6. Images. produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed in. a computer monitor or T.V. set. For hard copies of such image a computer printer is used, A Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor Digital “point and shoot”. camera sometimes do not have an optical viewfinder, These camera feature a color LCD screen on the camera back or one that can be swing on the side which serves multiple duty as viewfinder, control panel, and instant playback monitor. Flash unit - although generally not necessary but is required for back lighted subjects or ina really low light level: ' Zoom lens capability - wide-angle, normal, telephoto, even macro. Sound recording ~ where you can record audio chips suchas short description of the image taken ~ or noise in the surrounding area. Removable lens that can see around corners. This simplest type of camera is the box type, also commonly referred to as.the Instamatic, or the newer generation “point and shoot” cameras. With this type of camera, all you need to do is to open its back, load the film, close the back, wind the film then take the’ picture. There are no exposure and focusing control to adjust because it is fixed focused, with fixed shutter speed, and a fixed lens or diaphragm opening. 38In forensic photography, the most ideal camera type to use is the single-lens-reflex (SLR) camera. It is light in weight, compact, and versatile. It has the capability of interchangeability of lenses and a wide range of accessories " can be attached to its body, like extension rings or tubes, flash units, filters, cable release, motor drive, remote control, etc., for better photographic efficiency and effectivity. C. Methods of Image Formation 1. Pinhole - is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely free from distortion but its image is so dim that it is impractically long even if the fastest film is used. It is also not practical to enlarge the hole for more light because the larger the hole, the more blurred is the image. 2. ‘Shadow method Image formed by this method is simply the shadow of an object. The chief of application of this method is in X--_ ray photography and in making photograms. 3. Lens method FIGURE 12 A. Convergent or positive lens 39 |» Gy Diagram of 4 Kodak Ektar Lens with several lens components This is the best method of image formation because it is capable of forming a sharp image even witha large opening so, itis suited for a:camera. oat D. Lens A lens is a transparent medium which either converge . or diverge light rays passing through it to. forni.an image. Generally, there are two types of Tenses;. 1. The: convergent of positive or convex Jens. This lens is always thicker atthe center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it are bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting . ata point. It produce arealt image on the opposite side \ of the lens or where light is coming from. 2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens ' This lens “is always thinner at the’center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are bended away ftom ‘each other as if coming from a point. It produce a virtual i image on the sare side of the lens or where light is coming from.E, Inherent Lens Defects « or Aberrations The ideal lens for forensic photography would be capable of producing critically sharp and distortion-free image. Some other lenses are unfit for the preparation of photographic evidence because they: have optical defects known as aberrations. They are the following: 1,‘ Spherical aberration, When light passing through near the central part of aconverging lens are bended more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part. : Manufacturer of lensés tries to reduce this defect to a negligible quantity by using lenses of different curvatures, =. 2. Coma This is another form of spherical aberration. but is concerned with the light rays entering the.lens obliquely. The defect is ; noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central part of the lens. If a lens has. coma, circular objects .teproduced at the corners of the negative are comet-like form. Just like. the spherical aberration, it is reduced by combinations of Jenses of different curvatures. 3. Curvature of field. This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in a curved surface than a flat surface. The correction of this defect ‘is similar to spherical aberration and coma. IFIGURE 13 Illustration of the different lens aberrations. Lib AF Se Se CURVATURE OF FIELD 4. Distortion _ A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering ‘straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in an object: This is caused by the placement of the . diaphragm. ‘If the diaphragm is placed infront of the lens, straight lines near the edges of the object tends to bulge ‘outside. This is known as the barrel distortion.” If the diaphragm is placed behind of the lens, straight lines near the edges tends to bend inward. This is known as the pin- cushion distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens component and the two opposite distortions will neutralize each other. 5. Chromatic aberrations This defect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wave lengths to the samefocus. Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while’ infrared rays are bent the least when they pass through the lens. : Visible light come to’a' focus at Varying ‘distances. This . défect'is ‘reduced by utilizing compound lenses’made up of single lens made tip of glasé of different curvatures. 6. Astigmatism’ ” eee » With this defect;a single paint froma subject falling near the margin of the negative will be imaged .not as a point but as'a two perpéndicular short lines; one of which is always be out of focus while the other is'sharp.’ This defect is lessened by combining lenses of special kind of glass having the correct combinations of spherical surfaces. “7. Chromatic difference of magnification “ This"defect is preset when the size’ of image produced by photographic’ rays of One wave length is different fromthe size produced by another. Size of the image increases as the wavelength ‘of the't rays decreases. Incolor photography it produce a rainbow colored fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white photography it appears ; asa ‘slight t blue. Most of these ‘aberrations éannot be eliminated but each one of them can be réduced to‘a level that its truth bearing quality for evidence use is legally acceptable. F. Types of Lenses'as ‘According to thet Degree of Correction to these Lens ‘Aberrations . 1, Acrhromatic lens-is conrected for chromatic aberration. 2." Rapid-rectillinear lens ~ is corrected for distortion. 3. Anastigmat lens ~ is corrected for astigmatism as well vas the other'lens defects, © 7" » 4. “Apochromat lens ~ is also cortectéd for ast pmatism ‘but with higher degree of correction to colot.’ 43 epicsG. Focal Lenigth A tundamental characteristics ofa lensis: its, focal length. This will determine the size of an image of an object ata given distance, and the area of coverage of the lens. Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the fens to the film plane when the lens is set or focused _ at infinity position or far distance. Focal distance - is the distance from. the optical: center of the lens to the film plane. : H. ‘Types of Lenses as According to Focal Length 1. Wide angle lens ~ a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material. This lens will have ‘a wide. area of coverage but produces a small image size. This is usually,used in taking pictures indoor or inside a small room. It is also, used outdoor to get a panoramic view of.a.scene, 2. Normal lens - is a. lens with a focal length approximately equal: or more but: not more.than twice the diagonal of its negative material. It is referred to as normal because its coverage corresponds to nearly the coverage of the human eye. f 3. Telephoto lens - is a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal-of its negative material. This lens produces a bigger i image of objects at far distance but its area of coverage is smaller. 4. Zoom lens ~ is a lens with variable focal Jength. The focal. length of a lens i is normally indicated i in the lens mount or barrel of a. camera, usually in millimeter (mm) or in centimeter (cm)..° 44FIGURE 14-4 : “Camera lenses of different focal length side view (Courtésy of Nikon Camere). 45FIGURE14-B Camera lenses of different focal length (courtesy of Nikon Camera)L_ Lens Diaphragm In between the lens component of a:camera is a metal diaphragm which cain be expanded or constricted by moving a turning ting-on the lens mount or ‘barrel... The size of the ‘opening is indicated by markings of f-humbers. Each f-number tepresents. the ratio ‘of the focal length of the lens and’ the djameter of the opening. The common series'of f-numbers are 1.8, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16 and:22. There are some cameras whose 'f-numbers starts at 1.4 or 1:2, or 1.1and the lowest numerical f-number was the 1.09 fitted ona Canon’7 camera. These f-numbers indicate in: succession, decrease by one-half in light intensity as the number increases. This means that an aperture of £1.8 will admit twice more light than 2 and soon. Conversely; light intensity will decrease by one-half as _ the numerical value increases. This also means that £8 will admit twice less light than £5.6. : The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, depth of field and definitions. 4 1. Diaphragm as controller of speed. By expanding or constricting the: diaphragm, it- is possible to regulate the amount of light passing through the lens. The diaphragm serves as a speed throttle. In the series of f£numbers, the lowest number is the widest opening or the oné that give the’ most amount of light and conversely, the highest number is « the:smailest opening or the oné that give the least amount of light. 2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of field, In theory, itis not possible to focus a lens inmore than one distance at the same time. In actual practice however, in any given Jens objects that are nearer or 47FIGURE 15-4, The £. number indicator on the Jens mount, (Courtesy of Nikon Camera) ‘An f-2.8 diaphragm opening ‘An f-2 diaphragm opening, Anf-8 diaphragm opening FIGURE 15-B , Illustrations of the different diaphram openings An £-22 diaphragm openingfarther than the object focused upe: ceasonably sharp. Depth.of field is defined as the distance between the nearest and the farthest object.in.apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused on a given distance. There.are-influencing factors of depth of field. a. The size of the diaphragm opening, ~The general rule governing this factor is: The smaller the opening, the longer is the depth of field. Conversély, the wider is the opening, the shorter is the depth of field. The exception to this rule is the presence or the effect of diffraction when a small opening:is used. FIGURE 16-4. A photograph with a wide or long depth of field (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) pen 4950 length of the lens. - ’ The general rule is: the shorter the focal length, the “ wider or longer is the depth of field and vice versa, the longer is the focal length the shorter is the depth of field. FIGURE 16-B ‘photograph with a short depth of Held: “ (Cauitesy ‘of Eastman Kodak)” ¢. - Circle of confusion Another factor that'affects depth of field is the size of the’circle of confusion which is considered acceptable.” Circle of confusion refers to‘a small circle:-which is séen by the eye, not asa circle bat a fot or. point. da. Hypestocal distance i This is “the nearest distarice at which a lens is “ focused witha given particular diaphragm opening ’ which will give the maximum depth of field.3. Diaphragm as controller of definition. _ The term definition is the ability of the lens to form a clear images of fine details. Not even a theoretically perfect lens would be capable of imaging a point source of light as a geometrical point. All practical lenses images.such a point. as a small blur which changes. in character, with the-change of lens ‘ aperture. Decreasing the lens aperture improves definition as it removes the small amount of haze caused by residual aberrations. J. - Photographic Perspective and Correct Viewing Distance. _The human eye sees in three dimension but.a lens reproduces a view in two dimension. The missing dimension, depth - is suggested mainly by the relative size and position of various objects in the photograph. The relations of these objects or perspective and therefore the naturalness of. the photograph is determined by the position of the camera. A camera position too close to the subject results in an exaggerated magnification of the parts nearer the lens. Correct perspective in a final photograph depends largely upon the distance upon which it is viewed. T he correct viewing distance which likewise gives the correct perspective corresponds to the focal length of the lens of the camera when acontact print of the negative is made. Frequently, this distance is too short for the eye to be able to see it clearly and comfortably so there is a need of enlargement. Enlarged photographs require a viewing distance equal to the camera focal length times or multiplied by.the number of diameter or degree of enlargement of the photograph. SiK. Focusing When light passes through a-convergent lens, these light rays are bended toward each other meeting at a point which is ~o.the: point of focus. When the subject distance’ to ‘the lens is shortor near the converging point of the light rays behind the » Jens'increases‘and vice-versa. »Since-the light bending power ‘of alens'is fixed, itis‘necessary to adjust the lens s so the point ‘ of fdcus will be ‘on the film plane. i Focusing i is defined asthe setting, of the propér distance in order to form a sharp image. Focusing is the main factor that-will determine the sharpness of the images on a photograph. Of course, there are other factors to’be considered; like camera movement or motion of the subject when the ~ photograph is ‘actually being taken. Though’ the focus is as photographed. Le 52 accurate, yet these factors will ‘blur’ image of the subject being ‘Methods of Focusing wT. Seale-bed' or focusing scale. / On the mount or barrel of the camera lens there ate wo sets of pre-setted distance expressed in feet (ft) and in eters (m): This is the scale bed or focusing scale. “These "distances corrésponds tothe distance f from the camera ‘alens . to the siibject. : To ‘focus with this iniéthod, ‘one ‘has to“use a S| measuring dévice (tape measture, yardstick; ruler;et¢.) and actually measure the distance from the lens of the camera ‘to the’subject. Whatever distance was measured; will be the setting of the ‘marker 6r pointer ‘of focus. TE actual measurement is not possible or undertaken, estimation, calculation, or approximation of this particular distance can be resorted to. However, the accuracy of the focus isFIGURE 17 Scale-bed ona’. * _ Tens mount (Courtesy of Nikon Cantera) dependent upon the accuracy of estimation, calculation, or-approximation. . : . Rangefinders A xangetinder is a mechanism used to measure the angle of convergence of light as seen from.two apertures or opening but viewed’ at the same time. In modern cameras, the rangefinder is coupled with the viewfinder. There are‘two. types of rangefinders. a. Split-irnage — With this type, when one looks'through the * viewfinder of a'camera, there is a‘¢itcle on the central part with a line running.across the circle. To determine focus with this type, pick a straight line in the subject and view it on the circle. If the straight line is cut and separated. from each other, the focusing is not correct. Rotate the barrel of the lens until the said straight line is viewed as straight and the lens are in focus. This method of focusing is standard in single lens reflex camera. Since the viewing and focusing 53FIGURE 18-A A split-image focusing of a single reflex camera « out of focus in focus FIGURE 18-B Illustration of its above focusing method. (Courtesy of Nikon Camera) : is made from light rays passing through the lens, it is not affected by the problem of parallax. (Explanation of parallax'on page 56). 34b. Co-incident i image. This method of focusing is usually used. on compact cameras with a fixed lens. With this type, when you look into the viewfinder, you'll notive a rectangle - in other cameras, it’s circle - on the upper left portion of the viewfinder. For emphasis, manufacturer of the camera usually add color to it, generally a tint of yellow or greeri. To focus with this method, pick a single detail in the subject for viewing ‘in the view finder. Ifthe ~ single detail chosen appears with double image, the distance or focus is incorrect. ‘Rotate the lens barrel until the two images viewed will coincide with each _ ” other arid you are “in” focus. 4 3." Groundglass This method of focusing is accomplished by direct | observation of the image of the subject ona glass with finely’. grounded surface knownas groundglass. This groundglass is found at the back of a camera or in the case of modern + cameéras, also couple’ with the viewfinder. ‘The point of > ‘focus is where the image is sharpest. If the image appears to be’blurred, fuzzy or not sharp, it is out of focus. Some single-lens-reflex Cameras use a stall central -! circle, a microprism on this. groundglass viewfinder for easier focusing. The microprism will usually shatter an | out.of focus image. When, the image is exactly i in ‘foous'the © prisms seems to disappear... M. Depth of Focus or Focal Range: ; Se | 4 When.a lens i is focused on any. given subject, there is ‘one lens-to-film distarice where the image is sharpest, as the ‘ 55 2lens is moved close to the film or farther away from the film, the sharpness decreases. There.is a small range of movement on. either side ofthe, position of the best focus in which the degree. of unsharpness. is acceptable, and. the total range is called. the depth. of. focus.: nos Parallax Parallax is the change of appearance and orientation of _ objects when seen from two viewpoints. Itis also used to tefer to the distance between-the viewpoints themselves. Human vision of depth depends on parallax. Each eye see objects from two.viewpoint about-65mm, (2-1/2 inches) apart. The left and right eye images on the retina have parallax ~ that is they are not identical: The spacing between various - parts of the subject being viewed, varies according to the angular ‘difference. These difference are. interpreted by the brain as difference in distance and three dimensional depth is “perceived, . jae led . Shutters A shutter is a device that opens to uncover the film td make an. exposure for an accurately timed intervals.then closes automatically... Most. shutters are spring-powered, and are FIGURE 19 | ° Shutter’ Speed Dial = > — S caacaenEEeScontrolled by mechanical linkages. However, an ‘ever increasing number of modern cameras, now uses a shutter with electrical circuits to energize electromagnets for the control of the speeds. The action of the shutter is expressed in the different shutter speeds which corresponds to the length of time or _duration of the opening to the closing of the shutter. The different shutter speeds are: B = for bulb or brief 1 Peat 2 4 8 Bb. 30 60" 125 250. 500 1000 The B setting is an exposure setting for more than one second. 1 ~ is for one second, 2 - is for one-half second, 4 - is for one-fourth of-a second, and all succeeding numbers are also fractions-of a secorid. Since except for B, and-no-1, all numbers are fractions of second, the higher the number, the faster is the shutter speéd arid will admit ‘less light and the lower the number, the slower is the shutter speed and: ‘will -- admit iiore light. The 'series of shutter speeds will show that one shutter speed is twice faster or slower than the riext shutter speed. : : : : : EEE eeeeoessOem 57P +58 Eample: 1/30 will admit twice more light than 1/60 or 1/60 will admit twice less light than 1/30. There are two major types of shutters. 1, Between the lens or central shutter. This shutter is located in between the lens component, It is made of metal blades. Its action starts from the center toward the sides then closes back to the center. This type of shutter, can be synchronized with a flash unit with every shutter speed. 2. Focal plane shutter. This shutter is located directly in front of the film or on the focal plane. It is usually made of cloth or metal curtain. Its action starts from one side and closes on the opposite side. This type of shutter can give a faster shutter speeds than the between-the-lens shutter. Exposure Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a change on a material or substance sensitive to such energy. In conventional photography materials, the action of the exposing energy reduces or breaks down the silver halide sufficientl¥ to produce alatent (invisible) record of the pattern of light intensity or in the case of printing material, a visible record. Exposure is quantitative: it is the product of the total light intensity and the length of time it strikes the emulsion.1. Calculating film exposure Actually, there is not one correct exposure, but there is an ideal or proper exposure. Exposure is therefore subjective and errors in calculation could result in either “over-exposuie” or “ander-exposuré”: One good rule in judging proper exposure is the Presence or visibility of details of the subject, not only in the middle tones but also ‘- in the highlights and shadow areas, A simple rule provides a universal exposure guide for color and black and'white films are based on the following factors. : : a. Film speed b. Lighting condition c. Type of subject A general formula used in exposure setting of an average or normal subject in the sun or open sky. Example: For average or normal subjects: Film Speed Lighting Condition Bright'sun Hazy sun Dull sun 180 100/219 1/125 £11 fe £5.6 ISO 200/249 1/250 fll gs £5.6 or =: 1/125 £16 f11 £8 ISO 400/27° 1/500 £11 £8 15.6 | or =. 1/250 £16 fil £8 or = 1/125 £22 £16 : f11Bracketing This technique is used when exposure calculation that will give a desired result is uncertain; make several exposures of less than and more than the calculated exposure by two or four f-stops each. . . Exposure meter Photographic exposure meter measures light intensities and have calculators or computer to find camera settings that will produce good exposures. The exposure calculators are mechanical device or sets of reference tables from which exposure data can be obtained on observed subjects and lighting conditions. The heart of the meter is a light cell made of: : oo . selenium (Se) cells cadmium sulfide (Cds) cell silicon (Si) “blue” cell’ . gallium-arsenic-phosphorous cell hoop FIGURE 20 An Exposure or Light Meter 60"light for still photography. A flash unit offers a great light Proper exposure with the use-of an exposure meter is done-by: oy tate a: Incident-light meter reading. The illumination falling from a'source or sources onto’a scene or _. subject-is measured. . b: Reflected-light meter reading from, an 18 percent gray card held at the subject position or area or from a key subject area like the skin. ‘ . Existing light; also called ambient light or available photography. 7 This is the taking of photogtaphs using only the light that happens to be at the scene. This could be from natural light sources, from windows, doors, skylight, twilight or after dark} or from artificial light sources like table lamps, - deiling ‘fixtures light, spotlights, neon; lights, candles, ’ fireplace or bonfire, etc. . Because of the very wide'variety of light sources and lighting conditions, exposure setting to be used can only be suggested with little or no assurance of correctness. The use of expostire méter or the use of the bracketting “technique will be of great help howéver. The use of fast lenses with lens speed of f1.8-or f1.4 or f1.2 or fl.tis highly advised plus the use of high speed film with emulsion speeds of ISO 400/27 or ISO 800/30" or ISO 1600/39". The use of a tripod or any other camera mount for long exposure setting should also be considered: ‘The saying “If you can see it, you can photograph it,” is a reality. . Flash photography © Brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or an electric discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash) is the most common supplemental 61 f