Journal of Apicultural Research

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjar20

Chemical profiling, biological properties and

environmental contaminants of stingless bee
honey and propolis

Zainab Ngaini, Hasnain Hussain, Easter Sirah Kelabo, Rafeah Wahi & Saba
Farooq

To cite this article: Zainab Ngaini, Hasnain Hussain, Easter Sirah Kelabo, Rafeah
Wahi & Saba Farooq (2021): Chemical profiling, biological properties and environmental
contaminants of stingless bee honey and propolis, Journal of Apicultural Research, DOI:
10.1080/00218839.2021.1948745

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2021.1948745

Published online: 20 Jul 2021.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 122

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tjar20
Journal of Apicultural Research, 2021
https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2021.1948745

REVIEW ARTICLE
Chemical profiling, biological properties and environmental contaminants of
stingless bee honey and propolis
Zainab Ngainia
, Hasnain Hussainb , Easter Sirah Kelaboa , Rafeah Wahia and Saba Farooqa
a
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak, Malaysia; bCentre for Sago Research (CoSAR), Faculty
of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak, Malaysia

(Received 2 July 2020; accepted 8 March 2021)

Stingless bee honey is a unique edible natural product and has been used by humankind for millenniums for various pur-
poses, mostly as food and for therapeutic uses. The compositions of honey and propolis are varied in different geo-
graphical locations which contribute to different pharmacological activities. Many studies reported on the
pharmaceutical importance and properties of stingless bee honey or propolis, and the comparative study of either
honey or propolis with common honey bee products. However, fewer studies reported on the significant properties of
both stingless bee honey and propolis. In this review, three main aspects of stingless bee honey and propolis were dis-
cussed: the chemical profiling in terms of chemical and mineral composition, as well as their sugar components; their
biological properties, and the environmental contaminants in stingless bee honey and propolis. This review is beneficial
in the agriculture sector to improve the quality of honey by providing an appropriate environment for stingless bee
farming.

Keywords: Stingless bee; therapeutic; environmental contaminant; biological properties; antioxidant; antimicrobial

Introduction Due to these properties, stingless bee honey has

Honey is a natural sweet substance produced by honey
bees from the nectar of blossomed flowers or floral.
Ancient Chinese Medicine (200 AD) has practiced
honey in many prescriptions and medical indications
(Ismail, 2016). Likewise, Ayurvedic medicine in ancient
India has prescribed honey for many purposes due to
its medicinal benefit. Most of the honey is synonymous
with honey bees (i.e. Apis spp) (Wu et al., 2017). Honey
from stingless bees [i.e. Trigona spp., Tetragonula spp.
(Kothai, 2015), Melipona spp. (Maia-Silva et al., 2016;
Silva et al., 2020; Tanaka & Hartfelder, 2009),
Austroplebeia spp. (M. T. Halcroft et al., 2016)] has
become popular nowadays due to its high therapeutic
properties and safe for human consumption (Zach
et al., 2012). The honey from the stingless bee is
claimed to be medicinally more potent compared to
honey from other honey bees (Abd Jalil et al., 2017).

Corresponding author. Email: nzainab@unimas.my
become an ethnomedicine among various tribes and
ethnic communities around the world to treat various
illnesses (Biswa et al., 2017). Stingless bees are gener-
ated stingless bee honey and propolis. Stingless bee
honey, blonde sugary aqueous material with a specific
aroma and delightful taste (Tuksitha et al., 2018).
Stingless bee honey possesses a broad spectrum of bio-
logical activities such as anti-inflammatory (Biluca et al.,
2020), antidiabetic (Ali et al., 2020), antifungal (Hau-
Yama et al., 2020), antimicrobial (Boorn et al., 2010;
Nishio et al., 2016; Pimentel et al., 2013; Zulkhairi Amin
et al., 2019), antioxidant (Krishnasree & Mary Ukkuru,
2015; Tuksitha et al., 2018), anticancer (Borsato et al.,
2014) and ameliorating (Mohammad et al.,
2020) properties.
Stingless bees are a highly diverse and abundant
group of haplodiploid (Hurtado-Burillo et al., 2016) and

ß 2021 International Bee Research Association

2 Z. Ngaini et al.
Figure 1. General description of honey and propolis production from stingless bees.
eusocial bees (Chuttong et al., 2016; Fernando dos
Santos et al., 2016) that inhabit the tropical and sub-
tropical parts of the world (Rasmussen & Cameron,
2009). There are an estimated 600 species of stingless
bees in the world (Basari et al., 2018). The bees were
originated from Africa, which later dispersed to other
tropical and subtropical regions in the world (Norowi
et al., 2010). Stingless bees have no functional sting
(Hrncir et al., 2016) and create honey pots in a hori-
zontal position (Guelpa et al., 2017; M. Halcroft et al.,
2013). Stingless bees belong to the tribe of Meliponini
(Reyes-Gonz
alez et al., 2014). The two popular genera
of stingless bees are Melipona and Trigona that produce
a satisfying amount of honey for consumption and com-
mercialization (Isah et al., 2019). Melipona is endemic to
tropical America, while Trigona can be found in the
tropical parts of all continents (M. Halcroft et al., 2013).
Trigona itama or Heterotrigona itama is the most com-
mon species found in stingless bee farming. Factors such
as less vulnerability to seasonal change and the ability to
survive in a harsh environment make T. Itama species
the most domesticated species of stingless bee in
Malaysia (Kelly et al., 2014). There are few other spe-
cies namely T. thoracica, T. atripes, and T. peninsularis as
potential pollinators for several crops such as starfruit,
guava, citrus, mango, watermelon, durian, and coconut
(Norowi et al. 2010). The size of the stingless bee
ranges from 2-5mm (Basari et al., 2018). Due to their
diminutive size, the stingless bee can pollinate small-
sized flowers which cannot be achieved by the relatively
big size honey bee (Zach et al., 2012).
Stingless bees produce honey with a sour taste and
less sweet (Michener, 2013; Weihrauch & Diehl, 2004)
due to unique morphology, nest construction, and type

composition of honey and propolis from the colonies of
of nectar collection compared to common honey (Avila
et al., 2018). Stingless bee products are medicinally
more valuable, which commercially enhanced the
demand (Abd Jalil et al., 2017). The marketing of sting-
less bee honey is expanding in Australia, Southern Asia,
India, and South-East Asia, including Malaysia and
Philippines (Kelly et al., 2014) with variations of taste,
color, and chemical contents. The specific requirements
and preferences in food resources resulted in a differ-
ent composition of honey from different species of
stingless bees (Rasmussen & Cameron, 2009). Stingless
bee is a highly beneficial insect that plays a vital role in


pollinating crops (Avila et al., 2019), producing medicin-
ally important honey and other bee products while sim-
ultaneously sustaining the natural life cycle (Kek
et al., 2014).
Propolis is another beneficial product from stingless
bee which has similar therapeutic properties such as
antioxidant (Arung et al., 2020), anti-ischemic (Lim
et al., 2019), antiseptic (Fikri et al., 2019), antimicrobial
(Kasote et al., 2019), anti-inflammatory (Achadiyani
et al., 2020), antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer
(Dziedzic et al., 2013; Kothai & Jayanthi, 2014). Propolis
is a natural resinous and waxy material mix with the
mandibular secretion of stingless bees and used as a
storage pot for honey (Mohd Suib et al., 2021). Factors
such as geographical location, climate, and the predom-
inant plants contribute to great variability in the chem-
ical composition of both honey and propolis (Biluca
et al., 2016), which therefore producing various thera-
peutic properties (Ranneh et al., 2018).
Many studies have reported on stingless bee honey,
bee pollen, agrochemical toxicity, comparative studies
with common honey, and the pharmaceutical import-
ance (Aliyazicioglu & Boukraa, 2015; V. Bankova &
Popova, 2007; Bouga et al., 2011; Dluya, 2015;
Ediriweera & Premarathna, 2012; El-Seedi et al., 2020;
Erejuwa et al., 2014; Jaapar et al., 2016; Komosinska-
Vassev et al., 2015; Rao et al., 2016). However, less
study reported on the significant properties of both
honey and propolis. Due to the high demand for honey
and propolis from stingless bees as food supplements
and medicinal consumption, this review is beneficial to
provide an updated overview to consumers on the
chemical and mineral contents as well as the nutritional
stingless bees. The therapeutic properties and the effect
of geographical and botanical origins for purity and
authentication of stingless bee honey and propolis are
also comprehensively discussed.
Stingless bee honey and propolis
In Malaysia, stingless bee honey is also known as kelulut
(Abdul Malik et al., 2020). Malaysia is a well-known
country for stingless beekeepers and honey collection
with high biodiversity, indicated via the presence of 29
 Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 3

Table 1. Common chemical and minerals composition in stingless bee honey.

Entry Compounds Reference
1 Phenolic acids Biluca et al. (2017);
Salicylic acid, mandelic acid, p-coumaric acid, 4- Dutra et al. (2014);
(hydroxymethyl)benzoic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, trans ferulic Sousa et al. (2016)
acid, syringic acid, sinapic acid, chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid,
gallic acid, ellagic acid
2 Flavonoids da Silva et al. (2013)
Quercetin, naringenin, isorhamnetin, taxifolin, myricetin, catechin,
rutin, kaempferol, hesperetin, chrysin
3 Terpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes Patricio et al. (2002)
a-phellandrene, totarol, a-pinene, b-caryophyllene, c-muurolene,
c-cadinene, d-cadinene, a-cubebene, a-amyrin, b-amyrin
4 Minerals Cheng et al. (2019);
Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, lead, Hungerford et al. (2020)
cadmium, arsenic
5 Free amino acids Biluca et al. (2019)
Acids aspartic, glutamic, asparagine, glutamine, serine, arginine,
glycine, threonine, alanine, proline, tyrosine, valine, leucine,
isoleucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan

stingless bee species that recorded to inhabit virgin for-
ests (Jaapar et al., 2016). Stingless bees produce valuable
honey and are highly prized for their medicinal value in
treating illness (Garedew et al., 2003). Stingless bees are
producing numerous types of unique products, e.g.,
royal jelly, honey, bee pollen, and propolis. Among all,
honey and propolis are frequently reported by
researchers. Meanwhile, the royal jelly is used as a
source of income for generations (Kustiawan et al.,
2014). Stingless bee colonies are affected by light, tem-
perature, and humidity which are evaluated by a wire-
less sensing system (Harun et al., 2015). Healthy
stingless beehives have low temperatures, a very high
level of humidity, and less penetration of sunlight
(Anuar et al., 2019). However, the yield of stingless bee
products is affected by the environment, hive position
and size (Harun et al., 2015), and task division among
workers (Hammel et al., 2016). The health of colonies
is maintained by the hygienic behavior of stingless bees,
which remove diseases or dead larvae and pupae from
colonies (Al Toufailia et al., 2016). The general produc-
tion of honey and propolis is depicted in Figure 1.
Chemical and mineral composition in honey
Stingless bee collects nectar from plants or flowers
(Koffler et al., 2015). The enzymes in its body system
will process the raw nectar before storing it in the pots
as honey (Nascimento et al., 2015). Honey consists of
more than 200 compounds (Ramanauskiene et al.,
2012). The composition of honey is unique and depends
on the bee species, floral, and the geographical location
of the nectar (Nordin et al., 2018; Shashikala et al.,
2016). The chemical composition of honey mainly con-
tains a complex mixture of carbohydrates, glucose, and
fructose (Aljohar et al., 2018). Water is quantitatively
the second most crucial component in honey, which
relatively high in the stingless bee honey (Biluca et al.,
2016). The color of the honey is varying from dark
brown to light yellow. It can be less vicious, intense in
acidic or sour flavor and slow crystallization compared
to honey from honey bee (Biluca et al., 2016). The
color of stingless bee honey was measured using a pho-
tometer with a range from 26 Pfund  150 Pfund and
varies based on its mineral content, geographical origin,
method of production, and agricultural practices
(Nordin et al., 2018).
Stingless bee honey has higher nutritional and min-
eral composition compared to the honey from honey
bees. Higher polyphenol content in the honey is due to
the smaller size of the bees that helps to stretch them-
selves inside a more significant number of flowers,
which contributes to diverse bioactive compounds pre-
sent in honey (Biluca et al., 2016; Kek et al., 2014;
Ranneh et al., 2018). The phenolic acids (i.e. cinnamic
acids and benzoic acids) presence in the honey contrib-
uted to distinct characteristics such as color, taste, and
aroma (Karabagias et al., 2016). The honey is also rich
in organic acids such as acetic acid and gluconic acid
that also largely contribute to its distinct and sour taste
and low pH value (Rodriguez et al., 2004). Due to long
storage 6-12 months, the physiochemical properties
changes due to change in ash and moisture content
(Chuttong et al., 2015). The presence of phenolic com-
pounds is among the suggested indicators of a good
quality of stingless bee honey for antioxidant properties
in honey. There are also some flavonoids present in
honey, namely flavanones, flavones, and flavonols which
offer excellent therapeutic properties such as antimuta-
genic, anticancer, immunosuppressive activities, and
others (Karabagias et al., 2016). Sugars and minerals
composition are primarily present in the honey from
the processed nectar and stored as concentrated sugar.
Some other chemicals present in the honey includes
amino-acids and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (Aljohar
et al., 2018).
The entomological origin of stingless bee honey is
discriminated by using the metabolomics approach
4 Z. Ngaini et al.
Figure 2. Trigona stingless bee honey composition.
based on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectros-
copy (i.e.1H NMR)) (Vit et al., 2015; Zuccato et al.,
2017). The 1H NMR approach is able to discriminate
the entomological origin of stingless bees by direct
observation of the spectra and clusters after integrating
the 1H NMR signals of honey extracts by Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) and PLS-DA. NMR profiling
investigation employing 800 kinds of honey originated
worldwide is able to determine the entomological origin
in tropical and subtropical ecosystems with stingless
bees (Schievano et al., 2013).
Other methods (GCMS, HPLC to name a few) are
also employed for further evaluation of chemical profiles
and minerals content to classify honey (Duarte et al.,
2012; Kek et al., 2017). The summary of the common
chemical compositions in stingless bee honey is shown
in Table 1. The chemical compositions of Trigona honey
depicted the highest content of vitamin C compared to
other components, which therapeutically important to
boost up immunity system of the consumers (Syam
et al., 2016). The important compositions present in
Trigona stingless bee honey is shown in Figure 2.
Chemical composition in propolis
Stingless bees build their nest from resinous substances
from plants called propolis (Kothai & Jayanthi, 2015),
which contributes as a defensive boundary against the
bees' enemies (Farnesi et al., 2009). Unlike honey bees
(Apis spp.) that store their honey in beeswax comb,
stingless bees store their honey in honey pots made
from propolis which varies in sizes, shapes, or even
color (Abd Jalil et al., 2017; Nordin et al., 2018; Vit
et al., 2015). The resins were collected from a variety
of plant species and processed with their body secre-
tions from the salivary gland to form propolis (Kothai &
Jayanthi, 2015). The propolis is used by the bees to nar-
row the nest entrance, seal cracks, smooth walls, keep
moisture and temperature stable in the hive as well as
keeping the hive environment aseptic thus maintained
the medicinal properties of the honey (Wagh, 2013)
(Figure 2).
Propolis has a lipophilic characteristic, hard and brit-
tle material in cold conditions. It becomes soft, flexible,
easily molded, gummy, and very sticky when in contact
with the heat at the temperature of 25  45  C (Wagh,
2013). Most propolis consists of 50% resins (constituted
of flavonoids and related phenolic acids), 30% wax, 10%
essential oils, 5% pollen, and 5% of other organic com-
pounds (G
omez-Caravaca et al., 2006). More than 300
compounds are present in propolis honey (Wagh,
2013). The chemical composition of propolis is depend-
ent on the bee species, flora preferences, and available
plant and natural resources (V. S. Bankova et al., 2000;
Huang et al., 2014; Liberio et al., 2011). In other words,
the chemical composition in the propolis is the reflec-
tion of the environment as produced from natural prod-
ucts (Korn et al., 2013).
Other factors such as geographical location and cli-
mate have also contributed to the various chemical
composition of the propolis, resulting in different odor,
smell, and biological properties (Kothai & Jayanthi,
2015). Propolis obtained from different geographical
locations such as Europe, South America, and Asia con-
tains different chemical compositions resulting in diverse
biological activities (Kumazawa et al., 2004). The chem-
ical composition of brown propolis samples from Brazil
is predominated by terpenoids and prenylated deriva-
tives of p-coumaric acid. In contrast, the light yellow
propolis samples from China and Europe are reported
to have various kinds of flavonoids and phenolic acid
esters (Miguel et al., 2010). The distinct bioactive com-
pound in propolis based on the geographical origin is
summarised in Table 2.
Due to its polymeric properties, various solvents
have been used to extract propolis (Pietta et al., 2002;
Wagh, 2013). Ethanol is the most common solvent used
in the extraction of propolis due to its higher yield
(Chong & Chua, 2020). Other solvents have also been
used such as water, methanol, chloroform, dichlorome-
thane (DCM), ether, and acetone. However, these sol-
vents have offered some drawbacks such as lowering
the yield, less ionic strength, and poor solubility. The
organic compounds extracted from different organic
solvents are tabulated in Table 3 (Fokt et al., 2010).
Some organic solvents are highly volatile and hazardous
as compared to ethanol. Compared to honey, more
 Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 5

Table 2. Distinct bioactive compounds in propolis based on the selected geographical origin and species stingless bees.
Distinct
Geographical origin Species Plant sources bioactive compounds Reference
Thailand Tetragonula laeviceps & Garcinia Xanthones, Sanpa et al. (2015)
Tetrigona melanoleuca mangostana Triterpenes,
(Mangosteen) a-mangostin
Sulawesi, Tetragonula sapiens Mangifera Cycloartane-type Pujirahayu et al. (2019)
Indonesia indica (mango). triterpenes
Vietnam Lisotrigona cacciae Dracaena cochinchinensis, Phenols and Georgieva et al. (2019)
Cratoxylum triterpenes
Cochinchinense &
Mangifera indica
Australia Tetragonula carbonaria Caladenia carnea flowers Tetragocarbone A and Dyer et al. (2019);
Tetragocarbone B Nishimura et al. (2016)

Table 3. Extracted organic compounds from stingless bee propolis in organic solvents.
Water Ethanol Methanol Chloroform DCM Ether Acetone
Terpenoids Tannins Anthocyanins, Terpenoids Flavonols Terpenoids Flavonols
Anthocyanins Polyphenols Terpenoids, Flavonoids Tannins Alkaloids
Tannins FlavonolsTerpenoids Saponins, Terpenoids Fatty acid
Saponins Alkaloids Tannins, Alkaloids Coumarins
Starches Polyacetylenes Flavones, Polyphenols
Lectins Sterols Polyphenols, Polyacetylenes
Polypeptides Xanthoxylline, Sterols
Totarol,
Quassinoids,
Lactones,
Phenones,
Polypeptides,
Lectins

chemical composition has been identified in propolis
such as flavonoids, terpenes, phenolics, and their esters,
sugars, hydrocarbons, and mineral elements. Other
chemical compounds identified in propolis include poly-
phenols, benzoic acids, and their derivatives.
Heteroaromatic compounds such as alcohols, ketones,
triterpene hydrocarbons, terpene, and sesquiterpene
alcohols and their derivatives are also found in propolis.
Other compounds such as benzaldehyde derivatives,
mineral, sterols and steroid hydrocarbons, aliphatic
hydrocarbons, cinnamic alcohol, and other acids with
their derivatives have also been extracted from the
propolis (Miguel et al., 2010; Wagh, 2013). Besides, four
lignan compounds namely (þ)-isolariciresinol, 5-
methoxy-(þ)- isolariciresinol, (þ)-lyoniresinol, and 6-(4-
hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3,7-dioxabicyclo[3.3.0]
octan-2-one have also been isolated from the propolis
of Trigona minor (Xuan Hai et al., 2018).
Different types of propolis have distinct bioactive
compounds responsible for biological activities such as
flavonoids, aromatic acids, diterpenic acids, and phenolic
compounds (Fokt et al., 2010). Most of the separation
and purification techniques are performed using gas
chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chroma-
tography (HPLC), gas chromatography-mass spectros-
copy (GC-MS) (Shashikala et al., 2016), and nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) (Huang et al., 2014). There
are some volatile compounds from plant resources that
may be present, but only in a low amount (Castro,
2006). The summary of propolis composition is shown
in Table 4.
Sugar components
Stingless bees collected nectar from flowers to produce
honey (Dyer et al., 2016; Dyer et al., 2016). An enzyme
present in the bee's hypopharyngeal gland namely
invertase functions to hydrolyzethe disaccharides in the
nectar into monosaccharides and form a dominant sugar
composition in honey (Almeida-Muradian et al., 2007;
Julika et al., 2020). The sugars in the honey are based
on floral origin and environment (Olaitan et al., 2007).
Glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, arabinose, tura-
nose, erlose, trehalose are types of sugars present in
honey and propolis(Sousa et al., 2016; Souza et al.,
2006). Among them, fructose and glucose are the major
contributors of sugars present in honey (Alvarez-Suarez
et al., 2010). Fructose present in the highest amount,
supplemented by glucose and sucrose (Sousa et al.,
2016). Nevertheless, sugars in honey are easier to be
digested compared to sugars in fruits (El Sohaimy
et al., 2015).
The amount of fructose and glucose, and also the
ratio of fructose/glucose and glucose/water ratio con-
tribute to the quality of the honey (El Sohaimy et al.,
2015). The fructose/glucose ratio is a recommended
parameter in indicating the ability of honey to crystallize
6 Z. Ngaini et al.

Table 4. Chemical composition of stingless bee propolis.

Compound Reference
Phenolic acids dos Santos et al. (2017);
Ellagic acid, cinnamic acid, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid, o-coumaroyl o-galloyl- Lavinas et al. (2019)
hexoside, di-o-galloylo-cinnamoyl-hexoside, di-o-coumaroyl o-galloyl-hexoside,
o-cinnamoyl o-coumaroyl
Flavonoids dos Santos et al. (2017);
30 -methyl quercetin, sakuranetin, kaempferol 7-methyl ethermtricetin, Freitas et al. (2008)
aromadendrin 7-methyl ether, campferide, chrysinm naringenin
Aliphatic acids and esters Georgieva et al. (2019);
Palmitic acid, oleic acid, tertradecanoic acid, tetradecyl ester, isopropyl K€amper et al. (2019)
tetradecanoate, hexadecenoic acid, ethyl ester, hexadeacanoic acid, 1-
methylethyl ester
Terpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes K€amper et al. (2019);
1-8-cineole, a-pinene, a-terpineol, b-ocimene, b-phellandrene, c-terpinene, Lavinas et al. (2019)
terpinolene, p-cymene, a-copaene, a-cubebene, kaurenoic acid, a-humulane,
bicyclogermacrene, d-cadiene, d-elemene, abietal, dehydroabietel
Aldehydes and ketones Bonamigo et al. (2017)
p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillin, coniferyl aldehyde

typical dominant sugar content in the honey (i.e. fruc-

tose, glucose, sucrose, maltose), four new sugar deriva-
tives have been identified from the propolis namely
galactitol, gluconic acid, galacturonic acid, and 2-o-glyc-
erylgalactose (El Hady & Hegazi, 2002). The sugar
derivative, namely gluconic acid, could be the product
produced from the oxidation of glucose and present in
the propolis (Zhang et al., 2016).

Biological properties of stingless bee honey

Figure 3. Quality standards of sugar content for honey.
(Kaskoniene_ & Venskutonis, 2010). Crystallization in
honey is a natural phenomenon that is not influenced by
the structure of the honey. Often, the consumers mis-
understood the crystallized honey as being an adulter-
ated or non-natural product (Oroian et al., 2018;
Ozkok & Silici, 2018; Samat et al., 2018). The quality
and standards for sugar content in honey has been set
by the International Honey Commission (IHC) as tabu-
lated in Figure 3 (Nordin et al., 2018; Padovan, 2003).
Sugar content varies from one species to another spe-
cies of stingless bee. The presence of a high amount of
sugar in honey is a significant phenomenon for the pos-
sible attempt of adulteration to the honey (Sousa
et al., 2016).
The exact nature of carbohydrates content in prop-
olis has not explicitly been documented. The sugar con-
tent in propolis could be related to the sugars found in
nectar (Qian et al., 2008). Sugar in propolis could also
be introduced during the elaboration of propolis or pas-
sage of bees over the resin (Wagh, 2013). Besides the
and propolis
The biological properties and health benefits from sting-
less bee honey and propolis in terms of its antimicro-
bial, antioxidant, and other additional biological
properties have contributed to the stingless honey and
propolis being the preferred choice in some regions.
Details of the biological properties are further
described as follows:
Antimicrobial properties
Honey from Trigona angustula has good antibacterial
activity against Gram-positive bacteria (i.e.
Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis) and
Gram-negative bacteria (i.e. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Escherichia coli) (Sgariglia et al., 2010). The antibacterial
properties of stingless bee honey and Manuka honey
have been reported by(Kenji Nishio et al., 2015), in
which the stingless bee honey demonstrated higher anti-
bacterial activities than Manuka honey. The level of
hydrogen peroxide and other non-peroxide factors such
as lysozyme, phenolic acid, and flavonoid is also related
to the antibacterial properties of the stingless bee
honey (Kwakman & Zaat, 2012). These chemical com-
positions suggest that the antimicrobial activity was
chemical compounds of a non-phenolic nature
(Brodkiewicz et al., 2018). Besides, it might also be cor-
related to the acidic characteristic (low pH) (Avila

et al., 2018) and the polyphenols content (Daglia, 2012).
 Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 7

Table 5. A recent update on bioactive compounds and therapeutic application from stingless bee honey and propolis.
Bioactive Source Therapeutic
Compound (Honey/Propolis) Biological Activity (in vivo/in vitro) Applications Reference
Caffeic acid Honey from In vivo: Rats with diet-induced Dyslipidaemic disorder Bezerra
Melipona subnitida dyslipidaemia administered with (cardiovascular et al. (2018)
honey showed protective effects disease) treatment
against injuries caused by
dyslipidaemia in colon epithelial cells.
Phenylalanine Honey from In vivo: Behaviour test and gene Memory enhancing Mustafa
Heterotrigona itama expression analysis on Swiss albino et al. (2018)
mice supplemented with stingless bee
honey showed improvements in the
spatial memory performance.
4-Hydroxy Honey from In vivo: Male Wistar rats induced with Cardiometabolic N. Z. Ramli
phenyl acid Heterotrigona itama high cholesterol and high-fat diet disease treatment et al. (2019)
showed lower body fat percentage
and omental fat after supplemented
with stingless bee honey compared
to untreated rats.
Kaempferol Honey from In vivo: Stingless bee honey showed a Anti-Inflammation Ranneh
Trigona sp. substantial protective role against et al. (2018)
lipopolysaccharide-induced rats by
reducing oxidative stress and
inflammation.
c-Mangostin Honey from In vitro: Tube formalin assay of Angiogenesis-related Ishizu
Thailand ethanolic extract of propolis (EEP) diseases remedy et al. (2019)
stingless bee showed the inhibitory effects of EEP
in the tube formation of endothelial
cells which suggested that the
propolis exhibits
antiangiogenic activity.
Quercetin Honey from In vivo: Supplementation of stingless Osteoporosis treatment E. S. M. Ramli
Malaysia bee honey increased bone formation et al. (2020)
stingless bee and positive effect to bone
resorption marker in male Sprague-
Dawley rats that were administered
with dexamethasone.
Isorhamnetin Propolis form In vitro: The isorhamnetin extracted Xanthine oxidase Miyata
South Sulawesi from propolis was more potent for inhibitory activity et al. (2020)
Tetragonula xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitory
aff. biroi activity, with a 3.9 mM IC50 value.
Catechin Propolis from In vivo: Antinociceptive assay on rats Nociceptive pain relief Brodkiewicz
Tetragonisca fiebrigi using formalin-induced nociception et al. (2018)
and and acetic acid-induced writhing
Scaptotrigona method demonstrated possible
jujuyensis effectiveness in the treatment of
chronic inflammatory pain
Gallic and Propolis from In vitro: Antileishmanial activity of Leishmaniasis Dutra
ellagic acid Melipona fasciculata propolis showed inhibitory effects disease treatment et al. (2019)
and able to reduce live promastigotes
of L. amazonesis.
Thymol Propolis from In vitro: Laboratory evaluation of Vaginal Farida
Tetragonula sp. seven days’ treatment using propolis candidiasis remedy et al. (2020)
against culture vaginal swab
demonstrated 100% C. albicans was
susceptible to ovule containing
propolis wax 5%.
Flavonoid Propolis In vitro: Propolis of Trigona spp. with Anti-fungal Shehu
and phenol (Trigona thoracica) fungicidal and fungistatic activity. et al. (2016)
More beneficial against C. neoformans
and C. albicans due to the high
content of bioactive compounds.
Terpenoids, Propolis from In vitro: Hypoglycemic potential via Anti-diabetic Ibrahim
phenols, Geniotrigona a-glucosidase inhibition assay of et al. (2016)
flavonoids thoracia and propolis. The IC50 of G.thoracia and
and Heterotrigona itama H. Itama were found significant
essential oils (P < 0.05) compared to acarbose.
(Continued)
8 Z. Ngaini et al.

Table 5. (Continued).
Bioactive Source Therapeutic
Compound (Honey/Propolis) Biological Activity (in vivo/in vitro) Applications Reference
Mangiferonic Propolis from In vitro: strong a-glucosidase inhibitor Diabetes mellitus Pujirahayu
acid Indonesia compared to standard (-)-epicatechin et al. (2019)
stingless bee
Caffeic Kelulut honey In vivo: The Honey has unique Anti-colon cancer Saiful Yazan
acid ester (Trigona spp.) chemo-preventive properties against et al. (2016)
colon cancer by decreasing crypt-
multiplicity aberrant crypts and
aberrant crypt foci.
a-Mangostin Cerumen from T. In vitro: Cerumen froma-mangostin Anti-angiogenic Nugitrangson
laeviceps (Thailand) contributed as anticancer against et al. (2016)
human cancer- cell lines.
b-eudesmol Propolis from In vivo: Ethanolic extract of propolis Gastric cancer Desamero
and guaiol Philippine was administered into mice and et al. (2019)
stingless bee exhibited full-blown gastric
adenocarcinoma and promising anti-
tumor efficacy against differentiated-
type gastric adenocarcinoma.
In vitro: Apoptosis (TUNEL) assay on
ethanolic extract of propolis showed
more than 35% of cancer cells
undergone apoptosis.

Propolis has also shown similar antimicrobial charac-
teristics as honey. Besides being used as a building
material for the stingless beehive, the propolis also plays
a crucial role in maintaining low levels of microbial and
fungal concentration in the beehive (Fatoni et al., 2008).
Chemical compounds such as chrysin, coumaric acid,
terpenoids, and protocatechuic acid presence in prop-
olis have contributed to the antibacterial activity
(Ahangari et al., 2018). Propolis acts by inhibiting the
growth and proliferation of bacteria, yet Gram-positive
bacteria are more responsive to the action of propolis
than Gram-negative bacteria which may be contributed
by the structural differences of cell wall factor (Campos
et al., 2015). Different species of stingless bees gave dif-
ferences in antibacterial activity. Propolis produced
from H. Itama and Geniotrigona thoracica inhibited the
growth of Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus
better than Gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli, and
Salmonella typhi (Basari et al., 2018). Stingless bee honey
from M. favosa (Tobago) and T. laeviceps from Thailand
have a high content of phenolic and flavonoids, which
contributed to achieving good antimicrobial activity
against yeast and pathogenic bacteria (i.e. S.aureus, E.coli,
S.pyogenes, and H. influenza) (Brown et al., 2020;
Khongkwanmueang et al., 2020). Ram
on-Sierra et al.
reported phenolic and protein contents significantly
contributed to antimicrobial activities (Ram
on-Sierra
et al., 2020).
Antioxidant properties
Floral sources, botanical origins, season climate, proc-
essing method, and pigments such as flavonoids and
phenolic are some of the factors that contribute to the
antioxidant activity in honey (Perna et al., 2013). Honey
from the stingless bee has a higher content of
polyphenol as compared to other types of honey (Biluca
et al., 2016). The small size of the stingless bee's body
offers advantages to stretch and accumulate nectar
from a variety of flowers. Ranneh et al. (2018) and Abd
Jalil et al. (2017) reported that the total phenolic acid of
the stingless bee of Plebeia spp. is 106.01 ± 9.85 mg gallic
acid (GA) equivalent/100g, which is higher compared to
Apis spp. with the total phenolic acid of 92.34 ± 13.55 mg
GA equivalent/100g (Abd Jalil et al., 2017; Ranneh et al.,
2018). Honey from Heterotrigon itama showed high anti-
oxidant activity based on two different antioxidant
assays, namely 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free
radical scavenging activity and 2,20 -azino-bis(3-ethylben-
zothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical cation decol-
orization (Abu Bakar et al., 2017). The high radical
scavenging activity of the honey is due to the high phen-
olic and flavonoid content in the honey (da Silva et al.,
2013). The potential of antioxidant properties is directly
proportional to the quantity of these compounds pre-
sent in the honey (Beretta et al., 2005). Major free
phenolic acid in stingless bee honey is protocatechuic
acid, which is a potent antioxidant to improve cell pro-
liferation in the wound healing process (Abd Jalil et al.,
2017). Another free phenolic acid is 4-hydroxyphenyl-
acetic acid, which can scavenge the reactive oxygen and
nitrogen species (Norowi et al., 2010).
Similar to stingless bee honey, the antioxidant prop-
erties of propolis have also been influenced by its chem-
ical composition such as phenolic acids and flavonoid
compounds with the ability to reduce radical formation,
scavenge free radicals and chelate metal ions
(Kumazawa et al., 2004). For example, the antioxidant
properties of Trigona fiebrigi propolis extract from Brazil
are influenced by its phenolic compounds such as ben-
zoic acid, cinnamic acid, and p-coumaric acid with the

Table 6. Average heavy metals contaminants in stingless bee honey from different geographical origin.
Heavy metals content (mg/kg)
Geographical origin Pb Cu
Brazil 1179.44 380.11
New Zealand 17 250
China 33.98 78.67
Italy 620 890
Turkey 26.56 640.40
Iran 507.58 243
ability to capture free radicals (Campos, et al., 2015).
The stingless bee propolis from the commercial hub of
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, was found to exhibit 6.6%
of antioxidant activity (Kothai & Jayanthi, 2015). Less
percentage of phenol and flavonoids contents was influ-
enced by the location and the environment of the sting-
less bee propolis collected.
Additional biological properties
Honey has also shown positive results in clinical studies
on wound healing (Al-Achi, 2008; Reni Yusli et al.,
2016) which helps to accelerate the treatment of patho-
gens, wound debridement and suppression of inflamma-
tion, reduce scarring, stimulation of angiogenesis, tissue
granulation, and epithelium growth (Molan & Betts,
2004) and infections in the body such as ulcers, skin
infection and rashes (Kwapong et al., 2010). Honey has
shown a synergistic effect with other chemical com-
pounds against cancer cell lines. Several studies have
also been reported on the propolis for different bio-
logical and therapeutic properties such as antitumor
(Wagh, 2013), and immunomodulatory (Liberio,
et al., 2011).
Interestingly, propolis from Scaptotrigona postica has
also shown excellent inhibitory effects on airway inflam-
mation by inhibiting both the influx of inflammatory cells
to the alveolar space and the systemic progression of
allergic inflammation in an animal study without showing
any side effects (de Farias et al., 2014). The chemical
studies of propolis from Tetragonisca fiebrigi and
Scaptotrigona jujuyensis revealed the presence of sterols,
triterpenes, catechins, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols,
tannins, and anthocyanidins in both species. In addition
to these compounds, quinones have also been detected
in S. Jujuyensis (Brodkiewicz et al., 2018). Recent updates
on the remarkable properties of stingless bee honey
and propolis, and their bioactive compounds that bene-
ficial in therapeutic applications are depicted in Table 5.
Environmental contaminants in stingless bee
honey and propolis
Stingless bees are exposed to contaminations through
plants, water, air, and soil during the accumulation of
nectar, honeydew pollen, and plant exudates within
their radius of action (Bogdanov, 2006; Bogdanov et al.,
2008; Wan Omar et al., 2016). Variables such as
Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 9
Zn Cd Reference
5627.89 2.75 Nascimento et al. (2015)
1180 149 Vanhanen et al. (2011)
3720.53 1.34 Ru et al. (2013)
3205 305 Buldini et al. (2001)
3592 4.99 Tuzen et al. (2007)
1481.64 27.62 Aghamirlou et al. (2015)
different weather conditions, seasons, and botanical ori-
gin contribute to the heavy metal contents in honey and
propolis(Nascimento et al., 2018). Bee products are the
final stage of the bioaccumulation process, in which the
evaluation of toxic heavy metals content can provide
useful information on the environmental quality of the
areas where the bees collecting honey (Korn et al.,
2013; Nascimento et al., 2018). The information related
to environmental pollution reported from the bees'
products helps in tracking the authenticity of the bee
products based on specific geographical and biological
origins (Botina et al., 2020; Korn et al., 2013). Stingless
bee products with heavy metal content above the per-
missible limit established by the legislation pose a risk
to human health due to their harmful and cumulative
effects on the body (Nascimento et al., 2015).
Agrochemical stress induced by fertilizers, pesticides,
and deforestation on the stingless bee's life has affected
their nesting style, habit, life cycle breeding, reduce pol-
lination, and population. Moreover, agrochemicals con-
taminated soil or plants cause oral exposure, and these
contaminants give effect to larvae, adults, and colonies
and also disturb the stingless bee products (Lima et al.,
2016). Leaf-fertilizers have spinosad, copper sulphate
and micronutrients (S, Zn, Mn, B, Mo) lethal materials,
that badly affect eusocial insects, i.e. F. schrottkyi life
(Rodrigues et al., 2016). Meanwhile, the insecticide of
neonicotinoids spray having thiamethoxam on bee-
attracting-flowering plants has contaminated the pollen,
nectar, bee offsprings, and bee products. In offsprings of
Scaptotrigona aff. depilis, thiamethoxam could give some
effects on the growth and survival of larvae (Rosa
et al., 2016).
The type of raw materials collected by the bees con-
tributed to the presence of heavy metals in the bees'
products (Ernest et al., 2018). Heavy metal elements
deposited on the body and hair of stingless bees are
transported to the colonies together with pollen or
flower nectar collected (Aghamirlou et al., 2015).
Examples of heavy metals that are present in honey are
aluminium (Al), cadmium (Cd), (cobalt) Co, (copper)
Cu, lead (Pb), strontium (Sr), and zinc (Zn)
(Nascimento et al., 2015), Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd),
mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As) are other types of toxic
heavy metals found in honey (Tangahu et al., 2011).
Pb and Cd, from vehicles, traffic and metal industries
contaminate the air, soil, and plants, which eventually
10 Z. Ngaini et al.
contaminates the raw materials of bee products
(Bogdanov, 2006). Hg particles that suspend in the air
can be transported long-distance in the atmosphere and
interfered with the water absorption, photosynthesis,
and respiration of plants (Morgano et al., 2010). As is
another common and toxic element that could be found
in either rock, water, soils including plants as a result of
natural phenomena such as soil erosion or anthropo-
genic activities (Tchounwou et al., 2012). All these fac-
tors contributed to heavy metals content in honey and
propolis (Bonveh
ı & Bermejo, 2013). Higher concentra-
tions of heavy metals have been reported in honey that
was harvested near some industrial regions (Bratu &
Georgescu, 2005). Other factors, such as agricultural
activities and road traffic also contributed to the
increase in the environmental pollution in the bees’
honey (Roman et al., 2016).
Many techniques are being used to determine the
trace elements in stingless bee products. The instru-
ments include graphite furnace atomic absorption spec-
trometry (GFAAS), inductively coupled plasma optical
emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), and neutron activa-
tion analysis (NAA) (Korn et al., 2013). ICP-OES is
often used to determine the heavy metals of stingless
bee products due to its ability to do multi-elemental
analysis with excellent sensitivity, and high sample
throughout that gives high precision and accurate
results (Aghamirlou et al., 2015).
Many studies reported on the heavy metals content
presence in honey and propolis. In Brazil, heavy metals
such as Pb, Cu, Zn, and Cd were identified in the sam-
ples and within the acceptable levels in food for human
consumption based on Brazil legislation (Nascimento
et al., 2015). Urban areas in Italy show significantly
higher Cd levels in honey with a mean value of 305 mg/
kg compared to the non-residential areas (Buldini et al.,
2001). Presence of Cd in bee products also reported by
(Aghamirlou et al., 2015)on Iran honey with average Cd
content of 27.62 mg/kg, and Turkey honey with an aver-
age Cd level at 4.99 mg/kg studied by (Tuzen et al.,
2007). The heavy metals contaminant in stingless bee
honey from various geographical origins is shown in
Table 6.
Conclusions
In summary, a variety of chemical constituents in honey
and propolis from the stingless bee has contributed to
various biological properties that remarkably benefit
humankind. The chemical composition of honey and
propolis is greatly affected by the geographical origin
and dominant plant sources. Typical compositions
reported from stingless bee honey and propolis, are
phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenes, sesquiterpenes,
diterpenes, triterpenes, sugars, and minerals. The effect
of environmental contaminants, such as heavy metal
content is another factor to be considered before con-
sumption. The immense nutritional and pharmaceutical
properties of both honey and propolis have offered
advantages in the treatment of certain health problems
that benefit humankind.
Acknowledgments
We also acknowledge Capt.(R) Md Nasir Md Zain from
SerapiBayuSdnBhd and Mr Abdul Hisham Yusoff from
BayuGagah Marketing (M) SdnBhd for the consultation work
and outstanding support.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
We acknowledge support from the Ministry of Education
Malaysia for financial support through F07/FRGS/1883/2019.
ORCID
Zainab Ngaini http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7243-6856
Hasnain Hussain http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2630-450X
Easter Sirah Kelabo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9815-2082
Rafeah Wahi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3860-3566
Saba Farooq http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0159-9540
References
Abd Jalil, M. A., Kasmuri, A. R., & Hadi, H. (2017). Stingless
bee honey, the natural wound healer: A review. Skin
Pharmacology and Physiology, 30(2), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.
1159/000458416
Abdul Malik, N., Mohamed, M., Mustafa, M. Z., & Zainuddin,
A. (2020). In vitro modulation of extracellular matrix genes
by stingless bee honey in cellular aging of human dermal
fibroblast cells. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 44(1), e13098.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13098
Abu Bakar, M. F., Sanusi, S. B., Abu Bakar, F. I., Cong, O. J., &
Mian, Z. (2017). Physicochemical and antioxidant potential
of raw unprocessed honey from Malaysian stingless bees.
Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 16(11), 888–894. https://doi.org/
10.3923/pjn.2017.888.894
Achadiyani, A., Laksmi, A., & Girawan, D. (2020). Propolis of
Trigona spp. Protects Mucosa from aspirin-induced gastric
mucosal damage in rats. Althea Medical Journal, 7(1), 11–15.
https://doi.org/10.15850/amj.v7n1.1677
Aghamirlou, H. M., Khadem, M., Rahmani, A., Sadeghian, M.,
Mahvi, A. H., Akbarzadeh, A., & Nazmara, S. (2015). Heavy
metals determination in honey samples using inductively
coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. Journal of
Environmental Health Science & Engineering, 13(1), 39. https://
doi.org/10.1186/s40201-015-0189-8
Ahangari, Z., Naseri, M., & Vatandoost, F. (2018). Propolis:
Chemical composition and its applications in endodontics.
Iranian Endodontic Journal, 13(3), 285–292. https://doi.org/10.
22037/iej.v13i3.20994
Harun, A., Zaaba, S. K., Kamarudin, L. M., Zakaria, A.,
Mohamed Farook, R. S., ndzi, D. L., & Shakaff, A. Y. M.
(2015). Stingless bee colony health sensing through inte-
grated wireless system. Jurnal Teknologi, 77(28), 85–90.
https://doi.org/10.11113/jt.v77.6798
Al Toufailia, H., Alves, D. A., Bento, J. M. S., Marchini, L. C., &
Ratnieks, F. L. W. (2016). Hygienic behaviour in Brazilian

stingless bees. Biology Open, 5(11), 1712–1718. https://doi.
org/10.1242/bio.018549
Al-Achi, A. (2008). An introduction to botanical medicines:
History, science, uses, and dangers. Praeger Publishers.
Ali, H., Abu Bakar, M. F., Majid, M., Muhammad, N., & Lim,
S. Y. (2020). In vitro anti-diabetic activity of stingless bee
honey from different botanical origins. Food Research, 4(5),
1421–1426. https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(5).411
Aliyazicioglu, R., & Boukraa, L. (2015). Honey: The Natural ‟Inhibine.
Anti-Infective Agents, 13(1), 42–49. https://doi.org/10.2174/
2211352513666150318234101
Aljohar, H. I., Maher, H. M., Albaqami, J., Al-Mehaizie, M.,
Orfali, R., Orfali, R., & Alrubia, S. (2018). Physical and
chemical screening of honey samples available in the Saudi
market: An important aspect in the authentication process
and quality assessment. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal: SPJ: The
Official Publication of the Saudi Pharmaceutical Society, 26(7),
932–942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2018.04.013
Almeida-Muradian, L. B. d., Matsuda, A. H., & Bastos, D. H. M.
(2007). Physicochemical parameters of Amazon Melipona
honey. Qu
ımica Nova, 30(3), 707–708. https://doi.org/10.
1590/S0100-40422007000300033
Alvarez-Suarez, J. M., Tulipani, S., Romandini, S., Bertoli, E., &
Battino, M. (2010). Contribution of honey in nutrition and
human health: a review. Mediterranean Journal of Nutrition
and Metabolism, 3(1), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12349-
009-0051-6
Anuar, N. H. K., Yunus, M. A. M., Baharuddin, M. A., Sahlan,
S., Abid, A., & Ramli, M. M. (2019). IoT Platform for Precision
Stingless Bee Farming. Paper presented at the 2019. IEEE
International Conference on Automatic Control and Intelligent
Systems (I2CACIS) (pp. 225–229).
Arung, E. T., Pasedan, W. F., Tandirogang, N., Allam, A. E.,
Amen, Y., Shimizu, K., & Ishikawa, H. (2020). Prenylated fla-
vonoids as antioxidant and melanin inhibitors from stingless
bee (Wallacetrigona incisa) Propolis. Natural Product
Communications, 15(3), 1934578X2091127. https://doi.org/
10.1177/1934578X20911272


Avila, S., Beux, M. R., Ribani, R. H., & Zambiazi, R. C. (2018).
Stingless bee honey: Quality parameters, bioactive com-
pounds, health-promotion properties and modification
detection strategies. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 81,
37–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.09.002


Avila, S., Hornung, P. S., Teixeira, G. L., Malunga, L. N., Apea-
Bah, F. B., Beux, M. R., Beta, T., & Ribani, R. H. (2019).
Bioactive compounds and biological properties of Brazilian
stingless bee honey have a strong relationship with the pol-
len floral origin. Food Research International (Ottawa, ON),
123, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.068
Bankova, V. S., de Castro, S. L., & Marcucci, M. C. (2000).
Propolis: recent advances in chemistry and plant origin.
Apidologie, 31(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2000102
Bankova, V., & Popova, M. (2007). Propolis of stingless bees: a
promising source of biologically active compounds.
Pharmacognosy Reviews, 1(1), 5.
Basari, N., Ramli, S. N., & Mohd Khairi, N. A. S. (2018). Food
reward and distance influence the foraging pattern of sting-
less bee. Heterotrigona itama. Insects, 9(4), 138. https://doi.
org/10.3390/insects9040138
Beretta, G., Granata, P., Ferrero, M., Orioli, M., & Maffei
Facino, R. (2005). Standardization of antioxidant properties
of honey by a combination of spectrophotometric/fluori-
metric assays and chemometrics. Analytica Chimica Acta,
533(2), 185–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2004.11.010
Bezerra, M. L. R., de Souza, E. L., de Sousa, J. M. B., Lima,
M. D. S., Alves, A. F., Almeida, M. d G., Coutinho Alves, R.,
Ver
ıssimo de Ara
ujo, E., Soares, N. L., da Silva, G. A.,
Magnani, M., & Aquino, J. d S. (2018). Effects of honey from
Mimosa quadrivalvis L. (mal
ıcia) produced by the Melipona
Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 11
subnitida D. (janda
ıra) stingless bee on dyslipidaemic rats.
Food & Function, 9(8), 4480–4492. https://doi.org/10.1039/
c8fo01044g
Biluca, F. C., Bernal, J., Valverde, S., Ares, A. M., Gonzaga,
L. V., Costa, A. C. O., & Fett, R. (2019). Determination of
Free Amino Acids In Stingless Bee (Meliponinae) Honey.
Food Analytical Methods, 12(4), 902–907. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s12161-018-01427-x
Biluca, F. C., Braghini, F., Gonzaga, L. V., Costa, A. C. O., &
Fett, R. (2016). Physicochemical profiles, minerals and bio-
active compounds of stingless bee honey (Meliponinae).
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 50, 61–69. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2016.05.007
Biluca, F. C., da Silva, B., Caon, T., Mohr, E. T. B., Vieira,
G. N., Gonzaga, L. V., Vitali, L., Micke, G., Fett, R.,
Dalmarco, E. M., & Costa, A. C. O. (2020). Investigation of
phenolic compounds, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activities in stingless bee honey (Meliponinae). Food Research
International (Ottawa, ON), 129, 108756. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.foodres.2019.108756
Biluca, F. C., de Gois, J. S., Schulz, M., Braghini, F., Gonzaga,
L. V., Maltez, H. F., Rodrigues, E., Vitali, L., Micke, G. A.,
Borges, D. L. G., Costa, A. C. O., & Fett, R. (2017).
Phenolic compounds, antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibil-
ity of minerals of stingless bee honey (Meliponinae). Journal
of Food Composition and Analysis, 63, 89–97. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jfca.2017.07.039
Biswa, R., Sarkar, A., & Khewa, S. (2017). Ethnomedicinal uses
of honey of stingless bee by Nepali community of
Darjeeling foothills of West Bengal. India. Indian Journal of
Traditional Knowledge, 16(4), 648–653.
Bogdanov, S. (2006). Contaminants of bee products. Apidologie,
37(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2005043
Bogdanov, S., Jurendic, T., Sieber, R., & Gallmann, P. (2008).
Honey for nutrition and health: A Review. Journal of the
American College of Nutrition, 27(6), 677–689. https://doi.org/
10.1080/07315724.2008.10719745
Bonamigo, T., Campos, J. F., Alfredo, T. M., Balestieri, J. B. P.,
Cardoso, C. A. L., Paredes-Gamero, E. J., de Picoli Souza,
K., & Dos Santos, E. L. (2017). Antioxidant, cytotoxic, and
toxic activities of propolis from two native bees in Brazil:
Scaptotrigona depilis and Melipona quadrifasciata anthi-
dioides. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2017,
1038153–1038153. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1038153
Bonveh
ı, J. S., & Bermejo, F. J. O. (2013). Element content of
propolis collected from different areas of South Spain.
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(7), 6035–6047.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-3004-3
Boorn, K. L., Khor, Y. Y., Sweetman, E., Tan, F., Heard, T. A., &
Hammer, K. A. (2010). Antimicrobial activity of honey from
the stingless beeTrigona carbonariadetermined by agar diffu-
sion, agar dilution, broth microdilution and time-kill method-
ology. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 108(5), 1534–1543.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04552.x
Borsato, D. M., Prudente, A. S., D€ oll-Boscardin, P. M.,
Borsato, A. V., Luz, C. F. P., Maia, B. H. L. N. S., Cabrini,
D. A., Otuki, M. F., Miguel, M. D., Farago, P. V., & Miguel,
O. G. (2014). Topical anti-inflammatory activity of a mono-
floral honey of mimosa scabrella provided by melipona mar-
ginata during winter in Southern Brazil. Journal of Medicinal
Food, 17(7), 817–825. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2013.0024
Botina, L. L., Bernardes, R. C., Barbosa, W. F., Lima, M. A. P.,
Guedes, R. N. C., & Martins, G. F. (2020). Toxicological
assessments of agrochemical effects on stingless bees
(Apidae, Meliponini). MethodsX, 7, 100906. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.mex.2020.100906
Bouga, M., Alaux, C., Bienkowska, M., B€uchler, R., Carreck,
N. L., Cauia, E., Chlebo, R., Dahle, B., Dall'Olio, R., De la
R
ua, P., Gregorc, A., Ivanova, E., Kence, A., Kence, M.,
12 Z. Ngaini et al.
Kezic, N., Kiprijanovska, H., Kozmus, P., Kryger, P., Conte,
Y. L., … Wilde, J. (2011). A review of methods for dis-
crimination of honey bee populations as applied to
European beekeeping. Journal of Apicultural Research, 50(1),
51–84. https://doi.org/10.3896/IBRA.1.50.1.06
Bratu, I., & Georgescu, C. (2005). Chemical contamination of
bee honey – Identifying sensor of the environment pollution
contaminarea Chimica A Mierii De Albine – Senzor De
Identificarea A Mediului Poluat. Journal of Central European
Agriculture, 6(1), 467–470.
Brodkiewicz, Y., Marcinkevicius, K., Reynoso, M., Salomon, V.,
Maldonado, L., & Vera, N. (2018). Studies of the biological
and therapeutic effects of argentine stingless bee propolis.
Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 8(5), 382–392.
https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v8i5.1889
Brown, E., O'Brien, M., Georges, K., & Suepaul, S. (2020).
Physical characteristics and antimicrobial properties of Apis
mellifera, Frieseomelitta nigra and Melipona favosa bee hon-
eys from apiaries in Trinidad and Tobago. BMC
Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 20(1), 85. https://doi.
org/10.1186/s12906-020-2829-5
Buldini, P. L., Cavalli, S., Mevoli, A., & Sharma, J. L. (2001). Ion
chromatographic and voltammetric determination of heavy
and transition metals in honey. Food Chemistry, 73(4),
487–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00132-7
Campos, J. F., Dos Santos, U. P., da Rocha, P. D. S., Dami~ao,
M. J., Balestieri, J. B. P., Cardoso, C. A. L., Paredes-
Gamero, E. J., Estevinho, L. M., de Picoli Souza, K., & Dos
Santos, E. L. (2015). Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflam-
matory, and cytotoxic activities of propolis from the sting-
less Bee Tetragonisca fiebrigi (Jata
ı). Evidence-Based
Complementary and Alternative Medicine: eCAM, 2015,
296186. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/296186
Castro, S. L. (2006). Propolis: Biological and pharmacological
activities. therapeutic uses of this bee-product. Annual
Review of Biomedical Sciences, 3, 49–83. https://doi.org/10.
5016/1806-8774.2001v3p49
Cheng, M. Z. S. Z., Ismail, M., Chan, K. W., Ooi, D. J., Ismail,
N., & Zawawi, N. (2019). Comparison of sugar content,
mineral elements and antioxidant properties of heterotri-
gona Itama honey from suburban and forest in Malaysia.
Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 15(SP1),
104–112.
Chong, F. C., & Chua, L. S. (2020). Effects of solvent and pH
on stingless bee propolis in ultrasound-assisted extraction.
AgriEngineering, 2(2), 308–316. https://doi.org/10.3390/
agriengineering2020020
Chuttong, B., Chanbang, Y., Sringarm, K., & Burgett, M.
(2015). Effects of long term storage on stingless bee
(Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini) honey. Journal of
Apicultural Research, 54(5), 441–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00218839.2016.1186404
Chuttong, B., Chanbang, Y., Sringarm, K., & Burgett, M.
(2016). Physicochemical profiles of stingless bee (Apidae:
Meliponini) honey from South East Asia (Thailand). Food
Chemistry, 192, 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.
2015.06.089
da Silva, I. A. A., da Silva, T. M. S., Camara, C. A., Queiroz,
N., Magnani, M., de Novais, J. S., Soledade, L. E. B., Lima,
E. d O., de Souza, A. L., & de Souza, A. G. (2013). Phenolic
profile, antioxidant activity and palynological analysis of
stingless bee honey from Amazonas, Northern Brazil. Food
Chemistry, 141(4), 3552–3558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food-
chem.2013.06.072
Daglia, M. (2012). Polyphenols as antimicrobial agents. Current
Opinion in Biotechnology, 23(2), 174–181. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.copbio.2011.08.007
de Farias, J. H. C., Reis, A. S., Ara
ujo, M. A. R., Ara
ujo, M. J.
A. M., Assunç~ao, A. K. M., de Farias, J. C., Fialho, E. M. S.,
Silva, L. A., Costa, G. C., Guerra, R. N. M., Ribeiro,
M. N. S., & do Nascimento, F. R. F. (2014). Effects of sting-
less bee propolis on experimental asthma. Evidence-Based
Complementary and Alternative Medicine: eCAM, 2014,
951478–951478. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/951478
Desamero, M. J., Kakuta, S., Tang, Y., Chambers, J. K., Uchida,
K., Estacio, M. A., Cervancia, C., Kominami, Y., Ushio, H.,
Nakayama, J., Nakayama, H., & Kyuwa, S. (2019). Tumor-
suppressing potential of stingless bee propolis in in vitro
and in vivo models of differentiated-type gastric adenocar-
cinoma. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 19635–19635. https://doi.org/
10.1038/s41598-019-55465-4
Dluya, T. (2015). Critical Review: Antioxidant properties and
antibiotic mechanism of honey against infectious diseases.
International Journal of Advances in Life Science and Technology,
2(2), 16–24. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.72/2015.2.2/72.
2.16.24
dos Santos, L., Hochheim, S., Boeder, A. M., Kroger, A.,
Tomazzoli, M. M., Dal Pai Neto, R., Maraschin, M., Guedes,
A., & de Cordova, C. M. M. (2017). Chemical characteriza-
tion, antioxidant, cytotoxic and antibacterial activity of
propolis extracts and isolated compounds from the
Brazilian stingless bees Melipona quadrifasciata and
Tetragonisca angustula. Journal of Apicultural Research, 56(5),
543–558. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2017.1371535
Duarte, A. W. F., dos Santos Vasconcelos, M. R., de Menezes,
A. P. D., da Silva, S. C., Oda-Souza, M., & L
opez, A. M. Q.
(2012). Composition and antioxidant activity of honey from
Africanized and stingless bees in Alagoas (Brazil): a multi-
variate analysis. Journal of Apicultural Research, 51(1), 23–35.
https://doi.org/10.3896/IBRA.1.51.1.04
Dutra, R. P., Abreu, B. V. d B., Cunha, M. S., Batista, M. C. A.,
Torres, L. M. B., Nascimento, F. R. F., Ribeiro, M. N. S., &
Guerra, R. N. M. (2014). Phenolic acids, hydrolyzable tan-
nins, and antioxidant activity of geopropolis from the sting-
less bee Melipona fasciculata Smith. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 62(12), 2549–2557. https://doi.org/10.
1021/jf404875v
Dutra, R. P., Bezerra, J. L., Silva, M. C. P. d., Batista, M. C. A.,
Patr
ıcio, F. J. B., Nascimento, F. R. F., Ribeiro, M. N. S., &
Guerra, R. N. M. (2019). Antileishmanial activity and chem-
ical composition from Brazilian geopropolis produced by
stingless bee Melipona fasciculata. Revista Brasileira de
Farmacognosia, 29(3), 287–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.
2019.02.009
Dyer, A. G., Boyd-Gerny, S., Shrestha, M., Garcia, J. E., van
der Kooi, C. J., & Wong, B. B. M. (2019). Colour preferen-
ces of Tetragonula carbonaria Sm. stingless bees for colour
morphs of the Australian native orchid Caladenia carnea.
Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory,
Neural, and Behavioral Physiology, 205(3), 347–361. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00359-019-01346-0
Dyer, A. G., Boyd-Gerny, S., Shrestha, M., Lunau, K., Garcia,
J. E., Koethe, S., & Wong, B. B. M. (2016). Innate colour
preferences of the Australian native stingless bee
Tetragonula carbonaria Sm. Journal of Comparative Physiology.
A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology,
202(9-10), 603–613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-016-
1101-4
Dyer, A. G., Streinzer, M., & Garcia, J. (2016). Flower detec-
tion and acuity of the Australian native stingless bee
Tetragonula carbonaria Sm. Journal of Comparative Physiology.
A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology,
202(9-10), 629–639. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-016-
1107-y
Dziedzic, A., Kubina, R., Wojtyczka, R. D., Kabała-Dzik, A.,
Tanasiewicz, M., & Morawiec, T. (2013). The antibacterial
effect of ethanol extract of Polish Propolis on Mutans
Streptococci and Lactobacilli Isolated from Saliva. Evidence-

Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine: eCAM, 2013,
681891. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/681891
Ediriweera, E. R. H. S. S., & Premarathna, N. Y. S. (2012).
Medicinal and cosmetic uses of Bee's Honey - A review.
[Review Article]. AYU. (An International Quarterly Journal of
Research in Ayurveda), 33(2), 178–182. https://doi.org/10.
4103/0974-8520.105233
El Hady, F. K. A., & Hegazi, A. G. (2002). Egyptian Propolis: 2.
Chemical composition, antiviral and antimicrobial activities
of east nile delta propolis. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung. C,
Journal of Biosciences, 57(3-4), 386–394. https://doi.org/10.
1515/znc-2002-3-431
El Sohaimy, S. A., Masry, S. H. D., & Shehata, M. G. (2015).
Physicochemical characteristics of honey from different ori-
gins. Annals of Agricultural Sciences, 60(2), 279–287. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2015.10.015
El-Seedi, H. R., Khalifa, S. A. M., El-Wahed, A. A., Gao, R.,
Guo, Z., Tahir, H. E., Zhao, C., Du, M., Farag, M. A.,
Musharraf, S. G., & Abbas, G. (2020). Honeybee products:
An updated review of neurological actions. Trends in Food
Science & Technology, 101, 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tifs.2020.04.026
Erejuwa, O. O., Sulaiman, S. A., & Wahab, M. S. A. (2014).
Effects of honey and its mechanisms of action on the devel-
opment and progression of cancer. Molecules (Basel,
Switzerland), 19(2), 2497–2522. https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules19022497
Ernest, E., Onyeka, O., A. C, O., & Benard, N. (2018).
Comparative assessment of the heavy and trace metal levels
in honey produced within Nsukka and Enugu Metropolis.
Food and Public Health, 8(2), 42–46.
Farida, S., Sahlan, M., Rohmatin, E., & Adawiyah, R. (2020).
The beneficial effect of Indonesian propolis wax from
Tetragonula sp. as a therapy in limited vaginal candidiasis
patients. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 27(1), 142–146.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2019.06.010
Farnesi, A. P., Aquino-Ferreira, R., De Jong, D., Bastos, J. K., &
Soares, A. E. E. (2009). Effects of stingless bee and honey
bee propolis on four species of bacteria. Genetics and
Molecular Research: GMR, 8(2), 635–640. https://doi.org/10.
4238/vol8-2kerr023
Fatoni, A., Artika, I. M., Hasan, A. E. Z. & Kuswandi, (2008).
Antibacterial activity of propolis produced by Trigona spp.
against Campylobacter spp. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences,
15(4), 161–164. https://doi.org/10.4308/hjb.15.4.161
Fernando dos Santos, C., de Souza dos Santos, P. D., &
Blochtein, B. (2016). In vitro rearing of stingless bee queens
and their acceptance rate into colonies. Apidologie, 47(4),
539–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-015-0398-2
Fikri, A. M., Sulaeman, A., Marliyati, S. A., & Fahrudin, M. (2019).
Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of stingless bee
propolis from Indonesia. Journal of Apicultural Science, 63(1),
139–147. https://doi.org/10.2478/jas-2019-0012
Fokt, H., Pereira, A., Ferreira, A. M., Cunha, A., & Aguiar, C.
(2010). How do bees prevent hive infections? The anti-
microbial properties of propolis. Current Research.
Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and
Microbial Biotechnology, 1, 481–493.
Freitas, M. O., Ponte, F. A., Lima, M. A. S., & Silveira, E. R.
(2008). Flavonoids and triterpenes from the nest of the
stingless bee Trigona spinipes. Journal of the Brazilian
Chemical Society, 19(3), 532–535. https://doi.org/10.1590/
S0103-50532008000300022
Garedew, A., Schmolz, E., & Lamprecht, I. (2003). The anti-
microbial activity of honey of the stingless bee Trigona spp.
Journal of Apicultural Science, 47(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.tca.2003.06.004
Georgieva, K., Popova, M., Dimitrova, L., Trusheva, B., Thanh,
L. N., Phuong, D. T. L., Lien, N. T. P., Najdenski, H., &
Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 13
Bankova, V. (2019). Phytochemical analysis of Vietnamese
propolis produced by the stingless bee Lisotrigona cacciae.
PLOS One, 14(4), e0216074. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pone.0216074
G
omez-Caravaca, A. M., G
omez-Romero, M., Arr
aez-Rom
an,
D., Segura-Carretero, A., & Fern
andez-Guti
errez, A.
(2006). Advances in the analysis of phenolic compounds in
products derived from bees. Journal of Pharmaceutical and
Biomedical Analysis, 41(4), 1220–1234. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jpba.2006.03.002
Guelpa, A., Marini, F., Du Plessis, A., Slabbert, R., & Manley,
M. (2017). Verification of authenticity and fraud detection
in South African honey using NIR spectroscopy. Food
Control, 73, 1388–1396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.
2016.11.002
Halcroft, M. T., Dollin, A., Francoy, T. M., King, J. E., Riegler,
M., Haigh, A. M., & Spooner-Hart, R. N. (2016). Delimiting
the species within the genus Austroplebeia, an Australian
stingless bee, using multiple methodologies. Apidologie,
47(1), 76–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-015-0377-7
Halcroft, M., Spooner-Hart, R., & Dolllin, A. (2013). Australian
stingless bees. In P. Vit, R. M. S. Pedro, & D. Roubik (Eds.),
Pot-honey (pp. 35–72). New York, NY: Springer.
Hammel, B., Vollet-Neto, A., Menezes, C., Nascimento, F. S.,
Engels, W., & Gr€uter, C. (2016). Soldiers in a stingless bee:
work rate and task repertoire suggest they are an elite
force. The American Naturalist, 187(1), 120–129. https://doi.
org/10.1086/684192
Hau-Yama, N. E., Maga~na-Ortiz, D., Oliva, A. I., & Ortiz-
V
azquez, E. (2020). Antifungal activity of honey from sting-
less bee Melipona beecheii against Candida albicans. Journal
of Apicultural Research, 59(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00218839.2019.1665247
Hrncir, M., Jarau, S., & Barth, F. G. (2016). Stingless bees
(Meliponini): senses and behavior. Journal of Comparative
Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral
Physiology, 202(9-10), 597–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00359-016-1117-9
Huang, S., Zhang, C.-P., Wang, K., Li, G., & Hu, F.-L. (2014).
Recent advances in the chemical composition of propolis.
Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 19(12), 19610–19632. https://
doi.org/10.3390/molecules191219610
Hungerford, N. L., Tan, B. L. L., Tinggi, U., Zawawi, N.,
Farrell, M., Tsai, H. H., Hnatko, D., Swann, L. J., Kelly,
C. L., R. Anuj, S., Webber, D. C., T. Were, S., & T.
Fletcher, M. (2020). Analysis of environmental contaminants
in Australian honey and comparison to stingless bee honey
from Queensland and Malaysia. Multidisciplinary Digital
Publishing Institute Proceedings, 36(1), 101. https://doi.org/10.
3390/proceedings2019036101
Hurtado-Burillo, M., Jara, L., May-Itz
a, W. d J., Quezada-Eu
an,
J. J. G., Ruiz, C., & De la R
ua, P. (2016). A geometric mor-
phometric and microsatellite analyses of Scaptotrigona
mexicana and S. pectoralis (Apidae: Meliponini) sheds light
on the biodiversity of Mesoamerican stingless bees. Journal
of Insect Conservation, 20(5), 753–763. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10841-016-9899-1
Ibrahim, N., Niza, N., Rodi, M. M. M., Zakaria, A. J., Ismail, Z.,
& Mohd, K. S. (2016). Chemical and biological analyses of
Malaysian stingless bee propolis extracts. Malaysian Journal
of Analytical Science, 20(2), 413–422. https://doi.org/10.
17576/mjas-2016-2002-26
Isah, I. A., Olagunju, O., Ismail, M. M., Hassan, S., & Man, N.
(2019). Enhancing sustainable stingless beekeeping produc-
tion through technology transfer and human resource
development in relationship with extension agents work
performance among Malaysian Beekeepers. Asian Journal of
Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 30(2), 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2019/v30i230108
14 Z. Ngaini et al.
Ishizu, E., Honda, S., Ohta, T., Vongsak, B., & Kumazawa, S.
(2019). Component analysis and antiangiogenic activity of
Thailand stingless bee propolis. Makara Journal of Technology,
23(2), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.7454/mst.v23i2.3703
Ismail, W. I. W. (2016). A review on beekeeping in Malaysia:
History, importance and future directions. Journal of
Sustainability Science and Management, 11(2), 70–80.
Jaapar, M. F., Halim, M., Mispan, M. R., Jajuli, R., Masri, M., &
Zainuddin, M. Y. (2016). The diversity and abundance of
stingless Bee (Hymenoptera: Meliponini) in Peninsular
Malaysia. Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(9), 1–7.
Julika, W. N., Ajit, A., Ismail, N., Aqilah, N., Naila, A., &
Sulaiman, A. Z. (2020). Sugar profile and enzymatic analysis
of stingless bee honey collected from local market in
Malaysia. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering, 736, 062001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-
899X/736/6/062001
K€amper, W., Kaluza, B. F., Wallace, H., Schmitt, T., &
Leonhardt, S. D. (2019). Habitats shape the cuticular chem-
ical profiles of stingless bees. Chemoecology, 29(3), 125–133.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00049-019-00282-4
Karabagias, I. K., Dimitriou, E., Kontakos, S., & Kontominas,
M. G. (2016). Phenolic profile, colour intensity, and radical
scavenging activity of Greek unifloral honeys. European Food
Research and Technology, 242(8), 1201–1210. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s00217-015-2624-6
Kaskoniene, _ V., & Venskutonis, P. R. (2010). Floral markers in
honey of various botanical and geographic origins: A
Review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food
Safety, 9(6), 620–634. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.
2010.00130.x
Kasote, D. M., Pawar, M. V., Gundu, S. S., Bhatia, R., Nandre,
V. S., Jagtap, S. D., Mahajan, S. G., & Kulkarni, M. V. (2019).
Chemical profiling, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities
of Indian stingless bees propolis samples. Journal of
Apicultural Research, 58(4), 617–625. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00218839.2019.1584960
Kek, S. P., Chin, N. L., Yusof, Y. A., Tan, S. W., & Chua, L. S.
(2014). Total phenolic contents and colour intensity of
Malaysian Honeys from the Apis spp. and Trigona spp.
Bees. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia, 2, 150–155.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2014.11.022
Kek, S. P., Chin, N. L., Yusof, Y. A., Tan, S. W., & Chua, L. S.
(2017). Classification of entomological origin of honey based
on its physicochemical and antioxidant properties. International
Journal of Food Properties, 20(sup3), S2723–S2738. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10942912.2017.1359185
Kelly, N., Farisya, M. S. N., Kumara, T. K., & Marcela, P.
(2014). Species diversity and external nest characteristics of
stingless bees in meliponiculture. Pertanika Journal of Tropical
Agricultural Science, 37(3), 293–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfca.2016.05.007
Kenji Nishio, E., Carolina Bodnar, G., Regina Eches Perugini,
M., Corn
elio Andrei, C., Aparecido Proni, E., Katsuko
Takayama Kobayashi, R., & Nakazato, G. (2015).
Antibacterial activity of honey from stingless bees
Scaptotrigona bipunctata Lepeletier, 1836 and S. postica
Latreille, 1807 (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponinae) against
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Journal of
Apicultural Research, 54(5), 452–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00218839.2016.1162985
Khongkwanmueang, A., Nuyu, A., Straub, L., & Maitip, J.
(2020). Physicochemical profiles, antioxidant and antibacter-
ial capacity of honey from stingless bee tetragonula laevi-
ceps species complex. E3S Web of Conferences, 141, 03007.
https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202014103007
Koffler, S., Menezes, C., Menezes, P. R., Kleinert, A. d M. P.,
Imperatriz-Fonseca, V. L., Pope, N., & Jaff
e, R. (2015).
Temporal variation in honey production by the stingless
bee Melipona subnitida (Hymenoptera: Apidae): Long-term
management reveals its potential as a commercial species in
Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Economic Entomology, 108(3),
858–867. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tov055
Komosinska-Vassev, K., Olczyk, P., Ka
zmierczak, J., Mencner,
L., & Olczyk, K. (2015). Bee Pollen: Chemical composition
and therapeutic application. Evidence-Based Complementary
and Alternative Medicine: eCAM, 2015, 297425–297426.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/297425
Korn, M. G. A., Guida, M. A. B., Barbosa, J. T. P., Torres,
E. A., Fernandes, A. P., Santos, J. C. C., Dantas, K. d G. F.,
& N
obrega, J. A. (2013). Evaluation of sample preparation
procedures for trace element determination in Brazilian
propolis by inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry and their discrimination according to geo-
graphic region. Food Analytical Methods, 6(3), 872–880.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-012-9497-0
Kothai, S. (2015). Anti cancer activity of silver nano particles
bio- synthesized using stingless bee propolis (Tetragonula
iridipennis) of Tamilnadu. Asian Journal of Biomedical and
Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4(40), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.
15272/ajbps.v4i40.654
Kothai, S., & Jayanthi, B. (2014). Evaluation of antioxidant and
antimicrobial activity of stingless bee Propolis (Tetragonula
iridipennis) of Tamilnadu. India. International Journal of
Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 6(8), 81–85.
Kothai, S., & Jayanthi, B. (2015). A study on propolis of sting-
less bees reared from the most commercial hub of
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India. International Research Journal of
Environment Sciences, 4(7), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfca.2016.05.007
Krishnasree, V., & Mary Ukkuru, P. (2015). Phytochemical
screening and antioxidant activity of different bee honeys.
Journal of Medicinal Herbs and Ethnomedicine, 1(1), 38–44.
https://doi.org/10.5455/jmhe.2015-07-013
Kumazawa, S., Hamasaka, T., & Nakayama, T. (2004).
Antioxidant activity of propolis of various geographic ori-
gins. Food Chemistry, 84(3), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0308-8146(03)00216-4
Kustiawan, P. M., Puthong, S., Arung, E. T., & Chanchao, C.
(2014). In vitro cytotoxicity of Indonesian stingless bee
products against human cancer cell lines. Asian Pacific Journal
of Tropical Biomedicine, 4(7), 549–556. https://doi.org/10.
12980/APJTB.4.2014APJTB-2013-0039
Kwakman, P. H. S., & Zaat, S. A. J. (2012). Antibacterial com-
ponents of honey. IUBMB Life, 64(1), 48–55. https://doi.org/
10.1002/iub.578
Kwapong, P., Aidoo, K., Combey, R., & Karikari, A. (2010).
Stingless bee: Importance. In Management and utilisation: A
training manual for stingless bee keeping. Unimax Macmillan
Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2016.05.007
Lavinas, F. C., Macedo, E. H. B. C., S
a, G. B. L., Amaral,
A. C. F., Silva, J. R. A., Azevedo, M. M. B., Vieira, B. A.,
Domingos, T. F. S., Vermelho, A. B., Carneiro, C. S., &
Rodrigues, I. A. (2019). Brazilian stingless bee propolis and
geopropolis: promising sources of biologically active com-
pounds. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 29(3), 389–399.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2018.11.007
Liberio, S. A., Pereira, A. L. A., Dutra, R. P., Reis, A. S.,
Ara
ujo, M. J. A. M., Mattar, N. S., Silva, L. A., Ribeiro,
M. N. S., Nascimento, F. R. F., Guerra, R. N., & Monteiro-
Neto, V. (2011). Antimicrobial activity against oral patho-
gens and immunomodulatory effects and toxicity of geo-
propolis produced by the stingless bee Melipona fasciculata
Smith. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 11(1),
108. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-108
Lim, O. Z., Yeoh, B. S., Omar, N., Mohamed, M., Zin, A. A. M.,
& Ahmad, R. (2019). Stingless bee propolis alleviates diabetic
cardiomyopathy: Antioxidative modulation through esRAGE-

AGE Interaction. International Journal of Cardiology, 297, 2–3.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2019.11.010
Lima, M. A. P., Martins, G. F., Oliveira, E. E., & Guedes,
R. N. C. (2016). Agrochemical-induced stress in stingless
bees: peculiarities, underlying basis, and challenges. Journal
of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural,
and Behavioral Physiology, 202(9-10), 733–747. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00359-016-1110-3
Maia-Silva, C., Hrncir, M., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V. L., &
Schorkopf, D. L. P. (2016). Stingless bees (Melipona subni-
tida) adjust brood production rather than foraging activity
in response to changes in pollen stores. Journal of
Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and
Behavioral Physiology, 202(9-10), 723–732. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s00359-016-1095-y
Michener, C. D. (2013). The meliponini. In P. Vit, S. R. M.
Pedro, & D. Roubik (Eds.), A legacy of stingless bees. (pp.
654). New York, NY: Springer
Miguel, M. G., Nunes, S., Dandlen, S. A., Cavaco, A. M., &
Antunes, M. D. (2010). Phenols and antioxidant activity of
hydro-alcoholic extracts of propolis from Algarve, South of
Portugal. Food and Chemical Toxicology: An International
Journal Published for the British Industrial Biological Research
Association, 48(12), 3418–3423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.
2010.09.014
Miyata, R., Sahlan, M., Ishikawa, Y., Hashimoto, H., Honda, S.,
& Kumazawa, S. (2020). Propolis components and biological
activities from stingless bees collected on South Sulawesi.
Indonesia. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences, 27(1), 82–82.
Mohammad, S. M., Mahmud-Ab-Rashid, N.-K., & Zawawi, N.
(2020). Botanical origin and nutritional values of bee bread
of stingless bee (Heterotrigona itama) from Malaysia. Journal
of Food Quality, 2020, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/
2845757
Mohd Suib, M. S., Wan Omar, W. A., Omar, E. A., &
Mohamed, R. (2021). Ethanolic extract of propolis from the
Malaysian stingless bee Geniotrigona thoracica inhibits for-
mation of THP-1 derived macrophage foam cells. Journal of
Apicultural Research, 60(3), 413–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00218839.2020.1720125
Molan, P., & Betts, J. A. (2004). Clinical usage of honey as a
wound dressing: an update. Journal of Wound Care, 13(9),
353–356. https://doi.org/10.12968/jowc.2004.13.9.26708
Morgano, M. A., Teixeira Martins, M. C., Rabonato, L. C., Milani,
R. F., Yotsuyanagi, K., & Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. (2010).
Inorganic contaminants in bee pollen from Southeastern Brazil.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(11), 6876–6883.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf100433p
Mustafa, M. Z., Yaacob, N. S., & Sulaiman, S. A. (2018).
Reinventing the honey industry: Opportunities of the sting-
less bee. The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences: MJMS,
25(4), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.21315/mjms2018.25.4.1
Nascimento, A. S. d., Chamb
o, E. D., Oliveira, D. d J.,
Andrade, B. R., Bonsucesso, J. S., & Carvalho, C. A. L. d.
(2018). Honey from stingless bee as indicator of contamin-
ation with metals. Sociobiology, 65(4), 727–736. https://doi.
org/10.13102/sociobiology.v65i4.3394
Nascimento, A. S. d., Marchini, L. C., Carvalho, C. A. L. d.,
Ara
ujo, D. F. D., Olinda, R. A. d., & Silveira, T. A. d. (2015).
Physical-chemical parameters of honey of stingless bee
(Hymenoptera: Apidae). American Chemical Science Journal, 7(3),
139–149. https://doi.org/10.9734/ACSJ/2015/17547
Nishimura, E., Murakami, S., Suzuki, K., Amano, K., Tanaka, R.,
& Shinada, T. (2016). Structure determination of mono-
meric phloroglucinol derivatives with a cinnamoyl group
isolated from propolis of the stingless bee. Asian Journal of
Organic Chemistry, 5(7), 855–859. https://doi.org/10.1002/
ajoc.201600106
Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 15
Nishio, E. K., Ribeiro, J. M., Oliveira, A. G., Andrade, C. G. T.
J., Proni, E. A., Kobayashi, R. K. T., & Nakazato, G. (2016).
Antibacterial synergic effect of honey from two stingless
bees: Scaptotrigona bipunctata Lepeletier, 1836, and S. pos-
tica Latreille, 1807. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 21641. https://doi.
org/10.1038/srep21641
Nordin, A., Sainik, N. Q. A. V., Chowdhury, S. R., Saim, A. B.,
& Idrus, R. B. H. (2018). Physicochemical properties of
stingless bee honey from around the globe: A comprehen-
sive review. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 73,
91–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2018.06.002
Norowi, M. H., Sajap, A. S., Rosliza, J., Mohd Fahimie, A. J., &
Suri, R. (2010). Conservation and sustainable utilization of
stingless bees for pollination services in agricultural ecosys-
tems in Malaysia. In Proceeding of International Seminar of
Enhancement of Functional Biodiversity Relevant to
Sustainable Production in ASPAC–In Association With
MARCO.
Nugitrangson, P., Puthong, S., Iempridee, T., Pimtong, W.,
Pornpakakul, S., & Chanchao, C. (2016). In vitro and in vivo
characterization of the anticancer activity of Thai stingless
bee (Tetragonula laeviceps) cerumen. Experimental biology
and medicine (Maywood, NJ), 241(2), 166–176. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1535370215600102
Olaitan, P. B., Adeleke, O. E., & Ola, I. O. (2007). Honey: a
reservoir for microorganisms and an inhibitory agent for
microbes. African Health Sciences, 7(3), 159–165.
Oroian, M., Ropciuc, S., & Paduret, S. (2018). Honey adulter-
ation detection using Raman Spectroscopy. Food Analytical
Methods, 11(4), 959–968. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-
017-1072-2
Ozkok, D., & Silici, S. (2018). Effects of crystallization on anti-
oxidant property of honey. Journal of Apitherapy, 4(1),
24–30. https://doi.org/10.5455/ja.20180607113134
Padovan, G. (2003). Detection of adulteration of commercial
honey samples by the 13C/12C isotopic ratio. Food Chemistry,
82(4), 633–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00504-6
Patricio, E. F. L. R. A., Cruz-L
opez, L., Maile, R., Tentschert, J.,
Jones, G. R., & Morgan, E. D. (2002). The propolis of sting-
less bees: terpenes from the tibia of three Frieseomelitta
species. Journal of Insect Physiology, 48(2), 249–254. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1910(01)00170-6 https://doi.
org/10.1016/s0022-1910(01)00170-6
Perna, A., Intaglietta, I., Simonetti, A., & Gambacorta, E. (2013).
A comparative study on phenolic profile, vitamin C content
and antioxidant activity of Italian honeys of different botanical
origin. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 48(9),
1899–1908. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.12169
Pietta, P. G., Gardana, C., & Pietta, A. M. (2002). Analytical
methods for quality control of propolis. Fitoterapia, 73,
S7–S20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(02)00186-7
Pimentel, R. B. d Q., da Costa, C. A., Albuquerque, P. M., &
Junior, S. D. (2013). Antimicrobial activity and rutin identifi-
cation of honey produced by the stingless bee Melipona
compressipes manaosensis and commercial honey. BMC
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 13(1), 151. https://
doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-13-151
Pujirahayu, N., Bhattacharjya, D. K., Suzuki, T., & Katayama, T.
(2019). a-Glucosidase inhibitory activity of cycloartane-type
triterpenes isolated from Indonesian stingless bee propolis
and their structure–activity relationship. Pharmaceuticals,
12(3), 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph12030102
Qian, W. L., Khan, Z., Watson, D. G., & Fearnley, J. (2008).
Analysis of sugars in bee pollen and propolis by ligand
exchange chromatography in combination with pulsed
amperometric detection and mass spectrometry. Journal of
Food Composition and Analysis, 21(1), 78–83. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jfca.2007.07.001
16 Z. Ngaini et al.
Ramanauskiene, K., Stelmakiene, A., Briedis, V., Ivanauskas, L., &
Jakstas, V. (2012). The quantitative analysis of biologically active
compounds in Lithuanian honey. Food Chemistry, 132(3),
1544–1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.12.007
Ramli, N. Z., Chin, K.-Y., Zarkasi, K. A., & Ahmad, F. (2019).
The beneficial effects of stingless bee honey from heterotri-
gona itama against metabolic changes in rats fed with high-
carbohydrate and high-fat diet. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(24), 4987.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16244987
Ramli, E. S. M., Kamaruzzaman, M. A., Thanu, A. S., Mohamed,
N., Fahami, N. A. M., & Yusuf, M. R. (2020). Potential ben-
efical effects of stingless bee honey (kelulut honey) on
bones exposed to long-term dexamethasone. International
Journal of Food Research, 7, 23–33.
Ram
on-Sierra, J., Mart
ınez-Guevara, J. L., Pool-Yam, L., Maga~na-
Ortiz, D., Yam-Puc, A., & Ortiz-V
azquez, E. (2020). Effects of
phenolic and protein extracts from Melipona beecheii honey
on pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus
aureus. Food Science and Biotechnology, 29(7), 1013–1021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-020-00744-4
Ranneh, Y., Ali, F., Zarei, M., Akim, A. M., Hamid, H. A., &
Khazaai, H. (2018). Malaysian stingless bee and Tualang hon-
eys: A comparative characterization of total antioxidant
capacity and phenolic profile using liquid chromatography-
mass spectrometry. LWT- Food Science and Technology, 89,
1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.10.020
Rao, P. V., Krishnan, K. T., Salleh, N., & Gan, S. H. (2016).
Biological and therapeutic effects of honey produced by
honey bees and stingless bees: a comparative review.
Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 26(5), 657–664. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2016.01.012
Rasmussen, C., & Cameron, S. A. (2009). Global stingless bee
phylogeny supports ancient divergence, vicariance, and long
distance dispersal: STINGLESS BEE PHYLOGENY. Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society, 99(1), 206–232. https://doi.org/
10.1111/j.1095-8312.2009.01341.x
Reni Yusli, E., M. Bachtia, B., Fatma Suni, D., B. Sutjiat, A., &
Mozef, T. (2016). Effect of Rambutan-honey and its flavon-
oid on TGF-b1 induce fibroplasia oral wound healing.
Research Journal of Medicinal Plants, 10(8), 435–442. https://
doi.org/10.3923/rjmp.2016.435.442
Reyes-Gonz
alez, A., Camou-Guerrero, A., Reyes-Salas, O.,
Argueta, A., & Casas, A. (2014). Diversity, local knowledge
and use of stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) in the munici-
pality of Nocup
etaro, Michoacan, Mexico. Journal of
Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10(1), 47. https://doi.org/10.
1186/1746-4269-10-47
Rodrigues, C. G., Kr€uger, A. P., Barbosa, W. F., & Guedes,
R. N. C. (2016). Leaf fertilizers affect survival and behavior of
the neotropical stingless bee Friesella schrottkyi (Meliponini:
Apidae: Hymenoptera). Journal of Economic Entomology, 109(3),
1001–1008. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tow044
Rodriguez, H., Gonzalez, T., Goire, I., & Bashan, Y. (2004).
Gluconic acid production and phosphate solubilization by
the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum spp.
Die Naturwissenschaften, 91(11), 552–555. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s00114-004-0566-0
Roman, A., Popiela-Pleban, E., Migdał, P., & Kruszy
nski, W.
(2016). As, Cr, Cd, and Pb in bee products from a polish
industrialized region. Open Chemistry, 14(1), 33–36. https://
doi.org/10.1515/chem-2016-0007
Rosa, A. d S., Teixeira, J. S. G., Vollet-Neto, A., Queiroz, E. P.,
Blochtein, B., Pires, C. S. S., & Imperatriz-Fonseca, V. L.
(2016). Consumption of the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam
during the larval stage affects the survival and development
of the stingless bee, Scaptotrigona aff. depilis. Apidologie,
47(6), 729–738. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-015-0424-4
Ru, Q.-M., Feng, Q., & He, J.-Z. (2013). Risk assessment of
heavy metals in honey consumed in Zhejiang province,
southeastern China. Food and Chemical Toxicology: An
International Journal Published for the British Industrial Biological
Research Association, 53, 256–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
fct.2012.12.015
Saiful Yazan, L., Muhamad Zali, M. F. S., Mohd Ali, R., Zainal,
N. A., Esa, N., Sapuan, S., Ong, Y. S., Tor, Y. S., Gopalsamy,
B., Voon, F. L., & Syed Alwi, S. S. (2016). Chemopreventive
properties and toxicity of kelulut honey in sprague dawley
rats induced with Azoxymethane. BioMed Research
International, 2016, 4036926. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/
4036926
Samat, S., Enchang, F. K., Razak, A. A., Hussein, F. N., & Ismail,
W. I. W. (2018). Adulterated honey consumption can
induce obesity, increase blood glucose level and demon-
strate toxicity effects. Sains Malaysiana, 47(2), 353–365.
Sanpa, S., Popova, M., Bankova, V., Tunkasiri, T., Eitssayeam, S., &
Chantawannakul, P. (2015). Antibacterial compounds from
propolis of Tetragonula laeviceps and Tetrigona melanoleuca
(Hymenoptera: Apidae) from Thailand. PLOS One, 10(5),
e0126886. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126886
Schievano, E., Mammi, S., & Menegazzo, I. (2013). Nuclear
magnetic resonance as a method to predict the geograph-
ical and entomological origin of pot-honey. In P. Vit,
S. R. M. Pedro, & D. Roubik (Eds.), Pot-Honey: A legacy of
stingless bees (pp. 429–445). Springer New York.
Sgariglia, M. A., Vattuone, M. A., Sampietro Vattuone, M. M.,
Sober
on, J. R., & Sampietro, D. A. (2010). Properties of
honey from Tetragonisca angustula fiebrigi and Plebeia witt-
manni of Argentina. Apidologie, 41(6), 667–675. https://doi.
org/10.1051/apido/2010028
Shashikala, A., Harini, B. P., & Reddy, M. S. (2016). GC-MS
analysis of phytocomponents in the methanolic extract of
propolis of honey bee. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical
Analysis and Medicinal Chemistry, 4(2), 74–78.
Shehu, A., Ismail, S., Rohin, M. A. K., Harun, A., Aziz, A. A., &
Haque, M. (2016). Antifungal properties of Malaysian
Tualang honey and stingless bee propolis against Candida
albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. Journal of Applied
Pharmaceutical Science, 6(2), 44–50.
Silva, P. R. D., Silva, T. M. G. D., Camara, C. A., Silva, E. M. S.
D., Santos, F. D. A. R. D., & Silva, T. M. S. (2020).
Palynological origin, phenolic content and antioxidant prop-
erties of geopropolis collected by mandaçaia (Melipona
mandacaia) stingless. Revista Caatinga, 33(1), 246–252.
https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-21252020v33n126rc
Sousa, J. M. B. d., Souza, E. L. d., Marques, G., Benassi,
M. d T., Gull
on, B., Pintado, M. M., & Magnani, M. (2016).
Sugar profile, physicochemical and sensory aspects of
monofloral honeys produced by different stingless bee spe-
cies in Brazilian semi-arid region. LWT - Food Science and
Technology, 65, 645–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.
08.058
Souza, B., Roubik, D., Barth, O., Heard, T., Enr
Iquez, E., &
Carvalho, C. (2006). Composition of stingless bee honey:
setting quality standards. Interciencia, 31(12), 867–875.
Syam, Y., Usman, A. N., Natzir, R., Rahardjo, S. P., Hatta, M.,
& Sjattar, E. L. (2016). Nutrition and pH of Trigona Honey
from Masamba, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. International
Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research, 7(1), 32–36.
Tanaka,
E. D., & Hartfelder, K. (2009). Sequence and expression
pattern of the germ line marker vasa in honey bees and sting-
less bees. Genetics and Molecular Biology, 32(3), 582–593.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-47572009005000043
Tangahu, B. V., Sheikh Abdullah, S. R., Basri, H., Idris, M.,
Anuar, N., & Mukhlisin, M. (2011). A review on heavy met-
als (As, Pb, and Hg) uptake by plants through

phytoremediation. International Journal of Chemical
Engineering, 2011, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/
939161
Tchounwou, P. B., Yedjou, C. G., Patlolla, A. K., & Sutton,
D. J. (2012). Heavy metal toxicity and the environment.
Molecular, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology, 133–164.
Tuksitha, L., Chen, Y.-L S., Chen, Y.-L., Wong, K.-Y., & Peng,
C.-C. (2018). Antioxidant and antibacterial capacity of sting-
less bee honey from Borneo (Sarawak). Journal of Asia-Pacific
Entomology, 21(2), 563–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.
2018.03.007
Tuzen, M., Silici, S., Mendil, D., & Soylak, M. (2007). Trace
element levels in honeys from different regions of Turkey.
Food Chemistry, 103(2), 325–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodchem.2006.07.053
Vanhanen, L. P., Emmertz, A., & Savage, G. P. (2011). Mineral
analysis of mono-floral New Zealand honey. Food Chemistry,
128(1), 236–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.
02.064
Vit, P., Uddin, J., Zuccato, V., Maza, F. R., & Schievano, E.
(2015). Entomological origin of honey discriminated by
NMR chloroform extracts in Ecuadorian Honey. World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, International
Journal of Biological. Biomolecular, Agricultural, Food and
Biotechnological Engineering, 9(5), 494–497.
Wagh, V. D. (2013). Propolis: A Wonder Bees Product and Its
Pharmacological Potentials. Advances in Pharmacological Sciences,
2013, 308249–308211. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/308249
Wan Omar, W. A., Azhar, N. A., Harif Fadzilah, N., & Nik
Mohamed Kamal, N. N. S. (2016). Bee pollen extract of
Malaysian stingless bee enhances the effect of cisplatin on breast
cancer cell lines. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 6(3),
265–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjtb.2015.12.011
Stingless bee honey and propolis composition 17
Weihrauch, M. R., & Diehl, V. (2004). Artificial sweeteners-do
they bear a carcinogenic risk? Annals of Oncology: Official
Journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology, 15(10),
1460–1465. https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdh256
Wu, L., Du, B., Vander Heyden, Y., Chen, L., Zhao, L., Wang, M.,
& Xue, X. (2017). Recent advancements in detecting sugar-
based adulterants in honey – A challenge. TrAC Trends in
Analytical Chemistry, 86, 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2016.
10.013
Xuan Hai, N., Thi Thanh Mai, N., & Trung Nhan, N. (2018).
Chemical constituents of the propolis from the stingless
bee Trigona minor. Natural Sciences, 2(5), 59–62.
Zach, L., Doyle, M. E., Bier, V., & Czuprynski, C. (2012).
Systems and governance in food import safety: A U.S. per-
spective. Food Control, 27(1), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.foodcont.2012.03.013
Zhang, H., Li, N., Pan, X., Wu, S., & Xie, J. (2016). Oxidative
conversion of glucose to gluconic acid by iron (III) chloride
in water under mild conditions. Green Chemistry, 18(8),
2308–2312. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5GC02614H
Zuccato, V., Finotello, C., Menegazzo, I., Peccolo, G., &
Schievano, E. (2017). Entomological authentication of sting-
less bee honey by 1H NMR-based metabolomics approach.
Food Control, 82, 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food-
cont.2017.06.024
Zulkhairi Amin, F. A., Sabri, S., Ismail, M., Chan, K. W., Ismail, N.,
Mohd Esa, N., Mohd Lila, M. A., & Zawawi, N. (2019).
Probiotic properties of bacillus strains isolated from stingless
bee (Heterotrigona itama) Honey Collected across Malaysia.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
17(1), 278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17010278