Practices Conducive To Enlightenment

PRACTICES CONDUCIVE TO ENLIGHTENMENT
The Thirty-seven Bodhipåk∑ikas and Other Practices

According to Någårjuna's Mahåprajñåpåramitå-ßåstra
Tadeusz Skorupski
© Copyright: T. Skorupski
London, SOAS, University of London, 2009

CONTENTS
Preliminary note 4
Preamble 4
A: THE THIRTY-SEVEN BODHIPÓK›IKAS
Preliminary annotations 4
Lists of the bodhipākṣikas 4
Canonical definitions of the bodhipākṣikas 5
The bodhipākṣikas in the Abhidharma 9
The bodhipākṣikas in the Mahāyāna 10
Śāstra exposition of the bodhipākṣikas 11
I. The bodhipåk∑ikas according to the Abhidharma 12
Detailed exposition of the bodhipåk∑ikas 14
I.1. The four foundations of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna) 14
I.2. The four right efforts (samyakpradhåna) 16
I.3. The four bases of magical powers (®ddhipåda) 17
I.4.The five faculties (indriya) 17
I.5. The five powers (bala) 17
I.6. The seven limbs of enlightenment (saµbodhya∫ga) 17
I.7. The noble eightfold path (åryå∑†å∫gamårga) 18
II. The bodhipåk∑ikas according to the Mahåyåna 19
II.1. The four foundations of mindfulness 19
II.2-3. The four right efforts 21
and the four bases of magical powers 21
II.4. The five faculties 21
II.5. The five powers 22
II.6. The seven limbs of enlightenment 23
II.7. The noble eightfold path 23
B. EIGHT CLASSES OF COMPLIMENTARY DHARMAS
Śāstra exposition of the complementary dharmas 25
I. The three samådhis 26
I.1. The three samådhis according to the Abhidharma 26
I.2. The three samådhis according to the Mahåyåna 28
II. The four dhyånas 29
III. The four immeasurables (apramåâ) 32
IV. The four formless attainments (årËpyasamåpatti) 37
V-VII. Liberations, dominations, and totalities 39
Canonical definitions 39
V. The eight liberations (vimok∑a) 39
VI. The eight spheres of domination (abhibhvåyatana) 40
VII. The ten totalities (k®tsna) 40
V-VIIa. Abhidharma treatment of liberations,
dominations, and totalities 42
V-VIIb. Śāstra treatment of liberations,
Vb. The eight liberations 43
VIb. The eight spheres of domination 47
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VIIb. The ten totalities 49
Object and distribution of the liberations,
VIII. The nine successive attainments 50
C. SIX CLASSES OF ADDITIONAL DHARMAS
I. The nine notions of horror 52
I.1. Abhidharma exposition of the nine notions 52
I.2. Mahåyåna exposition of the nine notions 56
II. The eight commemorations (anusm®ti) 57
Preliminary considerations 57
IIa. The eight commemorations according to the Abhidharma 58
IIa1. Commemoration of the Buddha 58
IIa2. Commemoration of the Dharma 62
IIa3. Commemoration of the Sa∫gha 67
IIa4. Commemoration of morality (ß¥la) 69
IIa5. Commemoration of abandonment (tyåga) 71
IIa6. Commemoration of deities (devatå) 72
IIa7. Commemoration of respiration (ånåpåna) 73
IIa8. Commemoration of death (maraâ) 74
The order of the commemorations 74
IIb. The commemorations according to the Mahåyåna 75
III. The ten notions (saµjñå) 76
III.1.The notion of impermanence 76
III.2. The notion of suffering 78
III.3. The notion of impersonality 79
The relationship between impermanence,
suffering, and impersonality 80
III.4. The notion of repugnance for food 80
The logical order of the ten notions 81
III.5. The notion of dissatisfaction with the whole world 82
III.6-10. The notions of: death; impurity; abandonment;
detachment; suppression 83
IV. The eleven knowledges (jñåna) 83
Śāstra exposition of the eleven categories of knowledge 85
IV.1. The ten knowledges according to the Abhidharma 86
IV.2. The eleven knowledges according to the Mahāyāna 87
V. The three samådhis 89
V.1. The three samådhis according to the Abhidharma 89
V.2. The three samådhis according to the Mahåyåna 90
VI. The three faculties of comprehension (indriya) 91
Preliminary considerations 91
VI.1. The three faculties according to the Abhidharma 92
VI.2. The three faculties according to the Mahåyåna 93
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PRACTICES CONDUCIVE TO ENLIGHTENMENT
Preliminary note
This paper provides a synopsis of chapters 31-38 of Étienne Lamotte’s French
translation of Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra attributed to Nāgārjuna, and translated into
Chinese by Kumārajīva in 404 or 405 CE. Chapters 31-38 of this treatise provide a
comprehensive exposition of three groups of practices that are conducive to the
attainment of enlightenment: one primary group of thirty-seven bodhipākṣikas, one
group of eight complementary practices, and one group of six additional practices.
Preamble
The present study deals with the principal practices, which form the Buddhist path as
interpreted in the Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra. All such practices are extensively
treated in the Abhidharma works in which they are set forth as primary expedients
leading to the attainment of nirvåâ. The Bodhisattva who aims to achieve the state
of enlightenment and to lead all living beings towards deliverance does not pursue
such practices for the sake of nirvåâ, but he does accomplish them in order to know
them so that he can teach them to living beings destined to gain deliverance through
the ßråvaka path. In order to demonstrate the differences between the ßråvaka and
Bodhisattva ways, the discussion of the various practices includes both Abhidharma
and Mahåyåna interpretations. First there is provided the Abhidharma exposition,
and then the Mahåyåna interpretation that aims to show the superiority of the
Bodhisattva’s approach and perception of the Buddhist path.
The practices that are treated here include three separate groups, namely the primary
sevenfold group of the thirty-seven bodhipāk∑ikas, and two groups of secondary
practices: one group of eight classes of complimentary dharmas, and one group of six
classes of additional practices.
A: THE THIRTY-SEVEN BODHIPĀK›IKAS 1

Preliminary Annotations
Lists of the bodhipākṣikas
The Fourth Noble Truth sets forth the path that leads to the destruction of suffering,
namely the noble eightfold path. The eightfold path as such constitutes the apex of
the liberation process, which in fact incorporates a great number of spiritual
exercises. Out of such a great variety of spiritual exercises that were developed or
adopted from other traditions, the most important ones have been selected and
grouped together under the name of bodhipāk∑ika dharmas,2 practices or factors
conducive to enlightenment.
According to the Abhidharmakoßa (VI, 282-84) the knowledge of appeasement
(k∑ayajñåna) and the knowledge of non-arising (anutpådajñåna) constitute the state
of enlightenment (bodhi). This state of enlightenment is further differentiated on the
basis of three different categories of people who gain it: ßråvaka-bodhi, pratyeka-
Buddha-bodhi, and anuttarasamyak-saµbodhi. It is through these two kinds of
knowledge that one abandons ignorance (avidyå). The first knowledge provides an
understanding that the task has been accomplished, and the second knowledge that
there is nothing left to accomplish. So far as they are favourable to enlightenment,

1. E. Lamotte, La traité de la grande vertu de sagesse de Någårjuna (Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra), tome
III, Louvain, 1970; Chapters XXXI-XXXVIII, 1119-1503.
2. In Påli: bodhipakkhika or bodhipakkhiya; in Sanskrit bodhipåk∑ika, bodhipak∑ika, bodhipak∑ya,
bodhipak∑adharmas.
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these thirty-seven bodhipåk∑ika dharmas serve as their auxiliaries, and as such they
also constitute a body of qualities, such as pure (anåsrava) or impure (såsrava),
which arise from engagement (pråyogika), study (ßruta), reflection (cintå), and
meditation (bhåvanå).
It took a long time before the classic list of thirty-seven bodhipåk∑ika dharmas
became formulated. In the Nikåyas the term bodhipak∑ika appears rather seldom and
it is defined in deficient ways. The A∫guttara (III, 70, 300) includes such practices as
guarding the senses, sobriety, and vigilance. In the Saµyutta (V, 227, 239) the
practices conducive to enlightenment are constituted by the five spiritual faculties
(indriya), and in the Vibha∫ga, they are said to be the seven limbs of enlightenment
(sambojjha∫ga). With the exception of the Ekottarågama, which enumerates and
names them as bodhipåk∑ikas, the Nikåyas and the Ógamas do not list those dharmas
as amounting to thirty-seven, and do not refer to them as bodhipåk∑ikas. However,
one frequently finds in the canon a list of thirty-seven dharmas divided into seven
groups or classes that include: 1. four foundations of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna);
2. four right efforts (samyakpradhåna); 3. four bases of psychic or magical powers
(®ddhipåda); 4. five spiritual faculties (indriya); 5. five spiritual powers (bala); 6.
seven limbs of enlightenment (saµbodhya∫ga); 7. eightfold path (mårgå∫ga).
There are some other scriptural passages that incorporate the above seven groups into
a list of dharmas which is longer than thirty-seven.3 So far as paracanonical and
postcanonical texts are concerned, both Sanskrit and Påli, and the sËtras and ßåstras
of the Mahåyåna, the list is fixed and named thirty-seven bodhipåk∑ika dharmas.4
However, there are also irregular lists, which include different numbers of practices.5
Canonical definitions of the bodhipākṣikas
I. The four foundations of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna) 6
1. mindfulness with regard to the body.
2. mindfulness with regard to sensations.
3. mindfulness with regard to the mind.
4. mindfulness with regard to dharmas.
The Buddha said that there is only one venue for the purification of beings, for the
disappearance of suffering and sorrow, for the conquest of right path, and the
realisation of nirvāṇa: these are the four foundations of mindfulness.
1. One abides considering the body in the body, energetic, conscious, alert to the
extent of controlling covetousness (abhidhyā) and dissatisfaction (daurmanasya) in
this world.

3. Majjhima, II, 11-12; A∫guttara, I, 39-40; Íatasåhasrikå, 1427-39.
4. Nettipakaraâ, 197, 261; Milindapañha, 330; Visuddhimagga, Warren's ed., 582-83. Divyåvadåna,
350, 616; Avadånaßataka, I, 340; Abhidharmaprad¥pa, 357; Lalitavistara, 9; Kåßyapaparivarta, 75;
Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka, 458; Vimalak¥rtinirdeßa, 117, 139, 144, 201-2; SËtrålaµkåra, 140-46;
Madhyåntavibhåga, 89-94, 166-85; Dharmasaµgraha, chapter 43; Arthavinißcaya, 569-75;
Mahåvyutpatti, 952-1004.
5. Nettippakaraâ, 112, 237, refers to 43 bodhipakkhiya, starting with saññå, anicca, dukkha, anatta,
pahåna, viråga, nirodhasaññå. For other references see Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1121.
6. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1121.
Two sets of references:
D¥gha, II, 290; Majjhima, I, 55-56; Saµyutta, V, 141, 167, 185; Pañcaviµßati, 204, Íatasåhasrikå,
1427; DaßabhËmika, 38.
D¥gha, II, 216, 292-306; Majjhima, I, 56-7, 59; A∫guttara, III, 450; Saµyutta, V, 143, 294, 296;
Pañcaviµßati, 204; Íatasåhasrikå, 1427.
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2. One abides considering sensation in the sensations, energetic, conscious, alert to
the extent of controlling covetousness and dissatisfaction in the world.
3. One abides considering the mind in the mind, energetic, conscious, alert to the
extent of controlling covetousness and dissatisfaction in the world.
4. One abides considering dharmas in the dharmas, energetic, conscious, alert to the
extent of controlling covetousness and dissatisfaction in the world.
II. The four right effort (saµyakpradhåna) 7
In the Pāli sources the name of this group is sammappadhāna, right effort. The
Sasnkrit sources use the term samyakprahāṇa, right destruction, and occasionally
samyakpradhāna.
1. One arouses zest, exerts oneself, intensifies one’s energy, stimulates one’s mind,
and makes effort so that unwholesome (akuśala) dharmas not yet arisen do not arise.
and makes effort so that unwholesome dharmas already arisen become destroyed.
and makes effort so that wholesome (kuśala) dharmas not yet arisen arise into being.
and makes effort so that wholesome dharmas already arisen are maintained,
preserved, developed, augmented, cultivated and consolidated.
III. The four bases of magical powers (®ddhipåda) 8
1. One cultivates the basis for magical power, which is endowed with meditative
concentration of zest (chanda), together with activities of effort; the basis that
reposes on solitude, detachment, and destruction, and that results in rejection.
2. One cultivates the basis of magical power, which is endowed with meditative
concentration of energy (v¥rya), together with activities of effort etc.
concentration of the mind (citta), together with activities of effort etc.
concentration of investigation (m¥måµså) together with activities of effort etc.9
IV. The five faculties (indriya) 10
The five spiritual faculties (indriya) should not be confused with the five sense
organs also called indriyas. The five spiritual faculties are frequently mentioned in
the canonical texts, but rarely defined in a comprehensive manner, and when their
definitions are given, they are seldom identical.
1. faculty of faith (ßraddhå-indriya)
The noble disciple has faith; he believes in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata and
says: “The Blessed One is noble, perfectly enlightened, endowed with sciences
(vidyā) and conducts (caraṇa), well-gone, knower of the world, supreme, guide of
men to be disciplined, teacher of gods and men, Buddha and Blessed One.”

7. D¥gha, III, 221; Majjhima, II, 11; Saµyutta, IV, 364-65; V, 244; A∫guttara, II, 15, IV, 462;
Pañcaviµßati, 207; Íatasåhasrikå, 1435-36; DaßabhËmika, 38; Mahåvyutpatti, 958-65.
8. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1124. D¥gha, II, 213; III, 77, 221; Majjhima, I, 103; Saµyutta, IV,
365; V, 263-64; A∫guttara, I, 39, 297; II, 256; III, 82; Pañcaviµßati, 207-8; Íatasåhasrikå, 1436;
DaßabhËmika, 38-9.
9. The samådhi which is required here as the foundation of magical powers is defined in Saµyutta, V,
268; Koßavyåkhyå, 601-2: This samådhi represents a firm concentration of the mind on one sole
object in which one places a dominent stress on zest, energy, mind, or investigation.
10. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1125. Saµyutta, V, 196-97; Mahåvyutpatti, 977-981.
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2. faculty of energy (v¥rya-)
The noble disciple abides in active energy in order to destroy unwholesome (akuśala)
dharmas and to produce wholesome (kuśala) dharmas. He remains firm, courageous,
and does not reject the burden of wholesome dharmas.
3. faculty of mindfulness (sm®ti-)
The noble disciple is attentive, endowed with attention and supreme discrimination,
repeatedly recalling and memorising anew what was done and said a long time ago.
4. faculty of concentration (samådhi-)
The noble disciple, renouncing the object of his mind, gains concentration, and
applies the mind to one single object.
5. faculty of wisdom (prajñå-)
The noble disciple is equipped with wisdom: he is endowed with wisdom in order to
determine the arising and vanishing of things, wisdom that is noble, penetrative, and
induces the cessation of suffering.
The faculty of faith denotes the four limbs of the stream entry (sotāpatti).11 The
faculty of energy denotes the four right efforts. The faculty of mindfulness denotes
the four foundations of mindfulness. The faculty of concentration denotes the four
dhyānas. The faculty of wisdom denotes the four noble truths.
V. The five powers (bala) 12
1. power of faith (ßraddhå-ibala)
2. power of energy (v¥rya-)
3. power of mindfulness (sm®ti-)
4. power of concentration (samådhi-)
5. power of wisdom (prajñå-)
It was always recognised that the difference between the five spiritual faculties and
the five spiritual powers is not in their definitions, but in their intensity. See
Samyutta, V, 220.
VI. The seven limbs of enlightenment (saµbodhya∫ga) 13
1. mindfulness (sm®ti/sati)
When an unimpeded mindfulness has sprung in the monk, then the limb of
enlightenment called mindfulness is instigated in this monk. Then this monk
develops the limb of enlightenment called mindfulness, and this limb reaches its
fullness.
2. discernment of dharmas (dharmapravicaya)
When the monk thus abiding in mindfulness examines, researches and investigates
this dharma with wisdom, then the limb of enlightenment called discernment of
dharmas is instigated in him.
3. energy (v¥rya)
When energy free from idleness leaps in this monk, while he examines, researches
and investigates this dharma with wisdom, then the limb of enlightenment called
energy is instigated in him.
4. joy (pr¥ti)

11. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1126. Saṃyutta, V, 196; Nettippakaraṇa, 19.
12. Mahåprajñpåramitåßåstra, III, 1127. A∫guttara, III, 10; Majjhima, II, 12; Saµyutta, IV, 366, V,
196-97; Pañcaviµßati, 208; Íatasåhasrikå, 1437; DaßabhËmika, 39.
13. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1128-29. Majjhima, I, 11; II, 12; III, 86-7; 275; Saµyutta, V, 67-9;
331-32, 337-39; Pañcaviµßati, 208; Íatasåhasrikå, 1438; DaßabhËmika, 39.
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When spiritual joy is generated in this energetic monk, then the limb of
enlightenment called joy is instigated in him.
5. serenity (praßrabdhi)
When the body and also the mind become relaxed in this monk with spiritual joy,
then the limb of enlightenment called serenity is instigated in him.
6. concentration (samådhi)
When the mind becomes concentrated in this monk whose body and mind are
relaxed, then the limb of enlightenment called concentration is instigated in him.
7. equanimity (upek∑å)
When this monk observes his concentrated mind with equanimity, then the limb of
enlightenment called equanimity is instigated in him. Then this monk cultivates the
limb of enlightenment called equanimity, and this limb reaches its fullness in this
monk.
VII. The noble eightfold path (åryå∑†å∫gamårga) 14
Naked List
This is the noble eightfold path, namely: 1. right view (samyagd®∑†i), 2. right
intention (samyaksaµkalpa), 3. right speech (samyagvåc), 4. right action (samyak-
karmånta), 5. right livelihood (samyagåj¥va), 6. right effort (samyagvyåyåma), 7.
right mindfulness (samyaksm®ti), 8. right concentration (samyaksamådhi).
Isolated definition15
Here the monk cultivates right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, which rest on solitude
(viveka), which rest on detachment (virāga), which rest on cessation, and which
incline towards abandonment (vyavasarga).
Standard definition16
A standard or stock description of the eight components of the path (mārgāṅga) is
found quite frequently in the Pāli Nikāyas. The Sanskrit Āgamas do not reproduce
this definition in exactly the same way.
1. What is right view? It is the knowledge of suffering, of its origin, of its cessation,
and of the path leading to its cessation.
2. What is right intention? It is the intention of renunciation (nekkhamma), of non-
malevolence (avyāpāda), and of non-violence (avihiṃsā).
3. What is right speech? It is the abstention (veramaṇī) from telling lies, from
slander, from harsh speech, and from frivolous talk.
4. What is right action? It is the abstention from taking life, from stealing, and from
wrong sexual conduct.
5. What is right livelihood? Here the noble disciple discards wicked ways of living,
and secures his subsistence through right ways of living.
6. What is right effort? Here the monk intensifies his energy, stimulates his mind,
and strives so that unwholesome dharmas not yet arisen do not arise. He intensifies
his energy… and strives so that unwholesome dharmas already arisen become
destroyed. He intensifies his energy… and strives so that wholesome dharmas not yet

14. Pāli sources: Vinaya, I, 10; D¥gha, I, 157; II, 251, 311-13; Majjhima, I, 15, 49, 299; II, 82-83; III,
231, 251-52; Saµyutta, II, 42-44; III, 159; V, 8-10, 347-48; A∫guttara, I, 177, 217; III, 411;
Vinaya, I, 10. Sanskrit sources: Catu∑pari∑ad, 142; Mahåvastu, III, 331; Lalitavistara, 417;
Pañcaviµßati, 208.
15. Saṃyutta, IV, 367-68; Daśabhūmika, 39.
16. Examples: Dīgha, II, 311-13; Majjhima, III, 251-52; Saṃyutta, V, 8-10; Vibhaṅga, 235-36.
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arisen arise. He intensifies his energy… and strives so that wholesome dharmas
already arisen are maintained, preserved, developed, augmented, cultivated and
consolidated.
7. What is right mindfulness? Here the monk abides considering the body in the
body, energetic, conscious, and attentive to the extent of controlling covetousness
and dissatisfaction in this world. In the same way he abides considering sensation in
the sensations, mind in the mind, and dharmas in the dharmas.
8. What is right concentration? Here the monk, having discarded desires (kāma) and
unwholesome (akuśala) dharmas, enters the first dhyāna, which is equipped with
examination and judgement, issued from detachment, and which is joy and
happiness. Suppressing examination and judgement, he enters the second dhyāna,
which is inner peace, one-pointed focus of the mind, freedom from examination and
judgement, issued from Samadhi, and which is peace and happiness. Renouncing
joy, he abides indifferent, reflective, and conscious. He experiences happiness in his
body. He enters the third dhyāna in which he is indifferent and reflective, and abides
in happiness. By the destruction of happiness and suffering, and by a prior
elimination of contentment (saumansya) and dissatisfaction (daurmanasya), he enters
the fourth dhyāna, which is exempt from suffering and happiness, and purified in
equanimity (upekṣā) and mindfulness (smṛti).
The definitions of right effort and right mindfulness as given in this section are
identical with the definitions of the four right efforts (samyakpradhāna) and the four
foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna).
For an original definition of the mārgāṅgas, see Arthaviniścaya, page 573-75.
The bodhipākṣikas in the Abhidharma
In chapters 7-11, the Pāli Vibhaṅga provides an exposition of five groups of
bodhipākṣikas. Expositions of these five groups are given in three ways: according to
the canonical suttas or discourses, according to the Abhidhamma, and by way of
summaries consisting of questions and answers.
The bodhipākṣikas are treated in Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga; ed. Warren, 582-
85; trans. Ṇānamoli, 792-96.
The exposition that is given in Nāgārjuna’s Śāstra, is clearly inspired by and related
to the Sarvåstivåda-Vaibhāṣika Abhidharma works. The exposition of the
bodhipak∑ikas in the Sarvåstivåda works represents a considerable doctrinal
advancement with regard to their number, their appearance during the practice of the
path, and their distribution among the stages (bhËmi) or meditative attainments. The
Abhidharma works contest and stress that the number thirty-seven is the correct one,
although longer lists are fundamentally identical. As some of the canonical lists are
identical, it would appear that the distinctions between such lists are invented.
However, it is argued that they are not inventions, because the same factors can be
practised in different stages, and at different degrees of efficacy.
The Abhidharma masters have determined the progressive appearance of the seven
classes of bodhipåk∑ikas in the course of the various stages of the path:
1. The first group, the four foundations of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna), is said to
appear at the stage of the beginner (ådikårmika).
2-5. These four groups become manifested during the preparatory path
(prayogamårga) in which the practice of the four wholesome roots (kußalamËla)
leads to the four spiritual penetrations (nirvedhabhåg¥ya):
2. the four samyakpradhånas in the heat penetration (u∑magata);
3. the four ®ddhipådas in the summit penetration (mËrdhan);
4. the five indriyas in the forbearance penetration (kßånti);
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5. the five balas in the supreme worldly dharmas (laukikågradharma).
6. The seven saµbodhya∫gas become developed during the path of meditative
cultivation (bhåvanåmårga).
7. The eight components of the path (mårgå∫ga) appear in the path of vision
(darßanamårga).17
The bodhipåk∑ikas are also distributed among the bhËmis. 18
The bodhipākṣikas in the Mahāyāna 19
Since the bodhipākṣikas as practised by the śrāvakas lead to the attainment of
nirvāṇa, why are they also practised by the Bodhisattva, who differs his nirvāṇa in
order to assist other beings? The answer given by this Śāstra states that the
bodhipākṣikas are practised by all adepts of the three vehicles (triyāna).
The Prajñåpåramitå texts provide detailed outlines as to which practices are
important for Mahåyåna adepts. The list given in the Pañcaviµßati20 includes the
following elements: six påramitås, twenty kinds of ßËnyatå, one hundred and twelve
samådhis, twenty-one kinds of different practices (headed by bodhipåk∑ikas), forty
three dhåraˆ¥mukhas, and ten bhËmis. Thus the bodhipåk∑ikas are to be practised by
the Bodhisattva in some way.
In the Avataµsaka,21 the six påramitås, the three saµgrahavastus and the thirty-
seven bodhipåk∑ikas are arranged into the seventh out of ten gardens frequented by
the Bodhisattva. Then again in the DaßabhËmika section of the Avataµsaka, it is said
that the Bodhisattva embarks on the practice of the bodhipåk∑ikas in the fourth
bhËmi. He purifies them in the fifth bhËmi through the vision of sameness (samatå),
and then he accomplishes them in a perfect manner in the seventh bhËmi. Similarly
the BodhisattvabhËmi states that the practice of the bodhipåk∑ikas is associated with
the fourth bhËmi.
The Bodhisattva does practise the bodhipåk∑ikas, but he does it in a different spirit
from the ßråvakas. There is no nirvåâ without bodhi, and the state of enlightenment
cannot be achieved without cultivating the path and the bodhipākṣikas. The
Bodhisattva must accomplish all the auxiliaries of enlightenment in order to teach
them to other beings. He accomplishes the bodhipåk∑ikas but he does not realise
them immediately, because otherwise he would also pass into nirvåâ. It is out of his
great compassion that he remains in saµsåra in order to mature living beings. Being
pervaded by wisdom, he knows that saµsåra and nirvåâ are not different, but this
does not impede on his efforts to mature living beings by guiding them in the
practices of the path. His wisdom is accompanied by salvific expedients (upåya),
which in turn are accompanied by wisdom.
It said in the Pañcaviṃśati, 146-47, that the Bodhisattva does not perceive any
dharmas in general, or any group of bodhipåk∑ikas in particular, because of their
absolute purity. This purity is constituted by their non-origination (anutpåda), non-
manifestation (aprådurbhåva), absence of any support (anupalambha), and inactivity
(anabhisaµskåra).
As dharmas do not exist, the Bodhisattva does not grasp within them any specific
characteristics. In the case of the ßråvakas, the åtman does not exist but dharmas do

17. This sevenfold classification is given in the Abhidharmakoßa, IV, 287-88, and other works.
18. Abhidharmakoßa, IV, 291-92.
20. Pañcaviµßati, 194-225; Íatasåhasrikå, 1405-1473.
21. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1134-35.
10
exist. However, in the case of the Bodhisattva both åtman and dharmas do not exist.
It is thus under these two different aspects, the non-existence of both pudgala and
dharmas, that the Bodhisattva accomplishes the bodhipåk∑ikas in a perfect manner.
The four foundations of mindfulness are not only anåtma and anåtm¥ya, but also non-
existent. The four correct efforts and the four bases of magical powers are empty and
without any foundation (aprati∑†håna). The five spiritual faculties and the five
spiritual powers are applied to dharmas that are empty and without any characteristic
marks (ånimitta), and also free of any propensities (apraîhita). The seven limbs of
enlightenment unveil the true characteristic of dharmas as being inexistent, pure and
simple. The eight limbs of the path refer to a complete absence of thoughts, words
and actions.
The śrāvakas aspire to attain nirvāṇa and practise the bodhipākṣikas as expedients
leading to nirvāṇa. In contrast, the Bodhisattva aspiring to remain in saṃsāra in order
to work for the benefit of all beings, refrains from the realisation of the dharmas,
which would render his aspiration impossible, and in which he does not believe. The
Bodhisattva does not practise the bodhipåk∑ikas for his own sake, but in order to
teach beings destined to be converted by the śrāvaka vehicle. For the Bodhisattva,
the bodhipākṣikas serve as salvific expedients, which he employs according to
specific circumstances.
The Vijñånavåda position on the Bodhisattva's practice of the bodhipåk∑ikas is
explained in the BodhisattvabhËmi.22
ŚĀSTRA EXPOSITION OF THE BODHIPĀKṢIKAS 23

Sūtra (Pañcaviṃśati, 19): The Bodhisattva-Mahāsattva who resides in the perfection
of wisdom by way of non-residing, must accomplish but without producing them:
The four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of magical
powers, the five spiritual faculties, the five spiritual powers, the seven limbs of
enlightenment, and the eight components of the path.
The bodhipākṣikas in the Mahāyāna setting
Since the thirty-seven bodhipākṣikas appertain to the path of the śrāvakas, and since
the six pāramitās form the path of the Bodhisattva, why does the Bodhisattva’s
practices include the thirty-seven bodhipākṣikas? The Buddha said that the
Bodhisattva practising the perfection of wisdom must train in the paths of all
wholesome dharmas, starting with the stage of pure insight (vipaśyanā) and
concluding with the stage of the Buddhas. In the case of the first nine stages, he must
practise them but without realising them. In the case of the Buddha stage, he must
practise and realise it.
There are no statements asserting that the bodhipākṣikas appertain exclusively to the
śrāvaka qualities, and that they do not constitute the path of the Bodhisattva. In fact
the perfection of wisdom sūtras (Pañcaviṃśati, 203-08) say that the thirty-seven
bodhipākṣikas are included in the Mahāyāna Tripiṭaka. Out of compassion the
Buddha teaches the thirty-seven bodhipākṣikas that form the path of nirvāṇa. In
conformity with the vows of living beings, and in conformity with their karmic
causes and condition, each being finds its path. The person seeking to be a śrāvaka
finds the śrāvaka path, and the person seeking the enlightenment of the Buddhas
finds the Buddha path.

22. BodhisattvabhËmi, page 259.
11
It is not stated anywhere that the thirty-seven bodhipākṣikas form exclusively the
path of the śrāvakas, and that they do not appertain to the Bodhisattva path, but this
can be rationally conjectured. The Bodhisattva who stays in saṃsāra for a long time
and visits the five destinies (pañcagati) does not gain nirvāṇa very promptly.
However, while the bodhipākṣikas are presented as auxiliaries of nirvāṇa, the
perfections (pāramitā) and great compassion (mahākaruṇā) of the Bodhisattva are
not.
Reply. Although the Bodhisattva remains in saṃsāra for a long period, he must know
the true path (bhūtamārga) and the wrong path (abhūtamārga), saṃsāra and nirvāṇa.
Knowing all this, he formulates his great vow: “Beings are worthy of compassion. I
must save them and attach them to the unconditioned state (asaṃskṛtapada).” By way
of this true Dharma, the Bodhisattva who trains in the perfections is capable of
reaching the enlightenment of the Buddhas. However, although he practises and
knows this Dharma, he has not as yet actualised the six perfections, and this is the
reason why he does not immediately realise this Dharma.
Furthermore, in the śrāvaka system, it is not postulated that saṃsāra and nirvāṇa are
the same. The reason for this is the fact that the śrāvaka wisdom does not penetrate
the Dharma very profoundly. In the Bodhisattva system, it is said that saṃsāra and
nirvāṇa are identical, because the Bodhisattva’s wisdom penetrates the Dharma very
profoundly.
The Buddha said: “Form is emptiness, and emptiness is form. Sensation, perception,
volition, and consciousness are emptiness, and emptiness is sensation, perception,
volition and consciousness.”24
It is said in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (XXV, 19-20):
Nirvāṇa does not differ from saṃsāra,
Saṃsāra does not differ from nirvāṇa.
The limit of nirvāṇa is the limit of saṃsāra,
Have the same limit, for there is no difference.
The Bodhisattva, having found this true characteristic, does not become disgusted
with saṃsāra, and does not take delight in nirvāṇa. The thirty-seven bodhipākṣikas
are the stage of true knowledge (bhūtajñānabhūmi).
I. The bodhipākṣikas according to the Abhidharma 25
Since the four foundations of mindfulness are said to be adequate to gain the path
(mårga), what are the reasons for talking about thirty-seven bodhipåk∑ikas? 26
Although the four foundations of mindfulness are basically adequate to gain the path,
it is necessary to teach all the remaining bodhipåk∑ikas, because the minds (citta) of
living beings are manifold and complex, their fetters (saµyojana) are equally
manifold, and the configurations of their attachments are also complex. This variety
of practical methods is intended to enable different people to choose out of them the
ones that match and agree with their personalities.
On some occasions the Buddha saves living beings through two things, namely
concentration (samådhi) and wisdom (prajñå). On other occasions he saves them

24. Pañcaviṃśati, 38.
26. The fourth Noble Truth incorporates not only the noble eightfold path, but also the 37
bodhipåk∑ikas and a great number of other dharmas. See Majjhima, I, 63: Here the Buddha explains
that the unique path (ekåyana) is constituted by the four satipa††hånas. But still taking into account the
variety of living beings other devices are also to be used.
12
through three things, namely morality (ß¥la), concentration (samådhi), and wisdom
(prajñå). Then again he saves them through four things, namely the four foundations
of mindfulness. Thus, although the four foundations of mindfulness are sufficient,
there are also other convenient expedients, which differ in such matters as exercise
(åcåra), concept (vikalpa) and other aspects. As the Bodhisattva aims to save all
living beings, the bodhipåk∑ikas constitute a repository of all sorts of medicine,
which is sufficient to cure all illnesses of living beings. Thus, there is no need to
multiply them any further; the Buddha possesses innumerable powers, but only ten
powers are identified, because they are adequate to save all living beings.
The bodhipåk∑ikas have ten things27 as their roots: 1. faith (ßraddhå), 2. morality
(ß¥la), 3 intention (saµkalpa), 4. energy (v¥rya), 5. mindfulness (sm®ti), 6.
concentration (samådhi), 7. wisdom (prajñå), 8. serenity (praßrabdhi), 9. joy (pr¥ti),
and 10. equanimity (upek∑å).
1. Faith comprises the faculty of faith and the power of faith.
2. Morality constitutes right speech, right action, and right livelihood.
3. Intention implies right thought.
4. Energy comprises the four correct efforts, the faculty of energy, the power of
energy, the limb of enlightenment called energy, and the member of the path
called right effort.
5. Mindfulness comprises the faculty of mindfulness, the power of mindfulness, the
member of enlightenment called mindfulness, and the member of the path called
right mindfulness.
6. Concentration comprises the four bases of magical powers, the faculty of
concentration, the power of concentration, the member of enlightenment called
concentration, and the member of the path called right concentration.
7. Wisdom comprises the four kinds of mindfulness, the faculty of wisdom, the
power of wisdom, the member of enlightenment called discernment of dharmas,
and the member of the path called right view.
8. Serenity comprises the limb of enlightenment called serenity.
9. Joy constitutes the member of enlightenment called joy.
10. Equanimity constitutes the member of enlightenment called equanimity.
The seven classes of bodhipåk∑ikas are further categorised along the following lines.
1. Dharmas in which mindfulness becomes fixed on the object of wisdom are called
the fixation of mindfulness.
2. Dharmas that destroy evil dharmas and progress along the right path are called
right efforts.
3. When the focused mind becomes stabilised and fixed on the object, there are
foundations of magical powers.
4. When the mind of feeble knowledge is acquired, there are faculties (indriya).28
5. When the mind of sharp knowledge is acquired, there are powers.
6. Through the practice of the path of meditative cultivation (bhāvanāmārga), there
are limbs of enlightenment.
7. Through the practice of the path of vision (darśanamārga), there are the
components of the path.

27. The Abhidharmakoßa, VI, 283-84, also refers to ten but some texts speak of eleven or twelve
things.
28. of ßraddhå, v¥rya, sm®ti, samådhi, prajñå; when they are weak they are called indriyas, and when
they are strong they are called balas.
13
The bodhipåk∑ikas are arranged in a sequence corresponding to the gradual
advancement of the yogin on the path to deliverance. First he concentrates in order to
listen and learn (sm®tyupasthåna). Next he makes right effort to gain the goal. While
exerting himself, his thoughts become distracted, so he concentrates his mind and
subdues it, and this is called the foundation of magical powers. When his mind is
tamed, he induces the five spiritual faculties. It is with the help of these five faculties
that he adheres to the true characteristic of dharmas (faith); exerts himself in the
search for enlightenment (energy); constantly thinks of enlightenment (mindfulness);
always concentrates his thoughts on enlightenment (meditation); and finally
considers the four truths and the true characteristic of dharmas (wisdom). When the
five faculties become developed, they can intercept defilements (kleßa), and
eventually become able to penetrate profound dharmas; this constitutes the spiritual
powers. Upon gaining the spiritual powers, the yogin differentiates and distinguishes
the dharmas of the meditative cultivation (bhåvanåmårga). He distinguishes three
limbs of enlightenment (sambodhya∫ga) of the path: the second—discernment of
dharmas, the third—energy, and the fourth—joy. When his thoughts are
overwhelmed or disturbed, these three members re-establish his thoughts. The fifth,
sixth and seventh limbs of enlightenment (sambodhya∫ga) stabilise and fix the
yogin's thoughts when they become distracted, and the first limb of enlightenment
intervenes when the yogin's thoughts sink and become distracted. When the mind
sinks, it is mindfulness and the second, third, and fourth limbs of enlightenment that
revive it. When the mind is distracted, it is mindfulness and the fifth, sixth, and
seventh limbs of enlightenment that fix it. When the yogin has gained all those things
and when his tranquil disposition is perfect, he attempts to enter the city of nirvåâ.
It is for this reason that he practices the dharmas included in the limbs of the mårga,
and the very occasion of doing it is called the path.
Detailed exposition of the bodhip āk ṣikas 29
I.1. The four foundations of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna)
There are four foundations of mindfulness: with regard to the body (kaya-sam®ty-
upasthåna), with regard to sensations (vedanå-), with regard to the mind (citta-), and
with regard to dharmas. The yogin considers these four things in four different ways.
He considers impurities of the body, the suffering of sensations, the impermanence
of the mind, and the impersonality (nairātmya) of dharmas. Although all four
foundations of mindfulness are endowed with those four characteristic
considerations, one consideration is important in one of them: impurities of the body,
suffering of sensations, impermanence of the mind, and selflessness of dharmas. This
fourfold consideration purposely devised, because ordinary people (p®thagjana) who
have not entered the path, commit errors about these four things and produce four
misconceptions (viparyåsa), namely taking 1. impure for pure; 2. painful for happy;
3. impermanent for permanent; and 4. anåtman for åtman. In order to counteract and
destroy these four misconceptions the Buddha taught the four foundations of
mindfulness.
Mindfulness with regard to the body . One relies on pure morality and exerts oneself
to consider the fivefold impurity of the body: 1. Impurity connected with nativity. It
is the impurity of bodily parts such as the head, legs, stomach, urine and the rest. The
body represents a conglomerate of impure things. In addition to that the initial

14
consciousness (vijñånab¥ja)30 as a product of defilements and karma resides during
the pregnancy period in the impurities of the body. 2. Impurity connected with
conception. The parents have faulty ideas, and being inspired by desire they indulge
in sexual activities. While they copulate the seed of consciousness (vijñånab¥ja) due
to the previous karma descends into the blood and semen. 3. Impurity of the body's
proper nature. Even when the body is kept washed and well dressed, it is the source
of impurities due to its natural functions. Being made up of the primary elements,
water etc., the body transforms everything into impurity. 4. Impurity of the body's
specific characteristics. The body discharges impurities through its nine apertures:
ears, eyes, nostrils, mouth, anus, and urinary passage. 5. Impurity of the final
destruction (paryavasåna). When thrown into the fire the body turns into ashes; eaten
by insects it decomposes into manure; placed in the earth it decomposes into earth.
Among all corpses the human corpse is the most impure. Its impurities remain
exposed for a long time due to the nine different notions.31 Similarly one considers
the body as being impermanent, painful, impersonal, and empty.
Mindfulness with regard to sensations . One considers the reasons that induce
attachment to the body. One understands that it is due to pleasant sensations. The
contact of the six internal sense organs with their respective six objects produces the
six kinds of consciousness. It is through these six kinds of consciousness that
pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent sensations arise. One considers these three kinds
of sensation and realises that they all are unsatisfactory. All people appreciate
pleasant sensations, dislike unpleasant sensations, and ignore indifferent sensations.
However, when considered properly, one should not experience pleasure through
pleasant sensations, hatred through unpleasant sensations, or become deluded
through indifferent sensations.
Mindfulness with regard to the mind .32 The yogin assumes that it is due to happiness
that one becomes attached to the body, and then he investigates as to who
experiences this happiness. On reflection he establishes that sensations derive from
the mind. It is due to mental exaltations and misconceptions that living beings
experience different kinds of happiness. The yogin must realise that the mind, being
impermanent (anitya), constantly arising and disappearing, and not persisting even
for one moment, is incapable of experiencing happiness. It is due to a misconception
that people falsely believe in experiencing happiness. It is the case, because the very
moment one wishes to experience happiness, the mind has already changed; at the
moment when happiness arises, the mind is different. There is no connection
between the mind and happiness. It is impossible to say that the mind experiences
happiness.
The past mind, being already vanished, does not experience happiness. The future
mind, not being born, does not experience happiness. The present mind, being
momentary and evanescent, has no awareness of experiencing happiness.

30. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, 1151-2. For the improtance of vijñåna for conception and birth see
D¥gha, II, 63; Koßavyåkhyå, 669. The expression vijñånab¥ja used in this Śāstra is not attested in
the canonical writings. But some sËtras do have it: Íålistamba, ed. Sastri, 13-14. This sËtra seems
to be inspired by the Bhavasutta of the A∫guttara, I, 223-24; See Abhidharmakoßa, III, 25, 26, 124,
126. The vijñånab¥ja is at the basis of the Vijñånavada psychology where the ålayavijñåna is
enodowed with all seeds (sarvab¥ja), the support of the knowable (jñeyåßraya). See
Mahåyanasaµgraha, 12ff.
31. The nine notions (saµjñå) form special objects during the meditation on horrors (aßubhabhåvanå).
Studied later on.
15
Why the present mind does not experience happiness? All conditioned dharmas have
the characteristic of impermanence, and have no duration period. If the mind
perdured for one moment, it could perdure for a second moment. It would be
everlasting in terms of duration, and without the characteristic of disappearance.
Mindfulness with regard to dharmas . One considers dharmas as issued from a
complex causes and conditions. One also realises that dharmas have no ātman.
Three facets of mindfulness
The four kinds of mindfulness have three facets or qualities: 1. mindfulness in itself
or in its inherent nature (svabhāva-smṛtyupasthāna); 2. mindfulness by conjunction
(saṃsarga-); 3. mindfulness as to its object (ālambana-).
1. Mindfulness in itself (svabhåva). The wisdom that considers the body constitutes
mindfulness of the body. The wisdom that considers sensations constitutes
mindfulness of sensations. The wisdom that considers the mind constitutes
mindfulness of the mind. The wisdom that considers dharmas constitutes
mindfulness of dharmas. Mindfulness in itself has wisdom for its nature, and it is
immaterial and invisible, and sometime pure and sometime impure.
2. Mindfulness by conjunction (saµsarga). When the body is considered as the
primary object, then the dharmas of the path (other than prajñå), whether pure or
impure, constitute mindfulness of the body. The same considerations are applied to
sensations, mind, and dharmas.
3. Mindfulness as to its object (ålambana). All material dharmas (rūpadharma),
which are the ten bases of consciousness (āyatana), and a small part of the dharma-
base (dharmåyatana), constitute mindfulness of the body (= five internal sense
organs, five objects, and avijñapti).33 The six kinds of sensation, namely sensations
arising from the contact with the five senses and with the mind (manas), constitute
mindfulness of sensations. The six kinds of consciousness (eye, ear… mind
consciousness) constitute mindfulness of the mind. The perception aggregate
(saµjñåskandha), the formation aggregate (saµskåraskandha), and the three
unconditioned dharmas (space and the two nirodhas) constitute mindfulness of
dharmas.
I.2. The four right efforts (samyakpradhåna) 34
The four right efforts are considered in terms of their inherent nature (svabhåva) and
in terms of their connection. Right effort by its own nature develops four kinds of
energy (v¥rya) oriented towards the path: it discards two categories of unwholesome
(akuśala) dharmas, and it consolidates two categories of wholesome (kuśala)
dharmas.
When during his examination characteristic of the four foundations of mindfulness,
the yogin’s mind becomes pervaded by laziness, when the five obstacles (n¥varaâ)
and other defilements overwhelm his mind, and when he swerves from the five
wholesome roots (faith and other kuśalamūlas), he makes an effort and generates
energy:
1. to destroy unwholesome (akuśala) dharmas that have already arisen.
2. to prevent the arising of unwholesome dharmas that have not yet arisen.
3. to generate wholesome (kuśala) dharmas that have not yet arisen.
4. to intensify wholesome dharmas that have already arisen.
I.3. The four bases of magical powers (®ddhipåda) 35

33. Abhidharmakoßa, I, 20
16
When one practices the four correct efforts one's mind becomes slightly distracted. It
is for this reason that one employs the following concentrations (samådhi) to stabilise
the mind: concentrations of zest (chanda), of energy (v¥rya), of mind (citta), and of
examination (m¥måµså). These four kinds of concentration are called the bases of
magical powers. This fourfold samådhi, which focuses in sequence on zest and the
remaining three factors, intensifies one's mental ability and strength.
I.4. The five faculties (indriya) 36
1. The faculty of faith (ßraddhå) denotes the belief in the path and in the wholesome
dharmas that are auxiliaries of the path (mårgapåk∑ika).
2. The faculty of energy (v¥rya) constitutes a constant effort in the course of
practising the path and auxiliary dharmas of the path.
3. The faculty of mindfulness or memory (sm®ti) stands for an exclusive mental focus
on the path and its auxiliary dharmas, without thinking about anything else.
4. The faculty of concentration (samådhi) constitutes one-pointed mind (ekacitta)
devoid of any distraction.
5. The faculty of wisdom (prajñå) denotes the perception of the sixteen aspects
(śoḍaśākāra) of the four truths in the context of the path and its auxiliary.
I.5. The five powers (bala) 37
When the five faculties become fully advanced and remain unperturbed by
defilements, they assume the name of powers. The five faculties and the five powers
belong to the aggregate of volition (saµskåraskandha). They are always associated
(saµprayukta) and belong to mental (caitasika) dharmas that accompany the mind
(citta). They arise, persist and disappear together with the mind. When one possesses
them, the mind abides in correct concentration, and when one is without them the
mind falls into wrong concentrations.
I.6. The seven limbs of enlightenment (saµbodhya∫ga) 38
1. mindfulness (sm®ti)
2. Discernment of dharmas (dharmapravicaya)
3. Energy (v¥rya)
4. Joy (pr¥ti)
5. Serenity (praßrabdhi)
6. concentration (samådhi)
7. Equanimity (upek∑å)
The seven limbs of enlightenment are immaterial (arËpin), invisible (anidarßana),
non-resistant (apratigha), pure (anåsrava), conditioned (saµsk®ta), issued from
causes and conditions (hetupratyaya), and are included within the three times, in the
name (nåma), and in the external bases of consciousness (båhyåyatana). They are not
to be destroyed by the path of meditative cultivation (bhåvanå) or by the path vision
(darßana). They are to be cultivated and are stainless (asaµkli∑†a). They constitute
the fruit (phala), and comprise the fruit. They are neither sensation (vedanå), nor
derived matter (bhautika) from the four great elements, nor inferior things, nor cause
associated with existence (bhavasaµprayuktahetu). These seven limbs are
dissociated (viprayukta) from the dharmas that are unwholesome (akußala),

17
undetermined (avyåk®ta), impure (åsrava) or stained (såsrava). Two sections of the
anāsrava comprise the seven limbs of enlightenment, and the seven limbs comprise
two sections of the anāsrava.
I.7. The noble eightfold path (åryå∑†å∫gamårga) 39
1. Right view (samyagd®∑†i) denotes the category of wisdom mentioned in
connection with the four foundations of mindfulness, the faculty of wisdom, the
power of wisdom, and the limb of enlightenment called discernment of dharmas.
2. Right intention (samyaksaµkalpa), at the time of contemplating the four truths, is
associated with pure mind (anåsravacitta). It is synonymous with reflection (tarka),
investigation (vitarka), comprehension (avabodha), and examination (m¥måµså).
3. Right speech (samyagvåc) is characterised by the stabilisation of verbal actions,
and the rejection of all evil verbal actions with the help of pure wisdom
(anåsravaprajñå). The four evil ways of life (mithyåj¥va)40 are excluded here.
4. Right action (samyakkarmånta) is explained in the same way as right speech.
5. Right livelihood (samyagåj¥va) entails the rejection and elimination of the five
wicked ways of livelihood by means of pure wisdom; read on.
6. Right effort (samyagvyåyåma) was already mentioned in connection with the four
right efforts, the faculty of energy, the power of energy, and the limb of
enlightenment called energy.
7. Right mindfulness (samyaksm®ti) was already mentioned in connection with the
faculty of mindfulness, the power of mindfulness, and the limb of enlightenment
called mindfulness.
8. Right concentration (samyaksamådhi) was already mentioned in connection with
the four bases of magical powers, the faculty of concentration, the power of
concentration, and the limb of enlightenment called concentration.
What are the five wicked ways of livelihood (mithyājīva)? Out of desire for gain
(lābhalobha): 1. one displays all kinds of wonders by way of trickery (kuhanā); 2.
praises one’s own qualities (svaguṇalapanā); 3. one forecasts good or bad luck for
people; 4. one emphatically imposes one’s power in order to induce in people fear
and respect; 5. one talks about gifts already received in order to induce other people
to give more.
The eightfold path incorporates eight right pathways that are distributed among three
particular aggregates (skandha). The first two, namely right view and right intention
constitute the aggregate of wisdom (prajñåskandha). The next three, namely right
speech, right action, and right livelihood constitute the aggregate of morality
(ß¥laskandha). The remaining three, namely right effort, right attention, and right
concentration form the aggregate of meditation (samādhi).
The aggregates of wisdom and concentration are the same as wisdom and
concentration as explained in the sections above.
The aggregate of morality is inherently material (rūpasvabhāva), invisible, non-
resistant (apratigha), pure (anāsrava), conditioned (saṃskṛta), non-retribution
(avipāka), and derived from causes and conditions. It is included in the three times,
included in matter, not included in name, and included in the external bases of
consciousness (bāhyāyatana). It is not to be destroyed by the path of meditative
cultivation or by the path of vision. It is to be cultivated, and it is not defiled. It is a

40. There are four or five bad ways of livelihood. Majjhima, III, 75: "trickery, cajolery, insinuating,
dissembling, and rapacity for gain upon gain".
18
fruit (phala) and involves a fruit (saphala). It is not sensation, it does not derive from
the four great elements, and it is not a cause associated with existence.
Distribution of the bodhip āk ṣikas among the stages (bhËmi) 41
The bodhipåk∑ikas are all complete in the existential stage of the first dhyåna. In the
luminous anāgamya of the first dhyåna, there are thirty-six bodhipåk∑ikas; excluding
the limb of enlightenment called serenity (pr¥tisaµbodhya∫ga). In the second dhyåna
there are thirty-six bodhipåk∑ikas; excluding right intention (saµyaksaµkalpa) of the
path. In the intermediate (superior) variety of the first dhyåna, in the third and fourth
dhyånas, there are thirty-five bodhipåk∑ikas; excluding the limb of enlightenment
called joy (pr¥ti-saµbodhya∫ga) and right intention (samyaksaµkalpa) of the path. In
the first three årËpya-samåpattis, there are thirty-two bodhipåk∑ikas; excluding the
limb of enlightenment called joy (pr¥ti-saµbodhya∫ga), right action
(samyakkarmånta), and right livelihood (samyagåj¥va). In the pinnacle of existence
(bhavågra), there are twenty-two bodhipåk∑ikas; excluding the seven limbs of
enlightenment (sambodhyå∫ga), and the eight components of the noble eightfold
path (åryamårgå∫ga). Similarly in the Kåmadhåtu there are also twenty-two
bodhipåk∑ikas, excluding the saµbodhya∫gas, and the eight components of the path
(mårgå∫ga). Such is the ßråvaka position.
II. The bodhipåk∑ikas according to the Mahāyāna
II.1.The four kinds of mindfulness 42
The Bodhisattva trains in the four foundations of mindfulness.
1. Body. The Bodhisattva considers his internal body as impermanent, painful and
similar to a disease, as a mass of impure and decomposing flesh, and as exuding
impurities through its nine apertures. The body is impermanent and doomed to
perish. The body does not know itself: it is ignorant (ajña) and inactive (akåraka),
and it does not have the characteristic marks of the body (kåyanimitta). The
Bodhisattva considering the body in this way knows that it is not his body or the
body of someone else. There is no master and no agent who produces this body. It is
empty of characteristics, and born from causes and conditions. Being without ātman
and ātmīya, the body is empty. Being empty, it possesses no characteristics of a male
or a female or any other characteristics. Being without characteristics, it is not to be
apprehended. Considering the body in this manner, the Bodhisattva enters the portal
of knowledge called wishlessness (apraṇihita). He knows that the body should not be
considered solely by way of its causes and conditions. These causes and conditions
that generate the body also stem from errors and misconceptions. In these causes and
conditions, the characteristics of causes and conditions are also absent, and the
origination of these causes and conditions is in reality non-origination. Continuing to
reflect, the Bodhisattva knows that this body, from the very beginning, lacks the
characteristic of origination. He knows that this body, being without characteristics,

It is the question of the bhËmis of rebirth (upapatti) and concentration (samådhi) as recognised by
the Vaibhå∑ikas; Abhidharmakoßa, VI, 236; VII, 71. They are:
1. Kåmadhatu
2. Anågamya or the luminous meditation of the first dhyåna
3. the first dhyåna
4. the dhyånåntara, a superior variety of the first dhyåna
5-7 the second, third and fourth dhyånas
8-11 the four årËpyasamåpattis, with the fourth being also called bhavågra
19
cannot be grasped. Since the body is not born, it has no characteristics, and being
without characteristics, it is not born. Considering the true characteristics of the
body, the Bodhisattva eliminates all greed (rāga) and all attachments, and fixing his
attention on the body, he continues the examination of the body. Such is the
Bodhisattva’s mindfulness of the body. He considers in the same way the external
body, and both external and internal body.
2. Sensations . The Bodhisattva considers internal sensations, which are of three
kinds: unpleasant (duḥkha), pleasant (sukha), and indifferent (aduḥkhāsukha). These
sensations do not come from anywhere, and once vanished, do not go anywhere.
These sensations arise solely from errors (bhrānti), misconceptions (viparyåsa) and
conceptualisations (vikalpa). They are the results of retribution (vipākaphala) that
depends on causes and conditions determined by the actions of previous existences.
The Bodhisattva considers these sensations as not appertaining to the past, the
present, or the future. He knows that they are empty, anātman, anātmīya,
impermanent, and fleeting. Considering these sensations interspersed over the three
times, as being empty, signless and wishless, he penetrates the portals of deliverance
(vimokṣamukha). He also considers the origination and cessation of sensations. He
knows that sensations are not integrated or separated, do not arise and do not vanish.
Thus he penetrates the portal of non-origination (anutpāda). He knows that
sensations do not arise, have no characteristics, and having no characteristics, they
do not arise. Thinking in this way, he confronts the objects of the mind. If he
experiences unpleasant, pleasant or indifferent sensations, his mind does not sense
them, does not adhere to them, and does not dwell on them. He considers in the same
way external sensations, and both internal and external sensations.
3. Mind . The Bodhisattva considers the internal mind (adhyātmacitta). This internal
mind has three characteristics: origination, duration, and destruction. He reflects in
the following manner. This mind comes from nowhere, and once destroyed, departs
to nowhere. It arises only from a complex of internal and external causes and
conditions. This mind has no fixed and truthful characteristics, and no origination,
duration or destruction, and it does not exist in any of the three times. It has no
inherent nature (niḥsvabhāva), it is without characteristic marks (nirnimitta), and
there is nothing that arises and nothing that induces that arising. Externally, there are
causes and conditions, namely the six objects (viṣaya). Internally, there are erroneous
perceptions (saṃjñā). However, because of the succession of origination and
destruction, the name of mind (citta) is forcefully imposed on all of this. In this mind,
the mind’s true characteristics do not exist. The mind, in its inherent nature, does not
arise, and does not cease. The mind is always luminous (prabhāsvara), but since it is
invaded by adventitious defilements (āgantuka kleśa), one speaks of defiled mind.
The mind does not know itself. It is the case, because this mind is empty of the
characteristics of mind (cittalakṣaṇa). From the beginning to the end, this mind has
no genuine attributes. This mind is empty, anātman, anātmīya, impermanent,
inexistent (asat). Recognising that the mind’s characteristic is non-origination, is to
penetrate into dharmas that do not arise (anutpattikadharma). It is so because this
mind is without origination, without inherent nature, and without characteristics. The
wise man can know it. Although the wise man takes into account the mind’s
characteristics of origination and destruction, he finds in it no genuine origination or
destruction. Distinguishing in the mind neither contamination (saṃkleśa) nor
purification (vyavadāna), he discovers the mind’s luminosity, luminosity due to
which the mind is not defiled by adventitious defilements. The Bodhisattva considers
in the same way the external mind, and both internal and external mind.
20
4. Dharmas . The Bodhisattva considers that all dharmas are not on the outside, on the
inside, or in the between. They do not exist in any of the three times. They arise from
causes and conditions, and from wrong views. There is no established reality, and
there exist no dharma whatsoever. There is no characteristic in dharmas, and there
are no dharmas that are integrated or separated. All dharmas are inexistent like space
(ākāśa), and they all are deceptive like a magic display. The inherent purity
(svabhāvaviśuddhi) of dharmas has no contact with contamination (saṃkleśa).
Dharmas are not sensed, because sensations do not exist; dharmas are not known
(jñāta), because the mind and mental concomitants are delusive. Pondering in this
way, the Bodhisattva perceives no identity and no multiplicity among dharmas. He
considers all dharmas as empty and selfless (anātman). He reflects in the following
way. All dharmas arising from causes and conditions have no inherent nature, and
are empty of reality. Being empty of reality, they are signless (animitta), and being
signless they are wishless (apraṇihita), Being wishless, there are no dharmas that
arise, perdure and vanish. It is in this wisdom that the Bodhisattva penetrates into the
portal of conviction that dharmas do not arise (anutpattikadharmakṣānti). Thereafter,
even if he perceives origination and destruction among dharmas, he enters the portal
of signlessness. It is the case, because all dharmas have no characteristics. Thinking
in this way, he confronts the mind’s objects, and while consenting to the
characteristics of dharmas, he no longer thinks about the body, the mind, sensations
or about dharmas. He knows that these four things have no bases (apratiṣṭhāna).
External dharmas, and both internal and external dharmas are considered in the same
way.
II.2-3. The four right efforts and the four bases of magical powers
These two groups of practices should be analysed in the same way as the previous
group, and considered as empty and having no bases (aprati∑†håna).
II.4. The five faculties
The Bodhisattva considers and cultivates the five faculties.
The faculty of faith . The Bodhisattva believes that all dharmas are born from causes
and conditions, that they arise from misconceptions (viparyåsa) and false views
(mithyåd®∑†i), and that they are impure, impermanent, painful and impersonal. All
dharmas are non-existent, empty, without characteristics (ånimitta), without
apprehension (apraîhita), non-originated (anutpanna), and non-extinguished
(aniruddha). Despite all this, the Bodhisattva does believe in the five pure aggregates
(anåsravaskandha), namely morality (ß¥la), meditation (samådhi), wisdom (prajñå),
liberation (vimukti), and the vision and knowledge of liberation (vimukti-
jñånadarßana). Since he has gained the faculty of faith, he does not fall back
(avaivartika). Taking the faculty of faith as his guide, he establishes himself in
morality, and once this is achieved, his mind of faith (ßraddhåcitta) becomes
immovable (acala) and does not recede. He relies on the retribution of karma and
rejects all false views. He does not believe in the words of other people but receives
his instructions solely from the Buddhas. He believes in the Sa∫gha and establishes
himself in the path. His superknowledges (abhijñå) become firm and unimpeded.
The faculty of energy . The Bodhisattva constantly exerts himself day and night. He
rejects the five obstacles (n¥varaâ) and protects the five faculties (indriya). He is
determined to find, know, and study the profound teachings of the sËtras. He
combats unwholesome dharmas and cultivates wholesome dharmas.
The faculty of mindfulness . The Bodhisattva is always attentive and aspires to
perfect generosity, morality, meditation, wisdom, and emancipation. He is set to
purify his body, speech and mind. He reflects with attention on the four truths:
21
suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path leading to its cessation. He analyses
with mindfulness the five faculties and the five powers, the limbs of enlightenment,
and the eightfold path, the dhyånas and samåpattis, emancipation, origination, and
cessation. He reflects attentively on unborn, unsuppressed, inactive, and
imperceptible dharmas, in order to gain the knowledge of non-origination (anutpāda),
and to realise the teachings of the Buddhas. He also keeps away from the ßråvaka and
Pratyeka Buddha concepts.
The faculty of concentration . Knowing the characteristics of concentration, the
Bodhisattva can produce all kinds of dhyånas and samåpattis. He knows how to enter
and dwell in concentration, and how to emerge from it. He knows the object of
concentration, and the destruction of that object. He also knows the concentration
without objects. Without conforming to the words of others, and without adhering to
any particular absorption, he exerts his mastery over it, and enters it and emerges
from it without obstacles.
The faculty of wisdom . In order to extinguish suffering, the Bodhisattva is endowed
with the kind of wisdom that illuminates dharmas and realises nirvåâ. It is with such
wisdom that the Bodhisattva considers the impermanence of the triple world. Due to
his wisdom he becomes detached from the triple world, and the triple world
transforms for him into the portals to deliverance (vimuktimukha), namely emptiness
(ßËnyatå), signlessness (ånimitta), and wishlessness (apraîhita). His wisdom cannot
be destroyed, and it remains without any support (åßraya) in the triple world. It is
through the force of his wisdom that he accumulates good qualities (guâ), and
penetrates without hesitation into the true characteristics of dharmas.
The Bodhisattva who possesses the above five faculties, perceives different faculties
of living beings; faculties with or without greed (råga), with or without hatred
(dve∑a), with or without stupidity (moha); and beings with strong or weak faculties.
He knows the faculties of those bound to fall into evil destinies (durgati), and of
those bound to be reborn as humans or gods. He knows the faculties of people who
are always reborn in the Kåma, RËpa or ÓrËpya worlds (dhåtu); and the faculties of
beings with gross or subtle wholesome roots (kußalamËla). He knows the faculties of
beings predestined for deliverance (samyaktvaniyama), predestined for damnation
(mithyåtvaniyama) or without predestination (aniyata).43 He knows the faculties of
beings who search for the śrāvaka path, the path of solitary Buddhas, or the path of
the Buddhas.
II.5. The five powers 44
When the Bodhisattva has progressed in the development of the five spiritual
faculties, he can destroy defilements (kleßa), save beings, and gain the conviction
that dharmas do not arise: such are the five spiritual powers. These powers cannot be
destroyed by the devamåra or by heretics (t¥rthika).
II.6. The seven limbs of enlightenment 45

1. Mindfulness. The Bodhisattva does not think or reflect on any dharmas.

43. This refers to the three groups of people (sattvaråßi): 1. those who entered into the path of
deliverance and gain nirvåâ quickly; 2. those who committed grave offences will enter into evil
destinies and after coming out will enter the third category; 3. those who can enter into the first or
the second category. See D¥gha, III, 217; Kathåvatthu, II, 611.
22
2. Analysis of dharmas. Searching among all dharmas for wholesome, unwholesome
and indeterminate dharmas, the Bodhisattva does not find anything.
3. Energy. Without entering into the three worlds (traidhåtuka), the Bodhisattva
reduces to pieces their characteristics (lak∑aâ).
4. Joy. The Bodhisattva does not produce any attachment or pleasure with regard to
all formations (saṃskāra), as all marks of dissatisfaction or joy are eliminated in him.
5. Serenity. There is nothing in all dharmas except the object of the mind.
6. Concentration. The Bodhisattva knows that all dharmas, whose characteristic it is
to be always concentrated (samåhita), are not occasionally distracted (vik∑ipta) and
occasionally concentrated.
7.Equanimity. The Bodhisattva does not attach himself to any dharma, and does not
rely upon or perceive any dharma.
Fuller exposition of mindfulness, wisdom, energy, and concentration are given above
in the section of the Abhidharma exposition of the bodhipākṣikas.
The Bodhisattva who trains in the limb of enlightenment called joy considers this joy
as unreal. It is unreal because this joy arises from causes and conditions. These are
the formations (saṃsāra), conditioned dharmas, impermanent dharmas that generate
attachment. However, if the thing that generates attachment is impermanent, then
once it deteriorates, it engenders dissatisfaction. Ordinary people become attached to
it because of misconceptions. But if one knows that dharmas are empty of reality,
one corrects oneself and realises that it is an error. Considering things in this manner,
the Bodhisatta places his joy in true wisdom, and this is true joy.
Having gained this true joy, he eliminates wicked bodily states. Next he eliminates
wicked mental states, and finally he eliminates all characteristics of dharmas. Thus
he gains the state of well-being that permeates the body and the mind, and that
constitutes the limb of serenity.
Since he has acquired joy and serenity, the Bodhisattva disregards all forms of
examination, namely examinations of impermanence, suffering, empty and selfless,
of origination and destruction, and examination of existence and inexistence. The
Bodhisattva disregards all such vain verbal proliferations (prapañca). He acts in this
manner, because the absence of characteristics, absences of objects, inactivity, the
absence of verbal proliferations, and everlasting appeasement constitute the true
characteristics of dharmas. If the Bodhisattva did not practice this kind of equanimity
(upekṣā), there would be disputes about truth and falsehood, about existence and
inexistence, and other contrasting tenets.
Once the Bodhisattva gains these kinds of joy, serenity and equanimity, the seven
limbs of enlightenment are fulfilled.
II.7. The noble eightfold path 46
Four limbs of the path, namely correct view (1), correct effort (6), correct
mindfulness (7), and correct concentration (8) are already explained above. See the
Abhidharma exposition of the eightfold path.
2. Right intention. In the course of right view (samyagd®∑†i) the Bodhisattva
established in emptiness (ßËnya) and inexistence of dharmas examines the
characteristics of right intention. He knows that all ideations (saµkalpa) are false, up
to and including those that refer to nirvåâ and the Buddha. It is the case, because the
destruction of all ideations is called right intention. All ideations are derived from
errors, misconceptions and falsehood. As the characteristics of ideations are

23
inexistent, the Bodhisattva established in right intention does not perceive any longer
what is right or wrong, but surpasses all varieties of ideations: this is right intention.
He treats all different varieties of ideation as being identical. Since they are identical
his mind does not become attached to them. This is called the Bodhisattva’s right
intention.
3. Right speech. The Bodhisattva knows that all words derive from errors, falsehood,
misconceptions, and imaginations that apprehend characteristics. He reflects and
realises that the characteristics (lak∑aâ) of words are not established, and that all
verbal actions are suppressed (niruddha). He knows the true character (bhËtalak∑aâ)
of words. Words do not come from anywhere, and once destroyed, do not go
anywhere. The Bodhisattva who practises correct speech adheres to the true
characteristic of speech. It is said that the Bodhisattva established in right speech can
accomplish pure verbal actions.
4. Right action. The Bodhisattva knows that all actions are false, erroneous, unreal,
and have inactivity as their characteristic. It is the case because there is no action that
possesses a definite characteristic. It is the emptiness of all actions that is called right
action. The Bodhisattva who penetrates the sameness (samatå) of all actions does not
consider wrong actions as wrong or righ actions as right. Being free of any mental
activity (anabhisaµskåra), he does not commit right or wrong actions. Such is true
wisdom (bhËtaprajñå) and such is right action. Among all dharmas none is right and
none is wrong. The Bodhisattva knows actions in conformity with the truth, and
knowing in conformity with the truth, he does not embark on anything, and does not
halt anything. Wise men always possess right actions but never wrong actions. This
is the Bodhisattva’s right action.
5. Right livelihood. All kinds of food, all means of subsistence are right and not
wrong. Being established in wisdom free from vain proliferations (ni∑prapañca-
jñåna), the Bodhisattva does not choose right ways of livelihood and does not reject
wrong ways of livelihood. He does not rely on right Dharma or on wrong Dharma,
but he abides in pure knowledge. Penetrating into this manner of living that is in
equilibrium (samatā), he does not see living or non-living. The practice of this true
wisdom is called right livelihood.
The Bodhisattva, who understands the thirty-seven bodhipåk∑ikas in the way they
have been explained, transcends the bhËmis of the ßråvakas and of solitary Buddhas,
penetrates into the Bodhisattva certainty (niyåma) and gradually achieves the
omniscient knowledge of dharmas in all their aspects (sarvåkårajñatå).
***
24
B. EIGHT CLASSES OF COMPLIMENTARY DHARMAS
Preliminary annotations
In addition to the seven groups of bodhipåk∑ikas, the Prajñåparamitå texts suggest
and this Śåstra explains at length eight new groups of dharmas conducive to the path.
The thirty-seven bodhipak∑ikas are not the only things that the Bodhisattva practises.
Although it is asserted that an infinite number of dharmas must be practised, in
concrete terms the sËtra mentions eight new classes of dharmas which are conducive
to the path, and the Śåstra studies them in three separate chapters: chapter 32—three
samådhis and four dhyånas; chapter 33—four immeasurables (apramåâ) and four
formless attainments (årËpya-samåpatti); chapter 34—eight liberations (vimok∑a),
eight dominations (abhibhvåyatana), ten totalities (k®tsnåyatana), and nine successive
attainments (anupËrvasamåpatti).
Except for the three samådhis, which mark the apex of the path, the remaining
groups are inferior to the bodhipåk∑ikas, and to some extent they serve to prepare
and facilitate the practice of the bodhipåk∑ikas. So far as the Abhidharma masters are
concerned, the bodhipåk∑ikas have an objective value and efficacy because they are
based on the fourth noble truth. With the exemption of the three samådhis, the
remaining groups are subjective and have no other purpose except for making the
yogin's mind supple and apt to pursue the path.
ŚĀSTRA EXPOSITION OF THE EIGHT COMPLEMENTARY DHARMAS 47
Sūtra (Pañcavimßati 19.15-18): The Bodhisattva must accomplish in a perfect
manner the following eight kinds of practice:
1. three samådhis: samādhi of emptiness (ßËnyatåsamådhi), samādhi of signlessness
(ånimittasamådhi), and samādhi of wishlessness (apraîhitasamådhi).
2. four absorptions (dhyåna).
3. four immeasurables (apramåâ).
4. four formless attainments (årËpyasamåpatti).
5. eight liberations (vimok∑a).
6. eight spheres of domination (abhibhvåyatana).
7. nine successive attainments (anupËrvasamåpatti).
8. ten spheres of totality (k®tsnåyatana).
The bodhipåk∑ikas constitute the path that leads to the city of nirvåâ, which has
three portals: emptiness (ßËnyatå), signlesness (ånimitta), and wishlessness
(apraîhita). After explaining the path, it is necessary to explain where it concludes.
The four dhyånas and other groups help to open the three portals. Since the mind is
distracted in the Kåmadhåtu, the yogin relies on the dhyånas of the RËpadhåtu and
the attainments of the ÓrËpyadhåtu. The four immeasurables and other groups assist
the yogin to test his mind whether it is supple, powerful and docile. In the eight
spheres of domination the yogin reigns over objects. In the first two liberations, he
considers the body as impure, and in the third liberation as beautiful. During the four
immeasurables he perceives all beings through his benevolence as happy, through his
compassion as suffering, through his joy as rejoicing, and then rejecting through
equanimity the three previous perceptions of living beings, he beholds them without
experiencing any aversion or affection.

47. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, 1210-32.
25
The thirty-seven bodhipåk∑ikas constitute an objective introspection (pratyavek∑a),
and the remaining factors a subjective introspection. Since the objective
introspection is difficult to achieve, it is necessary to speak of the subjective
introspection during which the mind becomes flexible and easily capable of gaining
the objective introspection.
I. The three samādhis 48
Preliminary notes
While in the Påli Abhidhamma texts the three samådhis receive rather limited
attention, the Sarvåstivåda works treat them in some detail.49 In such works, the
three samådhis are considered as categories of true wisdom. They penetrate the depth
of the four noble truths of which they represent the sixteen aspects (åkåra). However,
since they constitute wisdom of such a perfect and refined order, they are found only
in a state of concentrated mind, and hence they are named samådhis. It is for this
reason that in the pure state (anåsrava) they represent the three portals of deliverance
(vimok∑amukha). It is in these three samådhis that the mind takes pure dharmas
(anāsrava) as its object.
The samådhi on emptiness (ßËnyatasamådhi) represents a state of meditative
concentration in which the yogin perceives the five appropriating aggregates
(upådåna-skandha) as empty (śūnya), without self (anåtman), and without mine
(anåtm¥ya). This samådhi has two aspects: emptiness and anātman.
In the samådhi on wishlessness (apraîhitasamådhi) the yogin no longer pursues
greed (råga), hatred (dve∑a), delusion (moha), and rebirth (punarbhava). This
samådhi has ten different aspects: impermanence (anitya), suffering (du˙kha), the
four aspects of the second noble truth, and the four aspects of the path (mårga).
The samådhi on signlessness (ånimittasamådhi) is exempt from the following ten
characteristics (nimitta): five objects, matter etc (rËpa), man (puru∑a), woman (str¥),
birth (jåti), old age (jarå), impermanence (anityatå). This samådhi is concerned with
the four aspects of the cessation (nirodha) of suffering.
The ßråvaka explanation of these samådhis is cast in terms of the non-existence of
the self (pudgalanairåtmya), and the Madhyamaka exposition in terms of the non-
existence of the self and the non-existence of dharmas. It is through the practice of
these three samådhis that the Bodhisattva realises that living beings and dharmas are
empty of inherent nature and characteristics. Even emptiness itself does not denote
any characteristic of substantiality, and consequently all assertions with regard to the
world of existence are irrational. The three samådhis are identical because their
unique object is the true characteristics of dharmas. The true characteristic itself is
not a thing but a method of purifying the mind, which once purified becomes aware
that there is nothing to hypostasize, characterize or wish for. One realises that the
world of becoming exists solely in one's imagination, and that saµsåra merges with
nirvåâ.
I.1. The three sam ādhis according to the Abhidharma 50
1. Śūnyatāsamādhi . This samådhi on emptiness serves as the portal to nirvåâ. Upon
entering this samādhi one considers dharmas as empty, selfless (anåtma) and mine-
less (åtm¥ya). Since dharmas arise from causes and conditions, there is no agent

48. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1213. Three samådhis in the early texts: Vinaya, III, 93; D¥gha, III,
219; Saµyutta, IV, 360; A∫guttara, I, 299.
49. Abhidharmakoßa, VII, 184-92.
26
(kåraka) and no experiencer (vedaka). This samådhi itself is empty because one
considers in it the five appropriating skandhas as having no unity (ekatva) and no
differentiation (anyatva). It has no self because it considers the åtman and åtm¥ya as
inexistent (anupalabdha).
2. Ānimittasamādhi . Concentration on signlessness. Knowing that dharmas issue
from causes and conditions, one realises that they are not real (bhËta), and that only
their characteristics remain (nimitta). Living beings adhering to those characteristics
attach themselves to the self and mine. Upon examining whether those characteristics
have any perceptible reality, one becomes aware that they are inexistent
(anupalabdha). There is no self, and all differentiations that are made are mere verbal
distinctions. This samådhi represents cessation because it considers nirvåâ as the
cessation of all sorts of suffering. It is calm (ßånta) because it considers nirvåâ as
extinction of the three poisons (trivi∑a) and other defilements. It is excellent (praˆ¥ta)
because it considers nirvåâ as the foremost among all dharmas. It constitutes exit
(ni˙saraâ) because it considers nirvåâ as being separate from the world.
3. Apraṇihitasamādhi . Concentration on wishlessness. There is wishlessness when,
possessing knowledge of the non-existence of characteristics, one makes no longer
any effort. This samådhi is impermanent (anitya), because it considers the five
appropriating skandhas as arising from causes and conditions. It is also suffering
because it considers the five skandhas as torments of the body and mind. Since this
samådhi considers the causes of the five skandhas, it has four further characteristics.
It is origination (samudaya) because the complex of defilements and impure actions
produces the fruit of suffering. It is cause (hetu) because the six causes produce the
fruit of suffering. It is condition (pratyaya) because the four conditions reproduce the
fruit of suffering. It is continuation (prabhava) because some causes and conditions
appear to succeed each other in producing the fruit. So far as it considers the five
appropriating skandhas, it has four further aspects. It is path (mårga) because the
eight limbs of the path can lead to nirvåâ. It is practice because the path is exempt
from misconceptions. It is way (pratipad) because the noble people (årya) follow it.
It is definite exit (nairyåîka) because defilements depending on craving and wrong
views do not obscure the path.
Since the above three categories of wisdom are found in these samådhis, they can
destroy defilements and unveil the true characteristics of dharmas. It is through these
samådhis that one discovers and explains the true characteristics of dharmas. Other
dhyånas and samåpattis in which these three things are not found are not called
samådhis. When they are practised one gains deliverance and reaches the final
nirvåâ (nirupadhiße∑a), which represents the final and true state of deliverance from
physical and mental suffering. The nirvåâ with remainder (sopadhiße∑a) represents
its doorway, and even when these three samådhis are not nirvåâ, they are its cause;
and it is for this reason that they are called nirvåâ.
Íunyatå, ånimitta, and apraîhita are samådhis by their inherent nature (svabhåva).
The mind (citta) and concomitant (caitasika) dharmas connected with these
samådhis, bodily and vocal actions, and mental formations dissociated from the mind
(cittaviprayuktasaµskåra) that arise in it, form a complex named samådhi. The three
samådhis serve as the portals of deliverance, because they penetrate the sixteen
aspects of the four noble truths.
Some people say that these three portals of deliverance are pure (anåsrava) and some
say that the three samådhis are occasionally pure (anåsrava) and occasionally impure
(såsrava). It is for this reason that there are two distinct names: samådhi and
vimok∑a. For those who speak in this way, the samådhis are found in eleven bhËmis:
1-6: four dhyånas, anågamya, dhyånåntara; 7-9: the first three årËpyas; 10: the
27
Kåmadhåtu; 11: the bhavågra or the fourth årËpya. When the three samådhis are
impure (såsrava), they are attached (baddha) to these eleven bhËmis. When they are
pure (anåsrava), they are not attached but associated with the faculty of satisfaction
(saumanasyendriya), the faculty of happiness (sukhendriya) and the faculty of
equanimity (upek∑å). The person who is a beginner (ådikårmika) in the practice of
the three samådhis remains in the Kåmadhåtu. Those who are perfected
(parini∑panna) are found in the RËpadhåtu or ÓrËpyadhåtu.
I.2. The three samādhis according to the Mahāyāna 51
1. ÍËnyatåsamådhi . Within the Mahåyåna context the notion of emptiness is
understood in two ways, namely one considers all dharmas as empty of beings
(sattvaśūnya) and as empty of phenomena (dharmaśūnya). The emptiness of beings
coincides with the exposition of the Abhidharma texts. The emptiness of dharmas
signifies that all dharmas are devoid of inherent characteristics (svalak∑aâ). It is on
account of the emptiness of all dharmas that there is merit and sin. If there were no
such emptiness there would be neither sin nor merit. If dharmas had intrinsic nature
(svabhåva), they would be indestructible (avinåßa), and their inherent nature and
characteristic would not arise from causes and conditions. However, since they
depend on causes and conditions, they are conditioned dharmas (saµsk®ta). It is
necessary that inherent nature of dharmas should be conditioned in order to be
destroyed. Inherent nature by definition is unconditioned (asaµsk®ta) and existent
independently of causes and conditions. Dharmas existing by way of inherent nature
(svabhåva) would be without origination (anutpåda), and being unborn they would
not be destructible (nirodha). If there is no origination and no destruction, there is no
merit (puˆya) and no sin (åpatti), and consequently there would be no reason to
practise the path. If living beings possessed real self-nature (bhËtasvabhåva), they
would be incapable of committing good or evil, because they would be determined
(niyata) in their self-nature. Such category of people would not recognise the value
of merit and would destroy the law of retribution.
The emptiness of dharmas does not have the characteristic of emptiness either
(ßËnyatålak∑aâ). Dharmas are empty but emptiness does not exist. Emptiness serves
as a method of argumentation and not as a philosophical principle. It is not an entity
and it does not make dharmas empty but dharmas as such are empty. Similarly, the
absence of characteristics is in dharmas, but it is not imputed to them. The Buddha
preached emptiness out of compassion, in order to undermine the bonds of craving
(t®∑ˆå), and to destroy wrong views.
The true characteristic of dharmas destroys suffering; it constitutes the true domain
(bhËtåvacara) of noble persons. If the emptiness of dharmas possessed inherent
nature, how could one say that they are substantially empty? But if the emptiness of
dharmas is without inherent nature then no objections can be raised. While one
contemplates the emptiness of dharmas in the light of this double emptiness, the
mind becomes separated from all dharmas, and one perceives the world as defective
and misleading like a deceptive display (måyå).
2. Ónimittasamådhi . When one perceives in dharmas the characteristic of emptiness
(ßËnyatā-lak∑aâ), one inevitable induces arrogance and other impediments, thinking
that one has grasped the true characteristics of dharmas. It is for this reason that one
should pursue the gateway of signlessness (ånimitta-dvåra), in order to destroy one’s
apprehension of the characteristics of emptiness.

28
3. Apraîhitasamådhi . Since one is inclined to verbal proliferations (prapañca) about
signlessness (ånimitta), and since one becomes attached to them, one should consider
such inclinations as erroneous. One should abandon such considerations and
establish oneself in emptiness and signlessness in order to control one's body, speech
and mind. One should consider the characteristic of wishlessness in order to destroy
the triple poison. One should further think that it is necessary not to produce any
bodily, vocal or mental actions, and not to search for rebirth in the triple world
(trailokya). Musing in this manner, one penetrates into wishlessness.
In the Mahåyåna the three samådhis are fundamentally one thing. They are
considered as three due to the manner of their practice. First it is the emptiness of
dharmas, and then it changes its name into the second samādhi, and then into the
third samådhi. If one steps into the gateway of emptiness, and one does not
hypostatize this emptiness and its characteristic, one penetrates directly into the city
of nirvāṇa, and thus upon reaching one’s goal, one has no need of the other two
gateways. However, when one steps into the gateway of emptiness, and one
hypostatizes this emptiness and its characteristic, then this emptiness ceases to be a
gateway, and this gateway becomes locked. So in order to eliminate the characteristic
of emptiness, one embarks on the gateway of signlessness. If one becomes attached
to the characteristic of signlessness, one embarks on the gateway of wishlessness.
In the Abhidharma texts, the emptiness gateway of deliverance (ßËnyatå-
vimok∑amukha) has as its object (ålambana) the truth of suffering (du˙khasatya), and
comprises the five skandhas. The signlessness gateway of deliverance
(ånimittavimok∑amukha) has one dharma as its object, namely nirvåâ through
knowledge (pratisaµkhyånirodha), or the separation from impure dharmas that is
gained through the comprehension of the truths. The wishlessness gateway of
deliverance (apraîhitavimok∑amukha) has as its object the following three truths: a
part of the truth of suffering, the truth of the origin of suffering, and the truth of the
cessation of suffering.
In the Mahåyåna the three gateways of deliverance represent the true characteristics
of dharmas. It is through these three gateways that one sees saµsåra as being
identical with nirvåâ. It is so because both nirvåâ and saµsåra are empty (ßËnya)
signless (ånimitta) and wishless (apraîhita). This triple gateway is convenient for
converting the three categories of people. Those pervaded by wrong views are to be
taught emptiness as the gateway of deliverance, those pervaded by craving should be
taught signlessness as the gateway of deliverance, and those pervaded by both wrong
views and craving should be taught wishlessness as the gateway of deliverance.
II. The four dhy ānas 52
According to the Abhidharma , the four dhyånas are of two kinds: pure (ßuddhaka)
with the purity of mundane order, and pure with the purity of transcendent order
(anåsrava). The pure mundane dhyånas comprise the five skandhas, which are
impure but wholesome (såsravakußala). The pure transcendent dhyånas comprise the
five pure skandhas (anåsrava), which are also called dharmaskandhas: morality (ß¥la),
meditation (samådhi), wisdom (prajñå), liberation (vimukti), and the vision and
knowledge of liberation (vimuktijñånadarßana).53
The bodily and vocal actions comprised in the dhyånas are material dharmas (rËpa),
and the rest is immaterial (arËpa). All this is invisible (anidarßana), without
resistance (apratigha), at times impure and at times pure. The impure dharmas are the

53. D¥gha, III, 279; Majjhima, I, 145; Saµyutta, I, 99-100.
29
five wholesome but impure skandhas, and the pure dharmas are the five pure
skandhas. All of them are conditioned (saµsk®ta). The impure dharmas relate to the
Kåmadhåtu, and the pure dharmas do not relate to any of the worlds. The dhyånas
comprise bodily and vocal actions, and the mental formations dissociated from the
mind (cittaviprayuktasaµskåra), which are neither citta nor caittasika dharmas, and
are not associated with the mind. They also comprise the perception (saµjñå),
sensation (vedanå), and volition (saµskåra) skandhas. The dhyånas comprise citta,
manas and vijñåna; it is just the mind.
During the dhyånas there are the following factors: 1. dharmas accompanying the
mind but not associated with sensations (vedanå); 2. dharmas associated with
sensations but not accompanying the mind; 3. dharmas accompanying the mind and
associated with sensations; 4. dharmas not accompanying the mind and not
associated with sensations.
1. There are dharmas accompanying the mind and not associated with sensations. In
effect the four dhyånas contain: bodily and vocal actions; formations dissociated
from the mind but accompanying the mind; and sensations.
2. There are dharmas associated with sensations and not accompanying the mind. In
effect the four dhyånas contain intellect (citta), mind (manas), and consciousness
(vijñåna).
3. There are dharmas accompanying the mind and associated with sensations. In
effect the four dhyånas contain: the perception skandha; the associated formation
skandha.
4. There are dharmas not accompanying the mind and not associated with
sensations. In effect, with the exception of formations dissociated from the mind but
accompanying the mind—the formations contained in the four dhyånas—, these are
all the other formations dissociated from the mind and associated with the perception
skandha. Out of the four dhyånas, the last three are not endowed with examination
(vitarka) and are not associated with judgment (vicåra).
Out of the four dhyānas, the last three dhyānas are not endowed with examination,
and not associated with judgment.
In the first dhyåna there are 1. dharmas that accompany examination (vitarka) but are
not associated with judgement (vicåra); 2. dharmas associated with judgement
(vicåra) but not accompanying examination (vitarka); 3. dharmas accompanying
examination and associated with judgement; 4. dharmas not accompanying
examination and not associated with judgement.
1. Dharmas that accompany examination but are not associated with judgement. In
effect the first dhyāna contains: bodily and verbal actions; formations dissociated
from the mind and accompanying examination; judgement.
2. Dharmas associated with judgement but not accompanying examination: namely
examination.
3. Dharmas accompanying examination and associated with judgement: namely the
mind (citta) and concomitants (caitasika) associated with examination and
judgement.
4. Dharmas not accompanying examination and not associated with judgement. In
effect these are all other formations dissociated from the mind, with the exclusion of
the formations dissociated from the mind that accompany examination.
The four dhyānas have all causes and conditions (hetupratyaya), and constitute all
causes and conditions.
In the first dhyāna there are: 1. Dharmas that follow an antecedent, but do not
constitute an antecedent condition. 2. Dharmas that follow an antecedent and
30
constitute an antecedent condition. 3. Dharmas that do not follow an antecedent, and
do not constitute an antecedent condition.
1. Dharmas that follow an antecedent, but do not constitute an antecedent condition.
These are the mind and mental concomitants called “to arise in a future existence.”
2. Dharmas that follow an antecedent and constitute an antecedent condition. These
are the past and present mind and mental concomitants.
3. Dharmas that do not follow an antecedent, and do not constitute an antecedent
condition. With the exclusion of the mind and mental concomitants called “to arise in
a future existence”, these are the other future mind and mental concomitants, bodily
and verbal actions, and formations dissociated from the mind.
The same applies to the second and third dhyānas.
In the fourth dhyāna there are the following factors:
1. Dharmas that follow an antecedent, but do not constitute an antecedent condition.
These are: the mind and mental concomitants called “to arise in a future existence”,
the unconscious attainment (asaṃjñisamāpatti) already arisen or due to arise.
2. Dharmas that follow an antecedent, and constitute an antecedent condition. These
are the past and present mind and mental concomitants.
3. Dharmas that do not follow an antecedent and do not constitute an antecedent
condition. With the exclusion of the mind and mental concomitants called “to arise in
a future existence,” these are the other minds and mental concomitants of the future.
And again, with the exclusion of formations that are dissociated from the mind, and
that follow an antecedent, these are all other formations dissociated from the mind.
Thirdly, it includes bodily and verbal actions.
The four dhyānas include bodily and verbal actions, and formations dissociated from
the mind: some constitute conditions, but have no conditions; others both have
conditions and constitute conditions. The four dhyānas have sovereignty conditions
(adhipatipratyaya), and constitute sovereignty conditions.
According to the Mahåyåna, the Bodhisattva possesses the expedients of dhyånas, the
characteristics of dhyånas as well as their limbs. All such things have been explained
in conjunction with the perfection of dhyåna.54 However, there is one question to be
asked: This Śåstra teaches solely about dharmas as being empty of characteristics
(lak∑aâ). How can the Bodhisattva produce dhyånas or samåpattis on such empty
dharmas? The answer is as follows. The Bodhisattva knows that the five sense
objects of enjoyment (kåmaguâ) and the five obstacles (n¥varaâ) issue from causes
and conditions, and that they are without inherent nature (svabhåva), empty, and
inexistent (anupalabdha). It is for these reasons that it is easy for him to reject them.
However, living beings, which are under the influence of misconceptions become
attached to inferior and sinful pleasures, and neglect the profound and marvellous
happiness of dhyånas. The Bodhisattva experiences for such beings the mind of great
compassion, and cultivates dhyånas. Taking on the object of the mind (cittålambana),
he discards the five objects of enjoyment, rejects the obstacles, and enters into the
first dhyåna, which constitutes a state of great joy (mahåpr¥ti). Then eliminating the
activity of examination (vitarka) and judgement (vicåra), and focusing his mind, he
deeply penetrates into internal peace (adhyåtmasaµprasåda), gains a subtle and
marvellous joy, and submerges into the second dhyåna. Next, since this subtle joy
distracts his concentration, the Bodhisattva distances himself from every joy, gains a
complete happiness (sukha), and enters the third dhyåna. Finally, destroying all
suffering (du˙kha) and happiness (sukha), and rejecting every mental dissatisfaction
(daurmanasya) and satisfaction (saumanasya), as well as inhaling and exhaling

54. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, II, 1043-1057.
31
breath (ånåpåna), he equips himself with a pure and subtle equanimity (upek∑å), and
penetrates into the fourth dhyåna.55
The Bodhisattva knows that dharmas are empty and without any characteristics, but
since living beings ignore such things, he resorts to the marks (nimitta) of dhyånas in
order to convert them. If the emptiness of dharmas truly existed in itself, it would not
be called emptiness, and there would be no need to abandon the five objects of
enjoyment in order to gain dhyånas, because emptiness would exist in reality and
would not allow any abandonment (tyåga) or acquisition (låbha). However, since the
empty characteristic of dharmas is inexistent (anupalabdha), the question raised at
the beginning of this section is invalid.
In addition, the Bodhisattva practices dhyānas without attachment to grasping their
characteristic marks. He practices dhyānas in order to purify morality (śīla) and to
perfect wisdom (prajñā). In dhyānas the contemplation of emptiness does not occur.
Since in dhyānas the aim is to eliminate the five objects of enjoyment, gross errors,
and misconceptions, it is necessary to resort to subtle but defective deceptions to
destroy them, just in the same manner as a poison is used to destroy other poisons.
III. The four immeasurables (apramåâ) 56
The four immeasurables are: 1. benevolence (maitr¥), 2. compassion (karuˆå), 3. joy
(muditå), and 4. equanimity (upek∑å)57
1. Benevolence denotes the mind that is endowed with friendliness directed toward
living beings, and that always seeks security (yogak∑ema) and happy things
(sukhavastu) in order to benefit living beings. It is practised in order to eliminate
malevolence (vyåpåda) with regards to living beings.
2. Compassion represents the mind endowed with mercy directed towards living
beings, which endure all sorts of physical and mental sufferings in the various places
of the five destinies. It is practised in order to eliminate violence (vihiµså) towards
living beings.
3. Joy represents a mental determination so that living beings may gain joy as a
consequence of happiness (sukha). It is practised in order to eliminate dissatisfaction
(arati) with regard to living beings.

55. The above description of the four dhyånas is practically identical with definitions given in the
early Påli and Sanskrit texts.
57. The four immeasurables are also called four liberations of thought (cetovimukti) or four abodes of
Brahmå (brahmavihåra). The last term is more frequent in the Sanskrit postcanonical texts and in
the sËtras and ßåstras of the Mahåyåna. In the Påli sources the four immeasurables are defined
without any major variations: D¥gha, I, 250-51; II, 186-87, 242, 250; III, 49-50, 78, 223-24;
Majjhima, I, 38. The Sanskrit sources are not consistent but have variants: Mahåvastu, III, 213;
Pañcaviµßati, 181; DaßabhËmika, 34; Abhidharmakoßa, VIII, 196-203.
The H¥nayåna and Mahåyåna fundamentally agree in their interpretations of the immeasurables,
although there are some differences. The ßråvaka's intention is to purify his mind for his own
benefit. On the other hand the Bodhisattva takes into consideration the benefit of living beings.
The practice of the immeasurables brings him merit, which he can transfer for the benefit of all
beings. The ßråvaka's practice of the immeasurables has a more limited domain as he embraces
only living beings of the Kåmadhåtu, while the Bodhisattva embraces all living beings of the three
worlds interspersed among countless universes of the ten directions. In addition to that, the
Bodhisattva relies on the doctrinal position that asserts the double emptiness of beings and of
dharmas. Although he considers living beings, he never forgets that they do not exist, and with
regard to dharmas, he perceives them as issued from causes and conditions, and as being empty of
their inherent nature and characteristic.
32
4.Equinimity represents the rejection of the three above attitudes and the treatment of
living beings without aversion (pratigha) or malevolence (vyåpåda). It is practised to
eliminate sensual attachment (kåmaråga) and malevolence (vyåpåda) towards living
beings.58
Although the four dhyånas include the four immeasurables, eight liberations, eight
dominations, nine successive samåpattis, and ten totalities, all these groups are dealt
with separately in order to draw out their particular qualities. The people who wish to
acquire great merit should learn about the four immeasurables. In order to inspire an
attitude of disgust for the material sphere (rËpa), it is necessary to discourse on the
four formless samåpattis. In the case of those who are unable to gain sovereignty
over objects (ålambana) to the extent of seeing them at will, it is necessary to explain
the eight kinds of domination. In the case of those who pursue obstructed paths and
fail to destroy obstacles, it is necessary to speak of the eight liberations. In the case
of those who are undisciplined and thus unable to emerge from one dhyåna in order
to enter progressively into the other dhyånas, it is necessary to speak of the
successive samåpattis. Finally, in the case of those who do not possess a complete
luminosity on all objects (k®tsnåvabhåsa) in order to become freed from them, it is
necessary to speak of the ten totalities.
When one ponders on living beings while aspiring so that they may gain happiness,
there arises a mental dharma called benevolence. The four skandhas, namely
sensation, perception, volition, and consciousness, which are associated with such
benevolence, give rise to mental, verbal, and volitional activities not associated with
the mind. The totality of such dharmas constitutes benevolence. Whether being or
giving rise to benevolence as a dominant factor (adhipati), all such dharmas are
named benevolence. Similarly, all thoughts (citta) and mental concomitants
(caitasika), although they may be causes and conditions of future actions, they are
called volition (cetanā) because it is volition that prevails among their activities. The
same considerations are applicable to compassion, joy, and equanimity.
Benevolence that is present in the material sphere (RËpadhåtu) is either impure
(såsrava) or pure (anåsrava), and it is subject or not subject to destruction. It is also
present during the basic or variant states of dhyånas. Among the twenty-two faculties
(indriya), benevolence is associated with sensations of pleasure (sukhendriya),
satisfaction (saumanasyendriya), and indifference (upek∑endriya), and it excludes the
faculties of displeasure (du˙khendriya) and of dissatisfaction (daurmanasyendriya).
Since benevolence grasps the characteristics of living beings towards which it is
directed, it is impure, and when after grasping their true characteristics, it penetrates
the true characteristic of dharmas, it becomes pure. Benevolence is of three kinds:
one that has living beings as its object, one that has dharmas as its object, and one
that has no object.
Different aspects of the immeasurables 59
The various aspects of benevolence are stated in relation to the range of its
meditational scope and content. Benevolence is a mental dharma, which is capable to
counteract the corruptions (ka∑åya) pervading the mind, namely hatred, hostility,
avarice, concupiscence, and other similar passions. It is comparable to a purifying
magic gem that makes dirty water pure upon being placed inside it. While enmity
constitutes the cause and condition of suffering, benevolence is the cause and
condition of happiness. When benevolence destroys the thoughts of enmity, it is

33
called vast; when it destroys rivalry, it is called augmented; and when it removes
malevolence, it is called immense. When it refers to living beings of the four cardinal
directions, it is called vast; when to beings of the intermediate quarters, it is called
augmented; and when it embraces living beings of the zenith and the nadir, it is
called immense. When the yogin directs his thoughts of benevolence towards living
beings that are dear to him, his benevolence is vast; when towards beings that are
indifferent to him, his benevolence is augmented; and when towards beings who are
his enemies, his benevolence is immense. Benevolence must be cultivated in such a
way as to be directed in an equal measure and without any differentiation towards the
three categories of beings, namely friends, enemies, and indifferent people. The
thoughts of benevolence can be directed towards living beings, towards dharmas, or
they can have no object. The category of benevolence directed towards living beings
is found among ordinary people who practise the dhyåna spheres, and among the
trainees (ßaik∑a) who have not destroyed their outflows (ak∑¥ˆåsrava). The second
category (dharmas as object) is practised by arhats, solitary Buddhas, and Buddhas.
Having destroyed the notion of the ātman and having eliminated the notions of
identity and difference, these three kinds of noble people (åryapudgala) consider
solely objects of enjoyment (kåmaguâ) evolved in continuity from causes and
conditions. When they direct their benevolence towards living beings, they think of
the five empty skandhas. However, living beings ignore the emptiness of dharmas,
and search for happiness. The noble persons confronted with such people act in the
manner of helping them to find such happiness, but they do it only in a conventional
way (saµv®ti). The third category of benevolence, which has no object, is possessed
exclusively by the Buddhas. It is so because the Buddha's mind does not rely on
conditioned or unconditioned dharmas, or on past, present or future dharmas. The
Buddha knows that all objects are not real or true. Living beings that do not know the
true characteristics of dharmas migrate in the various destinies with their minds
attached to things, which they differentiate and then grasp or reject. Activating the
wisdom relating to the true characteristics of dharmas, the Buddha acts in a manner
of helping living beings to obtain things that they desire.
The above discussion of benevolence is also applicable to compassion. The ascetic
embraces with compassion the sufferings of all living beings of the ten directions and
reflects on their sorrow and the necessity to eliminate their sufferings. He embraces
all the ten regions with the mind free from enmity, hostility and other vices.
There are three categories of living beings: 1. Beings experiencing happiness, such as
the gods (deva) and a small group of humans. 2. Beings experiencing suffering in the
three unhappy destinies (durgati) and a small group of humans. 3. Beings
experiencing neither suffering nor happiness, such as a small group of beings in the
five destinies. If this is the case, then how those who practise benevolence view all
beings as experiencing happiness, and those who practise compassion view all beings
as experiencing suffering? When the yogin embarks on practising benevolence,
initially he makes the following aspiration (praṇidhāna): “I aspire that beings
experience all sorts of happiness.” Having grasped in this manner the characteristic
of a happy man, he concentrates his mind and enters into a dhyāna. This
characteristic becomes progressively intensified, and eventually the yogin views all
beings as experiencing happiness. When one makes the initial aspiration, one applies
one’s mind only to one’s parents and friends. Once the mind of benevolence has
become intensified, enemies and parents become merged, and the yogin sees them all
as experiencing happiness. The same applies to the minds of compassion, joy, and
equanimity.
34
The first three immeasurables,60 namely benevolence, compassion, and joy, are
certainly meritorious (puˆya), but what is the advantage of equanimity which views
living beings as neither miserable nor happy? The yogin reflects that when living
beings lose happiness, they experience suffering, and when they experience
suffering, they are miserable. Thus he considers that to find a state without suffering
or happiness would constitute for them a state of security (yogak∑ema). It is in this
manner that equanimity represents an advantage (arthakriyå); such advantage accrues
to the person who pursues the practice, and not to the object itself of equanimity.
When the yogin practises benevolence and joy, he experiences thoughts of
attachment, and in the course of practising compassion, he experiences thoughts of
sadness. Since his attachment and sadness distract his mind, he enters the state of
equanimity and distances himself from attachment and sadness. It is possible to
establish the differences between compassion and equanimity, but what are the
differences between benevolence and joy? The aim of benevolence is to make living
beings happy (sukhita), and that of joy is to make them joyful (mudita). What is then
the difference between happiness (sukha) and joy (muditå)? The explanation is that
happiness refers to bodily happiness, and joy refers to mental happiness. Happiness
is associated with the first five kinds of consciousness (vijñåna), while joy represents
happiness associated with the mental consciousness (manovijñåna). In the case of the
bases of cognition (åyatana) happiness arises in conjunction with the first five
external bases, and joy in conjunction with mental objects (dharmåyatana). In the
first instance the yogin aspires (praîdhåna) on behalf of living beings to find
happiness, and then to find joy derived from that happiness. Happiness refers to
happiness associated with the five kinds of consciousness (pañcavijñåna) of the
Kåmadhåtu, the three kinds of consciousness (trivijñåna) of the first dhyåna, and all
happiness of the third dhyåna.61 On the other hand joy refers to happiness associated
with the mental consciousness of the Kåmadhåtu and the first dhyåna, and all
happiness of the second dhyåna. The term happiness refers to gross (audårika)
happiness, while joy refers to subtle (sËk∑ma) happiness. Happiness refers to the
moment of the cause and joy to the moment of the fruit.
If one cherishes living beings so profoundly, why should one practise equanimity?62
The yogin never abandons living beings, but he only intends to abandon the three
thoughts of benevolence, compassion, and joy. He does it in order to terminate some
other dharmas such as sensuous attachment (kåmaråga) and malevolence (vyåpåda).
When exerting the thoughts of benevolence, the yogin aims to generate happiness in
living beings, but he does not succeed to achieve it. Similarly he does not succeed to
remove sufferings when he practises compassion, or to induce living beings to be
joyful when he practises joy. Having practised these three immeasurables he realises
that it was a mere mental activity (manaskåra) without any true reality (bhËtårtha).
Therefore, aspiring to act in such a way as to make living beings find the absolute
truth, he generates the mind of becoming a Buddha. He practises the six perfections
and matures within himself the Buddha attributes so that living beings may discover
true happiness. It is for such reasons that the yogin abandons the first three thoughts
of benevolence, compassion, and joy, in order to penetrate the state of equanimity
that is necessary for becoming a Buddha. Since the thoughts of benevolence,
compassion, and joy constitute a profound affection, it is difficult to abandon living

61. See Abhidharmakoßa, VIII, 150-51.
62 Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1258.
35
beings, but when one penetrates the thought of equanimity it is easy to separate
oneself from them.
It is assumed that the Bodhisattva, who practises the six perfections and eventually
becomes a Buddha, cannot act in such a way as to assure that all living beings escape
suffering and gain happiness.6364 Why then is it asserted that the thoughts of
benevolence, compassion, and joy represent mere mental activities without any real
truth? Why the same assertion is not made in the case of equanimity? It is true that
the Bodhisattva, once he becomes a Buddha, cannot assure that all living beings find
happiness. However, while he is still a Bodhisattva, he enunciates the great vows
(praîdhåna), and as a consequence of such vows, he amasses great merits, and the
subsequent maturation of his vows enables him to perform beneficial deeds for the
sake of ordinary people (p®thagjana). While the ßråvakas pursue the practice of the
four immeasurables for their own benefit, the Bodhisattva perfects the thoughts of
benevolence so that living beings may escape suffering and find happiness. It is on
account of his thoughts of benevolence that he gains merit and also teaches other
beings to do the same. On some occasions the retribution of his merits leads to his
rebirth as a cakravartin, and on other occasions he becomes a mendicant who
practices dhyånas and guides other beings to do the same, so that they may become
reborn in some pure universes (lokadhåtu), and experience boundless happiness.
Finally, when he becomes a Buddha, he enters the final nirvåâ (nirupadhiße∑a)
together with a countless number of living beings. Being compared to the thought of
emptiness (ßËnyatåcitta), his vows (praîdhåna), including his relics (ßar¥ra), are
greatly beneficial. If one Buddha saved all living beings, then the other Buddhas
would have no one to save, and consequently there would be no future Buddhas or
Buddha lineages. Thus it is obvious that one Buddha does not save all living
beings.65 Finally, one should remember that the so-called self-nature of living beings
(sattvasvabhåva) represents a mere product of delusion (moha), as it does not
constitute any real (bhËta) or determined (niyata) thing. If the Buddhas of the three
times and the ten directions sought to find one single being, they would find none;
hence how can they save them completely?
The conventional character of deliverance . The Śåstra now proceeds to give some
further arguments that the notion of deliverance is purely conventional. Taking into
account the absolute truth (paramårtha) that in fact constitutes the true characteristic
(bhËtalak∑aâ) of all things, there are no living beings and there is no deliverance
(tråâ). It is merely on account of the conventional truth (saµv®ti) that the existence
of deliverance is affirmed. However, to seek the absolute truth in the conventional
truth is utterly inadmissible, just as it is impossible to find a jewel in a brick or a
stone. Furthermore, the qualities (guâ) acquired by the Buddhas during the interval
between the generation of the first thought of enlightenment (prathamacittotpåda)
and the final disappearance (vipralopa) of the Dharma represent limited and
measurable formations (saµskåra), which have a beginning and an end. Therefore,
the number of living beings that are to be converted must also be limited, because it
is impossible to save countless beings by means of measured qualities that constitute
a retribution arising from a limited number of causes and conditions. Just as an

63 Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1259.
65. The H¥nayåna adepts relying on sËtra statements, such as Majjhima, III, 65 and A∫guttara, I, 28,
postulate that two Buddhas cannot co-exist similtaneously at the same time. The Mahåyåna adepts,
on the other hand, affirm that countless Buddhas pursue simultaneously their activities in limitless
universes dispersed in the ten directions.
36
arrow, however powerfully discharged from a bow, eventually falls down, and just as
the conflagration at the end of times eventually subsides, so do the activities of the
Buddhas come to an end when they accomplish their Buddha activities. When the
Bodhisattva gains the knowledge of dharmas in all their aspects, his body emits rays
of light (raßmi), which illuminate countless universes (lokadhåtu), each ray creating
countless bodies (kåya), which convert innumerable living beings in the ten
directions. Once he passes into nirvåâ, the eighty-four thousands of Dharma articles
(dharmaskandha) which he taught and his relics (ßar¥ra) continue to mature living
beings. However, after a long time, these activities come to an end. One speaks of
the number of living beings that are to be converted as limited due to limited causes
and conditions, and yet at the same time one speaks of countless bodies saving
countless living beings. This is possible because there are two kinds of countless or
immeasurable things, namely true immeasurable (bhËtåpramåâ), and things that are
measurable (prameyadharma). The truly immeasurable things cannot be measured by
the noble persons (åryapudgala), namely such things as space (åkåßa), nirvåâ, and
inherent nature of living beings (sattvasvabhåva). The second category is measurable
by the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, but it remains immeasurable by men and gods.
The same applies to the number of living beings converted (vin¥ta) by the Buddhas.
The number of such beings is known to the Buddha, but it is immeasurable as it is
outside the reach of human understanding. Finally, since dharmas issue from causes
and conditions, they do not have any inherent nature (ni˙svabhåva). Since their
inherent nature does not exist, they are forever empty, and consequently no living
being exists (nopalabhyate) in such a void state.
The fruits of the immeasurables .66 The Buddha explained that the person who
practices benevolence gains five advantages (anußaµsa): 1. If he enters fire, he will
not be burnt; 2. If he swallows poison, he will not die; 3. He cannot be wounded with
weapons; 4. He cannot die a violent death; 5. He is protected by good deities
(devatå). Having done beneficial things on behalf of living beings, he gains much
merit, and due to his boundless but impure thought directed towards living beings, he
becomes reborn in the RËpadhåtu. The Buddha stated that the retribution for
practicing benevolence leads to rebirth in the Brahmaloka because the Brahmadevas
are venerated by living beings, and because these gods have eliminated all greed
(råga). The advantages derived from the practice of benevolence are also applicable
to the remaining three immeasurables.
IV. The four formless attainments (årËpyasamåpatti) 67
The four formless samåpattis include 1. sphere of infinite space (åkåßånantyåyatana);
2. sphere of infinite consciousness (vijñånånantyåyatana); 3. sphere of nothingness
(åkiµcanyåyatana); 4. sphere of neither-consciousness-nor-noncosciousness (naiva-
samjñånåsaµjñåyatana).
According to the Abhidharma the four formless attainments are of three kinds:
stained (samala), acquired by birth (upapattipråtilambhika), and acquired by effort
(prayogika). They are stained with thirty-one proclivities (anußaya) comprised in the
ÓrËpyadhåtu, and by mental formations associated with the mind
(cittasaµprayuktasaµskåra). They are acquired by birth by those who practise the

66. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1264-1273. The retribution gained from the practice of the four
immeasurables is explained within the context of the three worlds. The ÓrËpyadhåtu does not have
any residences as its four spheres are inhabited by immaterial beings. It is asserted that the yogin
who practises the four immeasurables becomes reborn in the two higher worlds but the precise
abodes of rebirth are controversial in the early sources.
37
four formless samåpattis, and as a result of their karmic retribution (karmavipåka),
they become reborn in the ÓrËpyadhåtu, obtaining the four skandhas (excluding
rËpa) which are clear (vispa∑†a) and ethically indeterminate (avyåk®ta). They can also
be acquired by effort when one examines the grossness (audårya) and the harmful
nature of matter (rËpa), which is the cause of old age, illness and death, and of all
kinds of torments. All such things should be considered as being falsehood (vañcana)
and false speech (m®∑åvåda), and they must be abandoned. One contemplates and
goes beyond all notions of matter, resistance, and multiplicity, penetrating into the
infinity of space. The three notions (saµjñå) of matter, resistance and multiplicity
arise due to specific causes and conditions, and since they have no inherent nature
they can be easily destroyed. The distinctions with regard to matter become
eliminated step by step until they completely ceased to exist. Living beings
influenced by misconceptions seize in composite matter the characteristics of identity
(ekatva) and difference (anyatva), and thus they become attached in their minds to
the characteristic of matter. However, the yogin considers such things, and distancing
himself from the people with false notions, he embarks on finding the real nature of
things (bhËtavastu) in which there is no identity or difference.
The yogin considers several different things, which he has accomplished, and which
now induce him to practise the four formless samåpattis. Having rejected dharmas he
has gained considerable advantages. Having left behind all his possessions and
family, he has become enabled to gain the state of pure morality (vißuddhaß¥la),
serene thoughts (yogak∑ema), and freedom from fear or apprehension. Having
discarded the sensual desires (kåma) and unwholesome dharmas, he has gained the
first dhyåna issued from detachment (vivekaja) and permeated with joy and
happiness (pr¥tisukha). The suppression of examination and judgement led to the
obtainment of the second dhyåna endowed with joy and happiness. The abandonment
of joy brought about the obtainment of the third dhyåna representing the foremost
state of all happiness. Finally, having discarded happiness, he gained the fourth
dhyåna purified in equanimity and mindfulness (upek∑åsm®tiparißuddha). Having
arrived that far he now abandons the four dhyånas in order to gain the samåpattis. It
is for this reason that the yogin goes beyond the perception of matter (rËpasaµjñå),
suppresses the perception of resistance (pratighasaµjñå), and does not any more
consider the perception of multiplicity (nånåtvasaµjñå).
The Buddha spoke of three kinds of matter: visible (sanidarßana) and resistant
(sapratigha) matter; invisible (anidarßana) and resistant matter; and invisible and
non-resistant matter.
Upon transcending the perception of matter (rËpa), the yogin is confronted with
visible and resistant matter. When he destroys the perception of resistance, he is
confronted with invisible and resistant matter, and when he ceases to consider the
perception of multiplicity, he is confronted with invisible and non-resistant matter.
The destruction of the visible (rËpa) perceived by the eyes enables the yogin to
transcend matter. Then through the destruction of the ear and sound, the nose and
odour, the tongue and taste, the body and touch, he transcends the perception of
resistance. When he destroys the perception of multiplicity (nånåtva), he addresses
the matter of invisible and non-resistant matter. It is by recourse to other types of
matter and multiple varieties not qualified by matter that one speaks of the
perception of multiplicity. Perceiving the things in this way, the yogin eliminates
impurities (saµkleßa) of the RËpadhåtu and gains the sphere of infinity of space. The
causes and methods of gaining the other three immaterial spheres have been
explained in the sections dealing with the perfection of dhyåna (pages 1032-34).
38
So far as ethical qualities of the four samåpattis are concerned, the samåpatti of the
sphere of neither-consciousness-nor-non-consciousness is always impure (ßāsrava).
In this sphere, also known as the bhavågra, the state of consciousness is so refined
that one cannot meditate on the path. The remaining three samåpattis have different
qualities. The sphere of the infinity of space is pure when it comprises the four pure
(anåsrava) skandhas, and it is impure when it has the four impure skandhas. A
similar differentiation applies to the next two samåpattis. All samåpattis are
conditioned (samsk®ta) and wholesome (kußala). When it is impure, the sphere of
space includes retribution (savipåka), and it is ethically undetermined (avyåk®ta).
When it is pure, it does not comprise any retribution. The same applies to the next
two samåpattis. When it is good, the sphere of neither-consciousness-nor-
nonconsciousness comprises retribution and it is ethically undetermined, but in itself
it does not comprise retribution.
The Mahåyåna considers the four samåpattis as representing modalities or aspects of
wisdom (prajñåkåra) in conjunction with the true characteristics of dharmas
(bhËtalak∑aâ). The true characteristic of dharmas means that all dharmas are empty
of inherent nature (svabhåvaßËnya).
V-VII. Liberations, dominations, and totalities 68
Canonical definitions 69
The fifth, sixth, and seventh categories of complimentary dharmas recommended to
the Bodhisattva by the Prajñåpåramitå comprise eight liberations, eight spheres of
domination, and ten spheres of totality. The canonical texts taken together provide
the following definitions of these three groups.
V. The eight liberations (vimok∑a) 70
First liberation. Abiding in the sphere of subtle matter, one perceives visibles.
Second liberation. Without having any notion of internal visibles, one perceives
external visibles.
Third liberation. Rendering physically present the agreeable liberation, one abides in
it.
Fourth liberation. Transcending the notions of matter, dispersing the notions of
resistance, and rejecting the notion of multiplicity, one thinks: “Space is infinite.”
One penetrates into the sphere of infinity of space, and one abides in it in imitation of
the gods attached to that sphere.
Fifth liberation. Having completely transcended the sphere of infinity of space, one
thinks: “Consciousness is infinite.” One penetrates into the sphere of infinity of
consciousness, and one resides in it in imitation of the gods attached to that sphere.
Sixth liberation. Having completely transcended the infinity of consciousness, one
thinks: “Nothing exists.” One penetrates into the sphere of nothingness, and one
abides in it in imitation of the gods who are attached to that sphere.
Seventh liberation. Having completely transcended the infinity of nothingness, one
penetrates into the sphere of neither-consciousness-nor-nonconsciousness, and one
abides in it in imitation of the gods attached to that sphere.

70. D¥gha, II, 70-71; 111-12; III, 261-62; Majjhima, II, 12-13; A∫guttara, IV, 306; Daßasåhasrikå, 98;
39
Eighth liberation. Having completely transcended the previous sphere, and having
rendered physically present the destruction of perception and sensation
(saµjñåveditanirodha), one penetrates it and abides in it.
VI. The eight spheres of domination (abhibhu-āyatana) 71
First domination. Having the notion of internal visibles (rËpa), one beholds narrow
external visibles, whether beautiful or ugly. One knows and dominates such visibles.
One beholds and dominates over them, and one remains aware of them.
Second domination. Having the notion of internal visibles, one beholds external
visibles very vast, whether beautiful or ugly. One knows and dominates such
visibles. One beholds and dominates over them, and one remains aware of them.
Third domination. Without having the notion of internal visibles, one beholds narrow
Fourth domination. Without having the notion of internal visibles, one beholds vast
Fifth domination. Without having the notion of internal visibles, one beholds blue
external visibles, which are blue in colour, appearance, and intensity. One knows and
dominates such blue visibles. One beholds and dominates over them, and one
remains aware of them.
Sixth domination. Without having the notion of internal visibles, one beholds yellow
external visibles, which are yellow in colour, appearance, and intensity. One knows
and dominates such yellow visibles. One beholds and dominates over them, and one
remains aware of them.
Seventh domination. Without having the notion of internal visibles, one beholds red
external visibles, which are red in colour, appearance, and intensity. One knows and
dominates such red visibles. One beholds and dominates over them, and one remains
aware of them.
Eighth domination. Without having any notion of internal visibles, one perceives
white external visibles, which are white in colour, appearance, and intensity. One
knows and dominates over such white visibles. One beholds and dominates over
them, and one remains aware of them.
VII. The ten totalities (k®tsna) 72
1.totality of earth (p®thiv¥)
2. totality of water (ap)
3. totality of fire (tejas)
4. totality of air (våyu)
5. totality of blue (n¥la)
6. totality of yellow (p¥ta)
7. totality of red (lohita)
8. totality of white (avadåka)
9. totality of space (åkåßa)
10. totality of consciousness (vijñåna)

71. D¥gha, II, 110-111; III, 260-61; Majjhima, II, 13-14; Daßasåhasrikå, 101-2. Kośavyākhyā, 690-91;
72. D¥gha, III, 268; Majjhima, II, 14-15; Mahåvyutpatti, 1528-40.
40
The totalities do not constitute objective verifications, but rather voluntary or
subjective perceptions.73
The ten totalities, called kasiâs in Påli, received a particular attention in the Påli
tradition.74 The process of the earth kasiâ is described at length, and the seven
subsequent kasiâs are explained as a procedure of selection and self-instigation in
order to access the dhyånas. The first stage in the mental procedure during the earth
totality involves the production of a sign (nimitta). The meditator chooses as a visible
sign either a surface of tilled soil (kasita††håna), or a threshing enclosure (khala-
maˆ∂ala). In most cases, on the advice of a teacher, one chooses a ball of dark earth
(mattikamaˆ∂ala) which is adequately neutral and without addition of other colours
such as blue, yellow, red or white, which could induce confusion with other totalities
and consequently disrupt the earth totality. The earth disc should be placed on a
pedestal in a solitary place and at a suitable distance so that it can be well viewed.
During the next stage the meditator attempts to induce the apparition of the symbolic
sign (uggahanimitta). After making an aspiration to escape sensual desires, he calmly
beholds the earth disc without focusing on its colour or characteristics, but firmly
fixing his mind on the nominal concept (paññati) of earth, while mentally reciting its
different names, such as pa†hav¥, mah¥, bhËmi. While keeping his eyes occasionally
open and occasionally closed, he contemplates the half concrete and half abstract
object of the earth, until he reaches the moment of seeing it clearly no matter whether
his eyes are open or closed. It is at that very moment that he has produced the
symbolic sign. He is free to leave the place of his exercise, but he must guard within
himself that symbolic sign and regain it every time he loses it.
The next stage constitutes the appearance of the counter-sign (pa†ibhåganimitta). It
takes place when the five obstacles (n¥varaâ)75 to the jhånas become absent and/or
the consecutive stages of the jhåna become manifested. In the first case the meditator
enters into the access (upacåra) samådhi, and in the second case he enters into the
absorption (appanå) samådhi. This entry into samådhi coincides with the emergence
of the so-called counter-sign (pa†ibhåganimitta), which supersedes the symbolic sign.
This new sign replaces the symbolic sign from which it emerges hundreds or
thousands times more pure. It is bright like a shiny shell of mother-of-pearl or the
moon emerged from behind the clouds. It has no colour or shape and consequently it
is not susceptible to the perception by ordinary eyes. It constitutes a certain state of
consciousness of the meditator. With the appearance of this counter-sign, the
obstacles to dhyånas become dislodged although defilements (kleßa) still persist. The
meditator's composed mind abides in the access samådhi and then in the absorption
samådhi, which follows, and the limbs of the samådhi become emerged and fortified.
The meditator must protect the counter-sign as a precious thing, and to that extent he
must take care of his state (åvåsa), domain (gocara), speech, encountered people
(puggala), food (bhojana), timings (utu), and his personal dispositions (iriyåpatha). It
is on account of the earth totality that he gains and abides in the first dhyåna.
During the course of the access and absorption samådhis, the meditator should
progressively expand the counter-sign until it reaches the limits of cosmic space.
Once perfected, the mastery over the counter-sign enables him to have a complete
domination over objects, and endows him with psychic powers. It is thus the earth

73. adhimuktimanasikåra or abhimuktisaµjñåna.
75. covetousness (kåmacchanda), malevolence (vyåpåda), languor and torpor (styånamiddha), idleness
and regret (auddhatyakauk®tya), doubt (vicikitså). These five n¥varaâs are discussed at some
length in Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, II, 1013-20.
41
kasiâ that enables the meditator to perform such feats as to multiply himself and so
forth.
The practice of the remaining nine totalities is pursued on a similar pattern to that of
the earth totality. However, their specific signs and types of domination are different.
In the water totality, the symbolic sign is movement (calamåna), and the counter-sign
is still (nipparipphanda) like a crystal held in space or a crystal mirror. This totality
leads to an ability to submerge into and emerge from the earth, to induce rainstorms
or to create rivers or seas, and to shake mountains, palaces and the like.
In the fire totality the symbolic sign is like a flake of fire, and the counter-sign is
immovable (niccala) like a piece of red wool in space or a column of gold. Once
perfected, the meditator can generate fire and flames, induce rains of ashes,
extinguish one fire by another fire, create the kind of light that enables him to see
objects visible only to the divine eye, and to cremate his body with the fire element
at the time of his nirvåâ.
In the wind totality, the symbolic sign is mobile (cala) like steam escaping from a
frying pan, and the counter-sign is tranquil (sannisinna) and still (acala). The power
derived from this totality induces an ability to move with the speed of wind, and to
cause windstorms.
In the next four totalities which are concerned with colours, the meditator employs
the symbolic signs consisting of a flower or a piece of cloth of blue, yellow, red, or
white colour. The counter-signs assume the form of a crystal. These totalities enable
the meditator to create coloured objects, and to access the dominations (5-8) over
colours, and to gain the third vimok∑a (subhavimokha).
The counter-sign in the light totality (åloka) appears as a mass of light (ålokapuñja),
and the one in the space totality (paricchinnåkåsa) as a circle of space
(åkåsamaˆ∂ala). The light totality enables the meditator to create luminous shapes, to
disperse darkness, and to banish languor and torpor. The space totality enables him
to discover hidden objects, to create empty spaces within the earth or rocks in order
to penetrate them, and to move through solid walls and other objects.
V-VIIa. Abhidharma treatment of liberations, dominations, and totalities 76
The vimok∑as, abhibhus, and k®tsnas received extensive treatments in the
Sarvåstivåda Abhidharma and related texts.77 The main points of the Abhidharma
treatment of these topics can be summed up as follows. The vimok∑as constitute an
entry into the abhibhus, which in turn constitute an entry into the k®tsnas. The
vimok∑as constitute solely a state of liberation (vimok∑amåtra) from the object. The
abhibhus exert a double domination (abhibhavana) over the object, namely the vision
of the object at will (yathe∑†am adhimok∑a) and the absence of defilements induced
by the object (kleßånutpatti). The k®tsnas embrace the object without any intervals
and in its totality (nirantarak®tsnaspharaâ). All three derive from the dhyånas and
samåpattis.
The first three vimok∑as, the eight abhibhus and the first eight k®tsnas constitute by
their nature the five skandhas, and have as their object visible things of the
Kåmadhåtu. The first two vimok∑as and the first four abhibhus represent meditations
on the horrors (aßubhabhåvanå), namely on a progressively decomposing corpse, and
they are practised during the first two dhyånas. When practised in the first dhyåna,
they counteract the attachment to colours (varâråga) of the Kåmadhåtu, and during

77. Abhidharmakoßa, VIII, 203-18, Abhidharmasamuccaya, Pradhan's ed, 95-6, Abhidharmad¥pa,
429-32,
42
the second dhyåna they counteract the attachment to the colour of the first dhyåna.
When he attains the first vimok∑a and the first two abhibhus, the meditator still has
the notion of internal visibles, namely that of his own body, but he does not have it in
the second vimok∑a, and in the third and fourth abhibhus. However, in all these states
he contemplates disagreeable external visibles, which are few in the first and third
abhibhus, and numerous in the second and fourth abhibhus.
The third vimok∑a, the fifth to eighth abhibhus, and the first eight k®tsnas constitute
the inner cultivation of the beautiful (ßubhabhåvanå), and they are practised
exclusively in the fourth dhyåna. Having eliminated the notion of internal visibles,
the meditator contemplates pleasant (manojña) external visibles of the Kåmadhåtu.
In the third vimok∑a he contemplates the beautiful (ßubha) in general, and he renders
it physically present (kåyena såk∑åt karoti). In the fifth to eighth abhibhus, he
induces the physical presence of four pure colours, namely blue, yellow, red, and
white, and in the first four k®tsnas the pure four great elements, namely earth, water,
fire, and air. The above indicated qualities derived from the first three vimok∑as, the
eight abhibhus, and the first eight k®tsnas can only be attained by human beings.
The 4th to 7th vimok∑as and the 8th to 10th k®tsnas, being immaterial, constitute by
their nature only four skandhas, the rËpa skandha being excluded. They are practised
in the four immaterial (årËpya) samåpattis: the fourth vimok∑a and the ninth k®tsna in
the sphere of infinite space; the fifth vimok∑a and the tenth k®tsna in the sphere of
infinite consciousness; the sixth vimok∑a in the sphere of nothingness; and the
seventh vimok∑a in the sphere of neither-consciousness-nor-nonconsciousness.
The above four vimok∑as and three k®tsnas have as their object the suffering of their
own stage (svabhËmi), and that of the higher stage (ËrdhvabhËmi), the cause and
suppression of that suffering, the path conducive to subsequent knowledge
(anvayajñåna), the cessation without knowledge (apratisaµkhyånirodha), and space
(åkåßa).
The eighth vimok∑a constitutes a samåpatti that induces the destruction of perception
and sensation (saµjñåveditanirodha); it is a certain dharma that stops the citta and
caitasikas.
The qualities connected with the 4th-8th vimok∑as and 8th-10th k®tsnas can be obtain
by beings of the three worlds. All such qualities can be sustained (åßraya) by the
mental series of an ordinary person (p®thagjana) or by that of a noble person (årya).
The eighth vimok∑a (nirodhavimok∑a) can only arise in noble persons.
Vb-VIIb. Śāstra treatment of liberations, dominations, and totalities 78
Vb. The Eight liberations
General definitions of the eight vimok∑as according to the Mahåprajñåpåramitå-
ßåstra are as follows:
First liberation. Having the notion of internal visibles (adhyåtmarËpasaµjñ¥), one
also perceives external (båhya) visibles.
Second liberation. Without having the notion of internal visibles, one perceives
external visibles.
Third liberation. One renders physically present (kåyena såk∑åtkaroti) the agreeable
(ßubha) vimok∑a.
Fourth to eighth liberations. The four formless samåpattis, and the samåpatti of
cessation of perception and sensation (saµjñåveditanirodha) constitute the remaining
five liberations.

43
The eight liberations purify the five objects of enjoyment (kåmaguâ) and eliminate
the mind of attachment (sa∫gacitta) to them.
In the context of the first two liberations, sensuous people should contemplate the
horror of external visibles, and rational people should contemplate the horrors and
decomposition of their own bodies.
During the third liberation the yogin meditates on the agreeable aspects (ßubha) of
disagreeable things (aßubha), just as it is explained in conjunction with the eight
abhibhus. During the first eight k®tsnåyatanas the yogin meditates on the pure state
(ßuddha):79 earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, and white. All this is called the
agreeable liberation. If this is the case then one could deduce that it would seem
unnecessary to speak any further about the k®tsnåyatanas. However, it is not the case
because the liberations constitute the initial practice, the abhibhvåyatanas the
intermediate, and the k®tsnåyatanas the durable practice.
The meditation on the horrors is of two kinds, namely disagreeable (aßubha) and
agreeable (ßubha). The first two liberations and the first four dominations appertain
to the first category, and the third liberation, the last four dominations, and the first
eight totalities appertain to the second category. The yogin begins by meditating on
the horrors of the body and fixes his mind on all internal and external horrors
contained in bodily forms. He experiences disgust, his defilements decrease, and
becoming frightened he understands that he has no such characteristics, and that it is
merely the state of the body, and hence he should not become attached to it. He
focuses his mind and meditates in a manner of committing no further errors. Thus his
mind becomes disciplined and supple, and he abstains from considering the various
horrors of the body such as skin, flesh, or blood. There is nothing left except the
white bones, and thus he fixes his mind on the skeleton (ka∫kåla). Intensifying his
mental concentration he perceives a blast of light (prabhå) issuing from the white
bones, which resembles a white conch shell, and which illuminates internal and
external things. This constitutes the entry into the agreeable liberation. Subsequently
he establishes the dispersal of the skeleton, perceives solely the light issuing from the
bones, and grasps the characteristics of pure external visibles, such as a vajra, a
jewel, pure earth, water, fire, and air, and pure blue, yellow, red, and white colours.
Grasping these characteristics the yogin fixes his mind on the agreeable meditation
(ßubhabhåvanå) with regard to the pure light appropriate to each of these visibles. At
that time the yogin experiences joy (pr¥ti) and happiness (sukha) that permeate the
whole of his body; and this is called the agreeable liberation.
During the first liberation the yogin does not eliminate the perception (saµjñå) of
internal or external visibles (rËpa). Thus it is with the mind of horror (aßubhacitta)80
that he perceives both categories of visibles. During the second liberation the yogin
destroys internal visibles, and eliminates their perception, but he does not destroy
external visibles and does not eliminate their perception. Thus it is with the mind of
horror that he perceives external visibles. It is in these two liberations that the yogin
contemplates the nine horrors (aßubha). During the first liberation he contemplates
both internal and external visibles, and during the second liberation he does not
perceive internal visibles but only external visibles. Living beings can follow two
kinds of conduct (pratipad): path of craving (t®∑ˆåcarita) or path of philosophical

79. This is an important specification because during the first eight k®tsnas the yogin meditates on the
four great elements and the four colours in their purified forms, and without any intrusions from
other elements or colours.
80. During the first two liberations the yogin contemplates the nine notions connected with the various
stages of a decomposing corpse.
44
systems (d®∑†icarita). Those who follow the first path are attached to happiness
(sukha) and are bound (baddha) to external fetters (båhyasaµyojana). Those who
follow the second path are attached to positive affirmation of personality
(satkåyad®∑†i) and other similar opinions, and are bound to internal fetters
(adhyåtmasaµyojana). It is for such reasons that those who follow the path of
craving contemplate the horrors of external visibles (båhyarËpåßubha), and those
following philosophical opinions contemplate the horrors (aßubha) and the
corruption (vikåra) of their own bodies.
Since at the beginning of training the meditator's mind lacks finesse, and since it is
difficult for him to fix his mind on one point, initially he considers simultaneously
internal and external visibles. Thus he eventually becomes able to eliminate the
notion of internal visibles and to stop seeing external visibles. How then the yogin
can see external visibles without having any notion of internal visibles? It is possible
because in this situation it is the case of subjective path (adhimuktimårga)81 and not
the case of objective path (bhËtamårga). The yogin contemplates the future
destruction of his corpse as being completely burnt by fire or devoured by insects. If
he contemplates it in the present situation, he analyses his corpse up to the point
when the subtle atoms (paramåû) become inexistent. It is in this manner that he
does not perceive internal visibles and sees solely external visibles. The destruction
of the perception of internal visibles alone is due to the fact that when the yogin
perceives with his eyes the corpse endowed with the marks of death (maraânimitta),
he grasps the future characteristics of death. Then when he regards his corpse in the
present situation, he perceives in it, to an even lesser degree, the characteristics of the
destruction (nirodhalak∑aâ) of the four external great elements. Thus since it is
difficult for him to perceive their non-existence, the texts do not speak of the
destruction of visibles. Moreover, at the moment when the yogin goes beyond the
RËpadhåtu,82 he will no longer see external visibles.
The third vimok∑a. In this vimok∑a the meditator renders physically present the
agreeable (ßubha) vimok∑a. This constitutes a pure (ßubha) meditation with regard to
impure things (aßubha), just as it is stated with regard to the eight abhibhvåyatanas.
In the first eight k®tsnåyatanas he contemplates eight pure states (ßubha) of the four
great elements (earth, water, fire, air), as well as the four colours (blue, yellow, red,
and white). If all this constitutes the pure vimok∑a it would seem unnecessary to
speak of the k®tsnåyatanas. The explanation is that the vimok∑as constitute initial
practices, the abhibhvåyatanas intermediate practices, and the k®tsnåyatanas durable
practices.
The meditation on the horrors (aßubha) is of two kinds, namely disagreeable (aßubha)
and agreeable (ßubha). The first two vimok∑as and the first four abhibhvåyatanas
belong to the first category, and the third vimok∑a, the last four abhibhvåyatanas, and
the first eight k®tsnåyatanas belong to the second category.
When the yogin meditates on the ßubha as aßubha, it cannot be considered as a
misconception (viparyåsa), because his meditation constitutes an extension
(vißålatva) of all veritable colours, blue and the rest. In order to subdue the mind
(cittadamana), the meditation on the ßubha presupposes a long course of training in
the meditation on the aßubhas, and in mental disgust (cittanirveda). It is for this
reason that the ßubha meditation does not represent a misconception. In addition to
that such a meditation does not include desire (lobha).

81. It is called adhimuktimanasikåra or adhimuktisaµjñåna, subjective perception. Abhidharmakoßa,
VIII, 198-99 and notes.
82. That is in the five vimok∑as and the two k®tsnas called årËpya.
45
The yogin commences by meditating on the horrors of the corpse, and fixes his mind
on all internal and external horrors contained in the bodily things. In the course of his
meditation he experiences a feeling of disgust, his defilements (desire, hatred,
delusion) become attenuated, he becomes frightened and understands that personally
he does not possess such characteristics, that it is merely a corpse in such a state, and
that there is no reason to become attached to it. He thus focuses his mind and truly
meditates in the manner of never committing similar errors. His mind becomes
disciplined and supple, and he ceases to think about the horrors of the corpse. All
that remains for him are the white bones (ßvetåsthika) and he fixes his mind on the
skeleton. When his mind strays away, he focuses and brings it back. He deeply
concentrates his mind and perceives a light (prabhå) emanating from the white
bones, which resemble a conch shell (ßa∫kha) or a shellfish (kapardaka) illuminating
both internal and external things. This constitutes the entry portal of the ßubha
vimok∑a. Next he verifies the disappearance of the skeleton, perceives only the light
of the bones (asthiprabhå), and grasps the characteristics (nimitta) of pure external
visibles. He perceives such things as for instance a vajra, a gem (maî), some
precious objects of gold or silver, the pure four great elements: earth, water, fire, air;
the colours: blue, yellow, red, white. Grasping these characteristics the yogin fixes
his mind on the ßubha meditation (ßubhabhåvanå) with regard to the pure light
(parißuddhaprabhå) characteristic of each of these visibles. At that very moment the
yogin experiences joy (pr¥ti) and happiness (sukha) that permeate his body. This is
called the ßubha/agreeable vimok∑a. As the object (ålambana) of his meditation is
ßubha, it is called ßubha vimok∑a. As he experiences happiness with all his body, it is
said that the yogin renders it physically present (kåyena såk∑åtkaroti). Upon
obtaining this mental happiness (cittasukha), the yogin turns away from the five
objects of pleasure (kåmaguâ) and from that time he is without joy (pr¥ti) or
happiness (sukha); thus it is a vimok∑a.
However, since the yogin has not as yet destroyed the outflows (ak∑¥ˆåsrava), it
happens in the meantime that impassioned thoughts (saµyojanacitta) arise in him,
and he becomes attached to pleasant visibles (ßubharËpa). When this situation arises,
he vigorously and energetically cuts off such attachments. In fact this meditation on
the pleasant (ßubhabhåvanå) arises from his mind. At the same time knowing that
such attachments are his mental creations, just like magically created objects by a
magician, the yogin does not experience any further attachment (åsa∫ga), and does
not pursue these objects (ålambana). At that very moment the vimok∑a changes its
name and it is called the sphere of domination over objects (abhibhvåyatana).
Although the yogin dominates over the agreeable meditation (ßubhbhåvanå), he still
remains incapable of expanding it (vistårayitum). Whenever he lapses and grasps
agreeable characteristics (ßubhanimitta), he makes use of the forces of his vimok∑as
and abhibhvåyatanas, and he ceases the characteristics of pleasant earth and
gradually expands it within the whole space (åkåßa) of the ten directions. He acts in a
similar manner towards the remaining great elements (k®tsnas 1-4), and the four
colours (k®tsnas 5-8). It is at that very moment that dominations become transformed
into totalities (k®tsnåyatana). Ultimately, liberations, dominations, and totalities
constitute the same thing (ekårtha) but they change the name three times.
The first three liberations, the eight dominations, and the ten totalities are either
objective investigations (bhËtapratyavek∑å) or subjective investigations (adhimukti-
pratyavek∑å). If they are objective why the body (kåya) is perceived solely as white
bones while it still has the skin and other substances? As the body consists of thirty-
46
six parts83 why does one distinguish and consider these constituent parts separately,
namely the four great elements and the four colours? Why should one meditate only
on the earth or the blue colour? The answer is that they are both subjective and
objective investigations. From the objective viewpoint the bodily characteristics
(kåyanimitta) are unpleasant (aßubha). Among external objects (båhyadharma) there
exist all kinds of colours with pleasant characteristics (ßubhalak∑aâ), and this also
constitutes an objective investigation. Both the pleasant and the unpleasant induce
objective investigations. On the other hand, when one selects specific agreeable
things and when one expands them to consider everything as agreeable or when one
selects the water element and one expands it to perceive everything as water, then
such activities constitute subjective investigations.
The fourth to the seventh vimok∑as. The four formless (årËpya) vimok∑as resemble
meditations practised in the four formless samåpattis. The person who wishes to
practise these vimok∑as penetrates in the first instance into the four formless
samåpattis, which in fact constitute the entry portals into these four vimok∑as,
because in the infinity of space one turns away and rejects material objects. If this is
the case what is then the difference between them? The ordinary person who gains
the formless samåpattis becomes or loses the perception of matter (arËpin). However,
when the noble person, following upon his high resolution, gains the formless
samåpattis in a complete manner and without falling back, it is called vimok∑a. The
same holds true for the remaining vimok∑as relating to the other three formless
spheres.
The eighth vimok∑a. This vimok∑a, called destruction of perception and sensation
(saµjñåveditanirodha), constitutes the elimination of perception, sensation, mind
(citta), and mental concomitants (caitasika). The unconscious samåpatti
(asaµjñisamåpatti) is not classed as vimok∑a because the people with false views
(mithyådarßin), who do not discern defects (do∑a) of dharmas, at the very time of
penetrating into this samåpatti, identify it with nirvåâ, and when they emerge from
it, they experience regret (vipratisåra) and recede back into their false views. On the
other hand due to destruction of perception and sensation that eliminates all mental
impairments (vik∑iptacitta), the yogin penetrates into cessation (nirodha) that is
similar to nirvåâ.84 Since upon gaining it, he attaches to it only his body, the texts
state that he renders it physically present.
VIb. The eight spheres of domination 85
The eight spheres of domination (abhibhvåyatanas) are defined as follows:
1. Having the notion of internal visibles, one perceives external visibles, few in
number, beautiful or ugly, and one knows and dominates these visibles, perceives
them while dominating over them.
2. Having the notion of internal visibles, one sees external visibles, numerous,
beautiful or ugly, one knows and dominates such visibles, and sees them while
dominating over them.

83. The Sanskrit sources of the H¥nayåna and Mahåyåna fix the bodily substances at thirty six. They
are listed with many reading faults in the editions of the Pañcaviµßati, 205; Íatasåhasrikå, 1431.9-
13. The Påli sources list thirty one parts: D¥gha, II, 293; III, 104; Majjhima, I, 57; III, 90;
Visuddhimagga, 205-219, lists thirty two parts which it explains at length.
84. The yogin abiding in the nirodhasamåpatti is d®∑tadharmanirvåâpråpta: from the present existence
(d®∑†e janmani) he abides in the sopadhiße∑anirvåâ.
47
3-4. The next two abhibhus are the same except that without having the notion of
internal visibles, one sees external visibles.
5-8. In these four abhibhus, one does not have the notion of internal visibles but one
only sees external visibles, which are blue, yellow, red, or white.
In the first domination, the yogin has the notion of internal visibles, and sees external
visibles. While seeing external visibles, he himself remains unaffected. Such objects
are said to be few because they are rare or uncommon. As the process of his vision is
not fully developed, the yogin sees few objects. If they were numerous he would
have difficulties to grasp them. While at the start he fixes his sight on one object
such as the tip of his nose, and concurrently with having the notion of disagreeable
internal visibles and disagreeable things within his own body, the yogin sees external
visibles that are occasionally beautiful and occasionally ugly, depending on whether
they constitute the retribution of good or bad actions. When the yogin, following his
master, seizes and perceives in external objects all kinds of disagreeable things, it is
the case of ugly visibles (durvarârËpa). When occasionally upon losing his
attention, he conceives a pleasant notion and sees agreeable visibles, it is the case of
beautiful visibles (suvarârËpa). Furthermore, when the yogin himself attaches his
mind to a determined point, he sees two kinds of visibles inherent in the Kåmadhåtu,
namely visibles that engender greed (råga) for agreeable visibles named here
beautiful, and visibles that engender hatred (dveßa) of disagreeable visibles named
here ugly. The yogin is the master86 over these objects, because he knows them
through dominating over them, and he sees them through dominating them. With
regard to attractive visibles (abhirËpa) that can engender greed, the yogin does not
experience any greed, and when confronted with unattractive visibles that can inspire
hatred, he does not feel any hatred. He perceives solely that visibles issued from the
four great elements and from the complex of causes and conditions are inconsistent
(asåra) like a bubble of water. Such is the treatment of beautiful or ugly visibles.
During this domination the yogin adheres to the meditation on the horribles. When
impediments of greed, hatred or other moral fetters (saµyojana) arise, he does not
follow them and this constitutes the sphere of domination, because he dominates
misconceptions consisting of taking pure for impure, and the other defilements
(kleßa).
How is it possible for the yogin to have concurrently the notions of internal visibles
and to see external visibles? The eight abhibhvåyatanas can be gained by the yogin
who is profoundly abiding in meditation and whose mind is disciplined and supple.
Occasionally he sees the horrors of his own body and at the same time the horrors of
external horrors.
The meditation on the horrors is of two kinds: 1. one that contemplates all kinds of
impurities such as the thirty-six parts of physical body; and 2. one that elevates itself
from the bodily parts and contemplates solely white bones. The vision of bodily parts
is said to be ugly, and the vision of white bones resembling a conch shell is said to be
beautiful.
The second abhibhu. At the time of meditating on internal and external visibles, the
yogin becomes distracted and can easily enter into dhyånas. He excludes the notions

86. While the vimok∑as free one from the object, the abhibhus exert over the object a true sovreignty
(aißvarya). According to Abhidharmakoßa, VIII, 213, the domination (abhibhavana) over the
object constitutes either a wilful or voluntary vision of the object (yathe∑†am adhimok∑a) or
absence of defilements (kleßånutpatti) provoked by the object. The abhibhus enable the yogin to
see the object in the form he desires to see it. When the mind is focused and pure, the yogin can
direct his mind towards the supernormal knowledges (abhijñå) and the psychic powers (®ddhi). He
can transform at will the great elements and the colours so that they are seen in the required forms.
48
relating to his proper body, and considers solely external visibles (båhyarËpa). Just as
it is said in the Abhidharma, the yogin being endowed with vimok∑a meditates and
perceives the body as dead: after death, the body is lifted and transported to a
cemetery (ßmaßåâ) where after being burnt by fire (vidagdhaka) and devoured by
insects (vikhåditaka) it becomes disintegrated. Since the yogin perceives only insects
and fire but not the corpse, the text speaks that without having the notion of internal
visibles, the yogin sees external visibles. Following instructions, the yogin perceives
and beholds the corpse as a skeleton. Once his mind diffuses towards external things,
he brings back and focuses it on the skeleton as its object. How is it possible? At the
start of this practice, the yogin was incapable of perceiving subtle objects, and it is
because of that that the text states in connection with the first abhibhu that the yogin
sees only visibles that are few in number. However, at this stage the yogin, having
acquired and expanded deeper vision, he utilises this unique skeleton to behold
skeletons all over the whole Jambudv¥pa; and this is the reason for stating here that
he beholds numerous visibles. Later he refocuses his mind and beholds only one
skeleton; and it is for this reason that the text states that he knows the visible through
dominating it, and that he beholds visibles through dominating them. Since with
regard to the five objects of desire (kåmaguâ), the yogin can dominate at will the
notion of man or woman (puru∑astr¥saµjñå), and the notion of purity (ßucisaµjñå), it
is the case of domination over objects. When the yogin, without destroying internally
the notion of his body, beholds externally visibles, numerous or few, beautiful or
ugly, it involves the first two dominations. When the yogin, without having any
notion of visibles with regard to his body, beholds externally visibles, numerous or
few, beautiful or ugly, it involves the third and the fourth dominations.
The last four dominations. When after concentrating his mind, penetrating deeply
into samåpattis, and eliminating the notion of internal body, the yogin beholds
external objects that are perfectly pure, blues and of blue colour, yellows and of
yellow colour, reds and of red colour, whites and of white colour, it is the case of the
last four dominations. What is the difference between these four dominations and the
four totalities that deal with blue and other colours? The totality of blue perceives
absolutely everything in blue, and the corresponding domination perceives in blue a
great or small number only and without eliminating as many alien thoughts. While
the totalities completely dominate all objects, the dominations perceive only a small
number of visibles, which they dominate but they remain incapable of including all
objects.
VIIb. The ten totalities 87
These have been already discussed in connection with liberations and dominations.
They are called “spheres of totality” because they embrace their object in its totality.
It is said that out of the four formless spheres (årËpyåyatana) only the first two,
namely the infinity of space, and the infinity of consciousness, are totalities. When
the remaining two infinities are not considered as totalities? The explanation is that
the totalities constitute subjective perceptions (adhimok∑a-manasikåra) and that
among the four immaterial spheres only the first two infinities lend themselves to
subjective extensions. There is in the totalities a kind of consciousness (vijñåna) that
is capable of directing itself towards all things, and while being confronted with such
things, one establishes the presence of consciousness. It is for this reason that the
first two infinities constitute totalities. By contrast in the infinity of nothingness there
is no substance (dhåtu) susceptible to extension; one does not find in it happiness,
and the Buddha said nothing about any infinity or immensity with regard to

49
nothingness. Then in the sphere of neither-consciousness-nor-nonconsciousness the
mind is blunt (m®du), and it is difficult for it to formulate any notion and to expand it
into infinity, as is the case in totalities. Furthermore, the sphere of space
(åkåßåyatana) is close to the RËpadhåtu and still can be supported by visibles (rËpa),
and the same holds for the sphere of consciousness. In addition to that, when one
emerges from the sphere of consciousness, one can leap into the fourth dhyåna, and
again on emerging from the fourth dhyåna, one can leap into the sphere of
consciousness. By contrast the spheres of nothingness and neither-consciousness-
nor-nonconsciousness are submerged into immateriality and are not totalities.
Object and distribution of liberations, dominations, and totalities 88
The successful practice of these three categories of dharmas leads to the domination
over the object (ålambanåbhibhavana). The totalities are impure (såsrava). The first
three, the seventh and the eighth vimok∑as are impure, and the remaining ones are
occasionally impure and occasionally pure. The first two vimok∑as and the first four
dominations are contained (saµg®h¥ta) in the first and second dhyånas. The third
(śubha-) vimok∑a, the last four dominations, and the first eight totalities are
contained in the fourth dhyåna. The last two totalities are called the sphere of space
(åkåßåyatana), (lacuna?) and the sphere of space contains the sphere of consciousness
(vijñånåyatana). The sphere of consciousness contains the first three vimok∑as, the
eight dominations, and the first eight totalities, all of which have as their object the
visibles of the Kåmadhåtu. The fourth to the seventh vimok∑as have as their object
the ÓrËpyadhåtu, the wondrous qualities of pure dharmas, and the wholesomeness
(kußala), which persist in the four fundamental samåpattis, because formless
samåpattis do not rely on the levels that are inferior to them. The samåpatti of the
cessation of perception and sensations, which constitutes the eighth vimok∑a, being
neither citta nor caitasika, has no object. The seventh vimok∑a, namely the neither-
consciousness-nor-nonconsciousness sphere, has only as its object the four
immaterial skandhas and pure dharmas.
VIII. The nine successive attainments 89
Designated in different sources as anupËrvavihåras, anupËrva-samåpattis,
anupËrvavihåra-samåpatti, or again as anupËrvasamådhi-samåpatti, the nine
successive samåpattis constitute the four dhyånas of the RËpadhåtu, the four
samåpattis of the ÓrËpyadhåtu, and the saµjñåveditanirodhasamåpatti. Their
definitions given in the Påli and Sanskrit sources90 simply reproduce the terminology
of the DhyånasËtra.91 According to the D¥gha and A∫guttara these nine samåpattis
are acquired by means of nine successive cessations (nirodha) through which one
progressively eliminates: 1. all evil desires (kåma), 2. examination and judgement
(vitrakavicåra), 3. joy (pr¥ti), 4. inhaling and exhaling breath or equanimity and
happiness, 5. perception of matter, 6. perception of infinite space, 7. perception of
infinite consciousness, 8. perception of nothingness, 9. perception of neither-
consciousness-nor-nonconsciousness, and finally every perception and sensation.
According to the Śåstra the nine successive samåpattis are defined as follows:
Emerging from the first dhyåna, the yogin penetrates directly into the second dhyåna
in such a way that no other thoughts interfere, whether they are good or bad. The
yogin progresses in this manner until he reaches the samåpatti of the cessation of

90. D¥gha, III, 265-66; A∫guttara, IV, 410-14; Íatasåhasrikå, 1445-46.
91. A certain text quoted as the principal authority.
50
perception and sensation (saṃjñāveditanirodha). Since in the case of other qualities
(guâ) there is always interference from outside thoughts, they are not successive.
However, in the case of the nine successive samåpattis, high resolution and wisdom
being sharp, the yogin puts to the test his mind, and upon emerging from the first
dhyåna, he penetrates directly into the second dhyåna without any interference from
other thoughts. In this state of quality the mind is supple and easily overcomes
craving. It is for this reason that thoughts succeed one another. Among these
successive samåpattis, the first two are impure and the remaining seven are
occasionally impure and occasionally pure. On the other hand the dhyånåntara (the
variety of the first dhyåna) and the anågamya (the luminous samåpatti of the first
dhyåna) are without any solidity. The nine successive samåpattis are gained only by
the åryas, and their great advantages are not present in the luminous samåpattis
(såmantaka), which are not considered as successive.
The eight vimok∑as, the eight abhibhus, the ten k®tsnas, and the nine successive
samåpattis have been summarised here according to the ßråvaka system.
51
C. SIX CLASSES OF ADDITIONAL DHARMAS
I. The nine notions of horror92

The nine notions (saµjñå) denote here nine stages of horror or impurity (aßubha-
saµjñå) practised by ascetics during the concentration on a decomposing corpse.
The Påli canon has three suttas named Asubha (Saµyutta, V, 132; A∫guttara, II, 150-
52).
The terms aśubhā and aśubhasaṃjñā appear in the canonical lists:
1. three dharmas: Aṅguttara, III, 446.
2. four saṃjñās: Aṅguttaea, IV, 353, 358.
3. five saṃjñās: Aṅguttara, II, 150, 151, 155, 156; III, 83, 142-43.
4. seven saṃjñās: Dīgha, II, 79; III, 253; Aṅguttara, IV, 24, 148.
5. nine saṃjñās: Dīgha, III, 289-90; Aṅguttara, IV, 387, 465.
6. ten saṃjñās: Dīgha, III, 291; Saṃyutta, V, 132-33; Aṅguttara, V, 105, 309,
V, 109.
7. twenty saṃjñās: Aṅguttara, I, 41-42.
The term aßubhå encompasses a complex identity as it refers to different stages of a
decomposing corpse. The canonical texts refer to them, but never properly enumerate
them. Among the stages of decomposition, the most frequently mentioned ones are:
corpse reduced to the state of bones (a††hika), putrefied (pu¬uvaka), bluish (vin¥lika),
cut up (vicchiddaka), inflated (uddhumåtaka), and several other states but the
expositions are not particularly systematic.
The Påli Abhidhamma books, their commentaries, and related texts, fix the number
of asubhasaññås at ten and in the following order: 1. bloated corpse (uddhumåtaka),
2. bluish (vin¥laka), 3. decomposing (vipubbaka), 4. fissured (vicchiddaka), 5.
gnawed (vikkhåyitaka), 6. dispersed (vikkhittaka), 7. chopped and dispersed (hata-
vikkhittaka), 8. bloody (lohitaka), 9. infested with worms (pu¬uvaka), 10. reduced to
bones (a††hika). These terms are cited and explained in Dhammasaṅgaṇi, 55;
Atthasālinī, 197-98; Visudddhimagga, 89, 145-46.
The Sanskrit Abhidharma works, followed by Mahåyåna sËtras and ßåstras, have
nine aßubhas and seldom in the same order.93 The notions of a corpse that is: 1.
bloated (vyådhmåtakasaµjñå), 2. disintegrated (vidhËtaka-), 3. bloody (vilohitaka-),
4. rotted (vipËyaka-), 5. bluish (vin¥laka-), 6. gnawed (vikhåditaka-), 7. scattered
(vik∑iptaka-), 8. reduced to bones (asthi-), 9. cremated (vidagdhaka-saṃjñā).
I.1. Abhidharma exposition of the nine notions 94
How does the yogin meditate on the nine notions of the decomposing corpse? First
he reflects on the nature of death. He observes the purity of morality in order to
eliminate any remorse (kauk®tya), which enables him to find subjects for meditation
in order to eliminate greed and other defilements (kleßa). Then the yogin considers a
person on the day of his death. He thinks about farewell words, the expired breath of
life that does not return, the subsequent death, and family lamentations. The death is
a great calamity that cannot be avoided. It is similar to the conflagration at the end of
times that cannot be escaped. It is said: When death arrives no person can escape it

92. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1311-28
93. Abhidharmakoßa, VI, 148-53. Pañcaviµßati, 19, 165. Mahåvyutpatti, 1156-64.
52
whether poor or rich, virtuous or evildoer, noble or villain, old or young. There is no
prayer to save oneself, no trick to escape it, no device to free oneself from it, no way
to avoid it. The death is the situation when one leaves all one's affections. It is
detested by all beings as nobody can escape it. The yogin soon realises that his body
is also bound to become the same, similar to a piece of wood or a stone from which
nothing can distinguish it. He thus decides not to covet the five objects of sensual
desire, and not to consider the arrival of death in the same way as the cows or goats
do, running about without considering the situation. Being able to distinguish
between good and evil, he decides to seek the elixir of immortality (am®ta). He
reflects on the value of having the body and the ability to know. The animals can
also indulge in the enjoyment of the sense objects, but they ignore the means of
cultivating the wholesome things for the sake of the path. The person who has
obtained a human body but indulges in promiscuous ways of life, and does not know
how to cultivate the practices, is not different from animals. The beings in the three
evil destinies are incapable of accomplishing the deeds of the path. Thus the person
who has obtained a human body must look after his interests.
1. Bloated corpse (vyādhmātaka-saṃjñā). The yogin approaches the dead body and
views that inflated corpse resembling a skin sack inflated with air, and quite different
from what it was before. He experiences a feeling of disgust (nirveda) and fear, and
he reflects that his body will also assume the same form. In this body there was a
consciousness which governed it, saw, heard, and spoke, committed sins and gained
merits, and now where has it gone? Now he sees a merely empty house. Before this
body had beautiful marks and now all he sees is a bloated thing. Where is then its
beauty? The characteristics of a man or a woman are entirely unrecognisable. Having
reflected in this manner, the yogin rejects every attachment to pleasure. In fact, he
concludes by pondering on how this sack of excrements could ever induce passion.
2. Disintegrated (vidhūtaka-). The corpse pervaded by heat and wind becomes
enlarged and lying under the sun, it becomes cleft and thorn. The five viscera ooze
with excrement, urine, pus, and blood, and a repugnant secretion comes out. The
yogin formulates the notion of such a thorn upart corpse, and then comparing his
own body to it, he reflects that his body also contains such horrible things, as it is not
different from the perceived corpse. He sees that it was foolish to become seduced by
his fine skin that in fact is a sack of excrements. Everything that one becomes
attached to is nothing but this corpse.
3. Bloody (vilohitaka-). As the corpse becomes thorn apart, a mixture of flesh and
blood becomes diffused.
4. Bluish (vinīlaka-). While viewing the corpse, occasionally the yogin perceives
clots of blood that are bluish, yellowish, reddish, or again he sees black spots due to
the burning sun. Perceiving the totality of such signs, the yogin reflects that there is
no difference between these signs on the corpse and the beautiful colours to which he
was attached.
5. Rotted (vipūyaka-). The yogin perceives that the clots of blood of bluish and other
colours soon become putrefied when the corpse is not buried or devoured by birds or
other animals. The yogin reflects that formerly the corpse had good colours and that
it was clad in good clothes, but at this stage it is thorn and putrefied. It is its true state
and former ornaments were mere delusions.
6.Gnawed (vikhādita-). If the corpse is not burnt or buried but left abandoned, it is
liable to be devoured by birds and animals. The raven pulled out the eyes, the dogs
eat the hands and legs, and the jackals and wolves rip open the stomach, and thus the
corpse becomes totally desiccated.
53
7. Scattered (vikṣiptaka-). The remaining parts of the corpse lying under the sun
remain more or less intact. The yogin upon viewing such remains becomes filled
with disgust. He reflects that formerly before being thorn to pieces this corpse was an
object of attachment but now one sees only the remains. The ground where the birds
and animals have devoured it is completely dreadful.
8. Reduced to bones (asthi-). After the birds and animals went away, and as the wind
swirls and the sun continues to burn, the tendons fall off and the bones become
scattered. The yogin reflects that before he saw the bodily parts that formed a body in
which he could distinguish a man from a woman. However, after the corpse became
dispersed, the bodily compound disappeared and the body ceased to exist. Now it is
different from what it was before. Where is that which one has loved before? The
corpse is nothing more than white bones dispersed in various spots. The birds and
animals have devoured the corpse, and the bones are all that is left. When he
contemplates the skeleton, he has the notion of the corpse reduced to bones. There
are two kinds of skeletons: one in which the tendons and the bones are still joined,
and one in which the tendons and the bones are separated. The skeleton with tendons
and bones still joined together already excludes the notions of a man or a woman,
fine colours, refinement or fragrance. The second category excludes the basic notion
of a human being. There are also two kinds of bones, namely beautiful (ßubha) and
ugly (aßubha). The beautiful bones are perfectly white, free of blood or grease, and
resemble white snow. The ugly bones are still covered with blood and grease, and are
not completely dispersed.
9. Cremated (vidagdhaka-). The yogin visits a cemetery (śmaśāna) and sees the
corpse while it is cremated. He sees how the stomach bursts open, the eyes come out,
and the skin turns black, and the whole corpse turns into ashes. The yogin registers
this notion of a cremated corpse and reflects that before the cremation that body was
kept clean and that it indulged in objects of enjoyment. When it became dead, it still
resembled a human being, but now upon being burnt, its former characteristic has
completely disappeared. All beings with bodies (dehin) are subject to impermanence.
He further reflects that the same will happen to him.
The above nine notions serve to destroy defilements (kleßa) and constitute very
powerful devices to eliminate greed (råga). It is in order to destroy greed that the
Buddha taught these nine notions.
Relationship between two sets of nine and ten notions (saµjñå) 95
What do the ten notions, beginning with the notion of impermanence, destroy?96
They serve to destroy the three kinds of poison (trivi∑a), namely greed, hatred, and
delusion. If this is the case then what is the difference between this set of ten notions
and the nine notions explained above? While the nine notions prevent people, who
have not as yet gained access to dhyånas and samåpattis, from being affected by
greed, the ten notions discard and destroy the three poisons. While the nine notions
are like enemies who enchain defilements, the ten notions serve as their destroyers.
The nine notions serve as an initial exercise, and the ten notions constitute a
perfected level of training (ßik∑å). The seventh of the ten notions, the notion of horror
(aßubhasaµjñå) incorporates the nine notions of horror. According to some people,
the fourth, fifth, and seventh out of the ten notions incorporate the nine notions.
While the nine notions constitute the cause (hetu), the ten notions represent the fruit
(phala). While the nine notions constitute an external portal (båhyadvåra), the ten

96. This set of ten notions is studied later on, page 76.
54
notions constitute an internal portal (adhyåtmika). It is for this reason that some texts
speak of two portals of immortality (am®tadvåra), namely, the contemplation of
horrors, and the mindfulness of breathing (ånåpånasm®ti).97
Some other people maintain that both the nine notions and the ten notions equally
constitute detachment (vairågya) and at the same time nirvåâ. How is this possible?
When the first symptoms of death appear and when the body is dead, the corpse
becomes inflated, putrefied, dispersed and so forth. It is this that is impermanent
(anitya); such is the first out of the ten notions. One became attached to that corpse
but as the impermanence destroyed it, it is painful (du˙kha); such is the second out of
the ten notions. Being impermanent and painful, it cannot remain independent
(svatantra), and hence it is impersonal (anåtma); such is the third notion. Being
impure (aßuci), impermanent, painful, and impersonal, it is not enjoyable
(anabhirata); such is the fifth notion. All this constitutes the meditation on the body
(kåyabhåvanå). When food (åhåra) is placed in the mouth, it becomes mixed with
saliva and creates a flavour (rasa), and then the mouth's content, not much different
from vomit, is swallowed. This is the repugnant character of food; such is the fourth
out of the ten notions. When the yogin makes use of the nine notions of horror to
meditate on the corpse as being impermanent, changeable (vipariˆåma) and
perishable from moment to moment (k∑aâniruddha), it is the notion of death
(maraâsaµjñå); such is the sixth notion out of the ten notions. When the yogin uses
the nine notions of horror to develop a particular disgust for the world (lokanirveda),
and to know that the abandonment of defilements represents security (yogak∑ema)
and serenity (k∑ånti), it is the notion of abandonment (prahånasaµjñå); such is the
eighth out of the ten notions. When the yogin uses the nine notions of horror in order
to become adverse towards defilements (kleßaprati∑edha), it is the notion of
detachment (vairågya-saµjñå); such is the ninth out of the ten notions. When through
the practice of the nine notions of horror, the yogin becomes disgusted with the
world, he knows that the destruction of the five skandhas and their future non-arising
(apunarbhava) constitute an abode (vihåra) and a state of security (yogak∑ema). This
constitutes the notion of cessation (nirodhasaµjñå); such is the tenth out of the ten
notions.
The nine notions of horror are said to eliminate the following seven different kinds of
greed (råga) in people attached to one of the following things: 1. colours (varâ), 2.
figures (saµsthåna), 3. deportments (¥ryåpatha), 4. language (våda), 5. pleasant
contacts (sparßa), 6. all five previous categories, 7. human appearance whether male
or female.
Furthermore the notion of death discards the greed of deportments (¥ryåpatha) and
language (våda); the notions of an inflated, thorn, and scattered corpse discard the
greed for figures (saµsthåna); the notions of a bloody, bluish, and putrefied corpse
discard the greed for colours (varâ); the notions of bones and of a cremated corpse
discard the greed for pleasant contacts (sparßa). Thus the nine notions eliminate
different kinds of greed and attachment to loved persons. However, the following
three notions, namely those of a corpse being gnawed, cremated, and reduced to
bones, eliminate the greed for persons, because there is no man who could possible
become attached to the bodily remains reduced to these three states.
The contemplation of the nine horrors not only leads to elimination of greed, but it
also diminishes hatred and delusion. The attachment to the body constitutes the cause

97. Abhidharmakoßa, VI, 148-49. The people pervaded by greed (råga) and other defilements enter
through the practice of horrors, and those addicted to intellectual investigations (vitarka) through
the practice of mindfulness of breathing.
55
of the misconception of taking impure for pure, and the analysis of the corpse's
content induces the perception of the impure characteristic of the corpse, and thus the
state of confused mind becomes reduced. The reduction in the state of confused mind
leads to the attenuation of greed, which in turn induces the attenuation of hatred. It is
due to the attachment to the body that a man experiences hatred when the body is
tampered with. However, after meditating on impurities of the body, and after
developing a feeling of disgust for it, the yogin does not attach himself to his body,
and consequently he does not generate any hatred.
When the three poisons become attenuated, the whole mountain of the ninety-eight
proclivities (anußaya) becomes shaken, and the yogin gradually progresses towards
enlightenment, and finally through the diamond-like (vajropama) samådhi he shatters
to pieces the whole mountain of the fetters (saµyojana). Thus although the nine
notions constitute the contemplation of horror, one relies on them in order to realise
great advantages (mahånußaµsa).
The nine notions of horror open the gates (upasthåna) of mindfulness of the body,
which in turn opens the gates of the other three categories of mindfulness. The fourth
category of mindfulness opens the gate of the thirty-seven dharmas conducive to
enlightenment (bodhipåk∑ika), which in turn open the gates of nirvåâ. Upon
penetrating into nirvåâ one eliminates sufferings of sorrow, sadness and so forth,
and as one has destroyed phenomenal causation (prat¥tyasamutpåda) of the five
skandhas, one enjoys constant happiness (nityasukha) of nirvåâ.
I.2. Mah āy āna exposition of the nine notions 98
When the ßråvakas meditate on the nine notions of horror, they develop a feeling of
disgust (nirveda) and aspire to enter promptly into nirvåâ. However, the
Bodhisattva, who has compassion for all living beings, amasses the Buddha
attributes, saves all beings, and does not aspire to pass promptly into nirvåâ. How
then the Bodhisattva meditates on the nine horrors without falling into the category
of the two lower Vehicles? The Bodhisattva who abides in compassion knows that
living beings experience mental and physical sufferings due to the three poisons. As
the three poisons do not cause their own eradication, and as there are no other
expedients to destroy them, in fact the only way is to meditate on external and
internal characteristics of the body to which one is attached. Since it is only after this
type of meditation that the three poisons become destroyed, the Bodhisattva who
intends to destroy the poison of greed meditates on the nine notions of horror so that
he can teach them to living beings. The Bodhisattva teaches various notions of a
decomposing corpse in relation to different attachments cherished by living beings;
the notion of a bluish corpse to those attached to colours, and so forth.
At some point during his meditation on the nine notions, the Bodhisattva experiences
thoughts of disgust for the body and is tempted to enter nirvåâ. However, he reflects
that the Buddhas of the ten directions taught that all dharmas are empty of all
characteristics (lak∑aâ). If there is nothing permanent in empty dharmas, how can
they have impurities? It must be only for the sake of destroying the misconception of
taking impure for pure that one practises this contemplation on horrors. The horrors
themselves have emerged from causes and conditions, have no inherent nature
(ni˙svabhåva), and end up in emptiness. Therefore, he concludes that he cannot
apprehend these horrors to justify his entry into nirvåâ. It is said in a certain sËtra
that if there were no satisfaction (åsvåda) derived from visibles (rËpa), living beings
would not become attached to them. However, since there remains such satisfaction,

56
living beings become attached to visibles. Similarly if there were no defects in
visibles, living beings would not become disgusted with them, but since there is such
a thing, they do become disgusted. And again if there were no escape from visibles,
living beings would not leave visibles, but since there is an escape, they do leave
them. Thus it is satisfaction that is the cause and condition of pure notions
(ßubhasaµjñå). It is for this reason that the Bodhisattva discards the horrors and
refrains from entering nirvåâ prematurely.
II. The eight commemorations (anusm®ti) 99
Preliminary considerations . The eight commemorations constitute the tenth class of
complimentary dharmas that the Bodhisattva must accomplish. The number of
commemorations varies in the canonical texts, but in general the Påli Nikåyas and
the Sanskrit Ógamas provide the same or similar lists.
The Påli sources provide the following lists of commemorations:
Three commemorations: Buddha, Dhamma, Sa∫gha.100
Four commemorations: Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, and morality.101 They are made
use of by the ariyasåvakas stimulated by faith to testify their allegiance to the
Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, and morality.
Five commemorations:102 Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, morality, deities (devatå).
Six commemorations:103 Buddha, Dhamma, Sa∫gha, morality, abandonment (cåga),
deities.
Ten commemorations:104 Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, morality, abandonment,
deities, respiration (ånåpåna), death (maraṇa), body (kåyagata), calm (upasama).
The Prajñåpåramitå texts have eight, nine or ten anusm®tis.
The Sanskrit Pañcaviµßati, 20, eight commemorations: Buddha, Sa∫gha, ß¥la, tyåga,
devatå, ånåpåna, udvega, maraâ.
The same Pañcaviµßati, 210, ten commemorations: Buddha, Dharma, Sa∫gha, ß¥la,
tyåga, devatå, Ërdhvaga, maraâ, kåya, ånåpåna.105
The Íatasåhasrikå, 59-60, nine commemorations: Buddha, dharma, sa∫gha, tyåga,
devatå, ånåpåna, udvega, maraâ, kåyagata; and 1443 ten commemorations: Buddha,
dharma, sa∫gha, ß¥la, tyåga, devatå, ånåpåna, udvega, maraâ, kåyagata.
The canonical definitions of the six commemorations are based on the A∫guttara, III,
285-87. The main points are:
1. The Buddha is commemorated as the Lord, arhat, the perfectly enlightened one,
the one endowed with knowledge and practice, Sugata, knower of the world,
supreme guide of human beings that are to be tamed, teacher of gods and men,
Buddha and Lord.
2. The Dharma is commemorated as having been well enunciated by the Lord, as
gaining its retribution in this existence, as being without pride and timeless, as
leading to good places (aupanåyika), as inviting to come and see, and as internally
knowable by the sages.

99. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1329-1430
100. D¥gha, III, 5; Saµyutta, I, 219-20; IV, 304.
101. D¥gha, II, 93-94; III, 227; Saµyutta, II, 69-70. A∫guttara, II, 56; III, 212-13.
102. A∫guttara, I, 207-11.
103. D¥gha, III, 250, 280; A∫guttara, III, 284-87, 312-13; V, 329-32.
104. A∫guttara, I, 30, 42. Visuddhimagga, Nanamoli's trans., 204-320, provides a long commetary.
105. Pañcaviṃśati, Dutt’s edition, 20, 210.
57
3. The Sa∫gha is remembered as the four pairs of individuals and the eight classes of
individuals. The Saṅgha of the Buddha's disciples (ßråvaka) is of good, right, and
correct conduct. The community of the Buddha's disciples deserves sacrifices
(åhavan¥ya), offerings (pråhavan¥ya), donations (dak∑iˆ¥ya), respect (añjali), and
serves as the best field of merit for the world (loka).
4. Morality is commemorated as correct precepts, as being undamaged, unfailing,
stainless, liberating, praised by the sages, free of self-interest, and leading to
concentration.
5. The noble disciple commemorates his own abandonment or renunciation, namely
generosity as being a gain to him amidst people subject to avarice, and as giving
generously gifts and donations.
6. During the commemoration of the deities (devatå), one recalls that there are the
Caturmahåråjika, Trāyastriµßa, Yåma, Tu∑ita, Nirmåârati, and Paranirmita-
vaßavartin gods, and also the Brahmakåyikas and higher gods. Since they became
endowed with faith, morality, erudition, generosity, and wisdom, they left this world
and are reborn in the higher realms. The same faith, morality, erudition, generosity,
and wisdom are also within me.
The Śåstra following the Pañcaviµßati speaks of eight commemorations: Buddha,
Dharma, Sa∫gha, ß¥la, tyåga, devatå, ånåpåna, maraâ.
Place and effects of the eight commemorations 106
Why are the eight commemorations placed after the nine notions of horror? When
the Buddha's disciples are in a forest, on a mountain or in a cemetery, they
experience fear and are disturbed by Måra who attempts to deviate them from their
intentions. It is for such reasons that the Buddha explains the eight commemorations.
The Buddha explains to his monks in the Dhvajågra-sËtra107 that when they meditate
in a forest, an empty house, a cemetery, a mountain, or a deserted place and become
afraid or scared, they should commemorate the Buddha. If they do that their fear will
disappear. If they do not commemorate the Buddha then they should commemorate
the Dharma or the Sa∫gha. However, is it only by the commemoration of the
Buddha, Dharma or Sa∫gha that the fear becomes dispersed? The remaining five
commemorations can also remove fear.
IIa. The eight commemorations according to the Abhidharma 108
IIa1. Commemoration of the Buddha
When commemorating the Buddha, the yogin considers the Buddha's ten epithets.
1).Tathågata. One considers the Buddha as the one who has obtained true wisdom
(yathåbhËtajñåna), and as being endowed with great benevolence (mahåmaitr¥) and
great compassion (mahåkaruˆå). It is for this reason that his words are infallible
(avipar¥ta) and perfect in all respects. Since all his words are true, he is called
Tathågata.
Whether past, present or future, the Buddhas in the ten directions exert for living
beings their great compassion, practise the six perfections, and penetrate the true
characteristic of dharmas, gaining thus perfect enlightenment. The present Buddha
has also appeared (ågata) in the same way (tathå), hence he is called Tathågata.
The bodies of the Buddhas in the ten directions emit rays of light (raßmi), which
illuminate the ten directions and disperse darkness. The rays of light issuing from

107. Saµyutta, I, 218-20.
58
their minds disperse the darkness of ignorance (avidyå) in living beings. Their good
qualities and splendour also pervade the ten directions. The Buddhas have passed
into nirvåâ. The last Buddha present in this world has passed away (gata) in the
same way (tathå), and hence he is called Tathågata.
2).Arhat. The Buddha possesses such qualities (guâ) that he deserves to be offered
the highest veneration (pËjåviße∑a) by all gods and men. That's why he is called
arhat.
3). Perfectly and Completely Enlightened One (samyaksaµbuddha). One may asked
why it is only the Buddha who speaks in conformity with the truth, comes and goes
in the same manner, and deserves the highest veneration? It is so because the Buddha
has gained the state of enlightenment that is “perfect” (samyak) and “complete”
(saµ-), in the sense that it conforms to the unshaken and indestructible (acalåk∑ara)
characteristic (lak∑aâ) of all dharmas, and that it knows all dharmas without any
exception; and hence he is called “perfectly and completely enlightened one”.
4). One Perfectly Endowed with Knowledge and Conduct (vidyåcaraâsaµpanna).
The state of buddhahood is not gained without causes and conditions. It is through
his reliance on the perfection (saµpad) of knowledge (jñåna) and morality
(ß¥lasaµvara) that the Buddha has gained perfect enlightenment. The term
knowledge (jñåna) denotes science (vidyå) possessed by the Bodhisattva from the
time of the first production of the thought of enlightenment (prathamacittotpåda) and
up to the time of reaching the diamond-like meditation (vajropamasamådhi). During
that period the Bodhisattva's morality is such that his bodily and vocal actions are
pure and executed in accordance with his will (yathe∑†ha). It is for this reason that the
Buddha is called “One Perfectly Endowed with Knowledge and Conduct.”
5. Well-gone (sugata). Faring in knowledge and conduct, the Buddha's course is
good (sugati) just as the proper movement of a two-wheeled chariot. Since the
Buddha follows the destiny (sthåna) taken by the previous Buddhas, he is called
“Well-gone.”
6. Knower of the world (lokavid). The Buddha knows the world, its origin, its
destruction, and the path that leads to the destruction of the world. Thus he is called
“the knower of the world.”
7. Supreme Guide of men that are to be tamed (anuttara˙ puru∑adamyasårathi˙).
Knowing the world, the Buddha tames living beings, and among all kinds of
teachers, he is the highest.
8. Teacher of gods and men (ßåstå devamanu∑yåˆåm). The Buddha is able to destroy
the three poisons by means of the three paths, and to induce living beings to pursue
the three paths of the three Vehicles.
9. Buddha. The Buddha can assure his own and other people's good. Being endowed
with omniscience, he knows the past, present and future, perishable and imperishable
things, moving and stable things, indeed the whole world.
10. Lord (bhagavat). The Buddha being endowed with the above nine epithets
possesses great splendour that pervades the ten directions.
In addition to the Buddha's ten epithets, the Śåstra also speaks of the Buddha's
wondrous nativity, the bodily marks, and the five pure skandhas.
The wonder of the Buddha's nativity.109 All different qualities were found on the
Buddha: 1). He is from the Mahåsaµmata lineage, the noble cakravartin who reigned
at the beginning of the aeon. He was born among the Íåkyas, a wise and powerful
family in Jambudv¥pa, in the noble Gautama clan. 2) At the time of his nativity, rays

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of light illuminated the entire spectrum of the multiple universe (trisāhasramahā-
sāhasralokadhåtu). Brahmå, the lord of the gods, held a jewel umbrella, and Íakra
Devendra received him on a divine piece of cloth.110 The någas bathed him in cold
and warm water that was perfumed.111 3). At his birth the earth quaked in ten
directions. The Bodhisattva took seven steps112 and declared that there was no
further rebirth for him and that he would save all living beings.
The Buddha's bodily marks.113 The hermit Asita examined the Bodhisattva's body
and found the thirty-two bodily marks of distinction (lak∑aâ) and the eighty minor
bodily marks (anuvyañjana). After examining the bodily marks, the hermit stated that
the boy is destined to be a mendicant (pravrajita), gain omniscience (sarvajñåna), and
become a Buddha. It is in this way that one should commemorate the bodily
attributes of the Buddha. Furthermore, the qualities and physical power of the
Buddha surpass ten myriads of white elephants. His superhuman knowledges
(abhijñå), his qualities, and his powers are immense and unlimited. The Buddha's
body is adorned with the thirty-two marks and the eighty minor marks. Internally he
also possesses innumerable attributes and qualities.
The Buddha's five pure skandhas (anåsrava)
1. the aggregate of morality (ß¥laskandha). The Buddha's observance of morality is
perfect and pure. From the very moment of the first production of the thought of
enlightenment (prathamacittotpåda), the Buddha practises morality and accumulates
it in a boundless manner. Being endowed with the mind of compassion, he does not
search for the fruit of retribution, and does not advance towards the enlightenment of
the ßråvakas or pratyeka-Buddhas. There is nothing in him that is mixed with the
moral fetters (saµyojana). It is merely for the sake of purification of his mind (citta)
and in order not to torment living beings that he constantly guards morality existence
after existence. When he gains the state of enlightenment his morality is completely
perfect.
2. The aggregate of meditation (samådhiskandha). Since the Buddha's great wisdom
is perfect, his dhyånas and samåpattis are perfect. Similarly, since his superhuman
knowledges (abhijñå) and miraculous powers (pråtihåryabala) are strong, his dhyånas
and samåpattis are also powerful.
3.The aggregate of wisdom (prajñåskandha). There is not a single dharma that the
Buddha has not practised from the moment of the first production of the thought of
enlightenment and during incalculable aeons (asaµkhyeyakalpa). During every
existence he accumulated good qualities (guâ). As he skilfully cultivated great
compassion and wisdom, the Buddha has perfected the aggregate of wisdom. Other
human beings do not possess such great compassion, and even if they have wisdom,

110. According to the old canonical tradition (D¥gha, II, 14; Mahåvadåna Skt 88; Majjhima, III, 122)
the Bodhisattva on emerging from his mother's womb is first received by the gods and then by
men. Four devaputras hold him before he touches the earth, and hand him over to his mother. In
the Nidånakathå (Jåtaka, I, 52-53) the four Mahåbrahmås receive the Bodhisattva into a golden
net, then the four Mahåråjas into an antelope's skin, and finally the men into a fine cloth. In the
Lalitavistara it is Íakra and Brahmå Sahåmpati who receive him into a divine garment from
Benares.
111. Although born pure, the Bodhisattva is subject to the traditional bath. D¥gha, II, 15; Majjhima,
III, 123; Mahåvadåna Skt, 91; Mahåvastu, I, 220-221, II, 23.
112. For the first seven steps taken by the Bodhisattva see Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, I, page 6 and
note.
113. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1344-49. For a detailed exposition of the marks see the Śāstra
pages 272-79; 453-6.
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they do not succeed in perfecting the state of great compassion. Set on saving living
beings, and seeking all kinds of wisdom, the Buddha even destroys his attachment to
the Dharma and eliminates the sixty-two kinds of wrong views (d®∑†i). He does not
fall into the two extremes of a life attached to the five objects of pleasure or a life of
personal mortification, nihilism or eternalism, existence or nonexistence, and other
similar extremes. The Buddha's wisdom has no superior, and his penetration
(prativedha) is unequalled, because they are issued from profound meditations, and
are not agitated by gross or subtle defilements (kleßa). He has accomplished in a
perfect manner the thirty-seven limbs of enlightenment (bodhipåk∑ika), the four
dhyånas, the four immeasurable attitudes (apramåâcitta), the four formless
samåpattis, the eight liberations (vimok∑a), the nine successive samåpattis, and other
qualities. He is endowed with the ten powers, the four grounds of assurance
(vaißåradya), the four unimpeded knowledges (pratisaµvid), and the eighteen
exclusive attributes (åveîkadharma). He has also gained unobstructed and
inconceivable liberations (asaktåcintyavimok∑a). Thus the Buddha's aggregate of
wisdom is perfect. Furthermore he defeated the great heretical teachers, such as
Kåßyapa of Urubilvå, Mahåkåßyapa, Íåriputra, Maudgalyåyana, Nigranth¥putra and
others. This fact indicates that the Buddha's aggregate of wisdom is perfect.
Furthermore, the Tripi†aka, the twelve classes of texts, and the eighty four thousand
articles of the Dharma serve to indicate the vastness of the Buddha's discourses;
hence his aggregate of wisdom is perfect. Furthermore, the Buddha does not perceive
in dharmas any characteristics of their being eternal or impermanent, finite or
infinite, mobile or immobile, existent or inexistent, pure or impure, conditioned or
unconditioned, arising and disappearing or not arising and not disappearing, empty
or not empty. The eternal purity of dharmas is immense and similar to space. Thus
the Buddha's wisdom is without any obstacles.
4. The aggregate of deliverance (vimuktiskandha). The Buddha is liberated from all
defilements (kleßa) and defiling permeations (våsana), and since he has completely
uprooted all defilements, his deliverance is real (bhËta) and indestructible (ak∑aya).
Since he is endowed with wisdom, his deliverance meets no obstacles, and since he
is in possession of the eight liberations that are profound and universal, his
deliverance is perfect. Leaving aside the two inferior types of those circumstantially
liberated (samayavimukta) and those liberated by wisdom (prajñåvimikta), the
Buddha succeeds in a perfect manner to be liberated in both ways (ubhayatobhåga-
vimikti).114 Since he is in possession of these two kinds of deliverance, his aggregate
of deliverance is perfect. The Buddha has gained deliverance, because he has
destroyed the armies of Måra, eliminated defilements, rejected the systems of
dhyånas, and also because he enters and emerges from meditation in a masterly and
unimpeded manner. Finally, the Bodhisattva has gained the sixteen categories of
deliverance during the path of vision (darßanamårga) and the sixteen categories of
deliverance during the path of the meditative cultivation (bhåvanåmårga).115 These

114. Among the six categories of arhats, five are liberated due to circumstances (samayavimukta),
which means that their deliverance of the mind (cetovimukti) is circumstantial (såmayik¥)
because it depends on corcumstances, and it is cherished (kåntå) because it has to be constantly
guarded. A∫guttara, III, 173; Abhidharmakoßa, VI, 251, 254, 267, 274. The person liberated by
wisdom (prajñåvimukta) is the one who through the force of wisdom becomes liberated from the
impedimets of defilements (kleßåvaraâ). A∫guttara, IV, 452-53; Abhidharmakoßa, VI, 274, 276,
297; VII, 97; VIII, 181. The person liberated in both ways is one who through the force of
wisdom becomes liberated from the impediments of defilements, and through the force of his
samådhi from the impediments obstructing the eight liberations (vimok∑åvaraâ); A∫guttara, I,
73; IV, 10, 77; Abhidharmakoßa, II, 205; VI, 273, 276.
115. These sets of sixteen refer to the thirty-four moments experienced during these two paths.
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two types of deliverance taken together constitute the perfected aggregate of
deliverance.
5. The aggregate of the knowledge and vision of deliverance (vimukti-
jñånadarßanaskandha). This aggregate incorporates two specific categories, namely
the engagement of the Buddha's knowledge and vision.
Firstly, with regard to his defilements, the Buddha engages his knowledge of the
appeasement of impurities (åsravak∑ayajñåna). He clearly perceives that within him
the nature of suffering is fully known, its origin is abandoned, its destruction is
accomplished, and the path of its destruction is fully executed. Here the aggregate of
knowledge and vision of deliverance consists in the knowledge of the appeasement
of impurities. Next, he also perceives that suffering, that he fully knows, is no longer
to be known, its abandoned origin no longer to be abandoned, its accomplished
destruction no longer to be accomplished, and the executed path no longer to be
practised. In this case the knowledge and vision of deliverance consists in knowing
that the destroyed impurities will never arise again (åsravånutpådajñåna).
Secondly, the Buddha knows which specific human beings will gain deliverance by
entering the meditation on emptiness, which by the meditation on signlessness
(ånimitta), and which by the meditation on wishlessness (apraîhita). He knows
which specific individuals will gain deliverance without making use of any
expedients, which after long periods, which after short periods, and which in an
instant. He knows which individuals will gain deliverance by being addressed with
kind words, which with rude words, which with modified words. He knows which
individuals will find deliverance by being shown miracles (®ddhibala), and which by
being taught the Dharma. Living beings gain deliverance through various expedients,
and the knowledge and vision of all such diversified ways of deliverance are called
the attainment (saµpad) of the aggregate of knowledge and vision of deliverance.
One commemorates the Buddha as the one who knows all things (sarvajña) and
perceives all things (sarvadarßin), as the one endowed with great benevolence and
compassion, and with the ten Buddha powers and other attributes. It is this reflection
on the immense qualities inherently found in the Buddha that constitutes the
commemoration of the Buddha.
IIa2. The commemoration of the Dharma 116
The Dharma skilfully taught by the Buddha operates in conformity with the two
truths (satyadvaya), namely conventional truth (saµv®tisatya) and absolute truth
(paramårthasatya). The wise person (vijña) cannot refute it and the simpleton cannot
criticize. It is free from the two extremes, namely from the life of pleasure and
attachment to the five sense objects of enjoyment, and from the life of self-
mortification; and from other extremes such as eternalism (ßåßvata) and nihilism
(uccheda), åtman and anåtman, existence (bhava) and inexistence (abhava). Since it
is free from all such extremes, the Dharma is taught in a skillful manner. The heretics
who praise their own systems, and denigrate other teachings, are not able to express
themselves in skilful ways.
The Dharma acquires its retribution in the present existence, and since it eliminates
various sufferings caused by desire, and dispels all kinds of teachings and
controversies arising from wrong views, the body and mind find happiness in it.
Since interconnected causes and conditions produce results, due the purity of his
morality, the yogin does not experience any remorse (kauk®tya), and as his mind is
without any remorse, he generates the joy inherent in the Dharma. It is due to this

62
Dharma-joy that his body and mind abide in serenity (praßrabdhi) and happiness
(sukha). While abiding in such serenity and happiness, he becomes able to
concentrate his mind, to perceive the true state of things (yathåbhËta), to develop a
sense of disgust (nirveda), to become detached from desire, to gain deliverance, and
to obtain the fruit of deliverance, namely nirvåâ. By contrast the Dharma of the
heretics is empty, painful and with no fruit. If the Buddha's Dharma obtains its fruit,
why then some of the Buddha's disciples do not gain from it anything? The yogin
who knows the Buddha's teaching and applies it with consistency cannot be without
any result, just as an ill person who takes medicine as instructed cannot remain ill but
must recover. The yogin, who does not apply the Buddha's Dharma due to his
immorality and distraction, does not achieve anything, but this does not permit to
conclude that the Buddha's Dharma is not good.
The Dharma is without any torment of burning (nirjvara). There are two kind of such
burning torments, namely bodily and mental torments. Bodily torments stem from
such factors as shackles, prisons, blows, executions and other physical torments.
Mental torments include sadness (daurmanasya), fear (bhaya), and other torments
caused by desire, hatred, avarice or jealousy. As morality is pure in the Dharma, the
body escapes physical torments, and as the mind has eliminated the five objects of
enjoyment and the five obstacles (åvaraâ), and as it has gained the true state of
enlightenment, it escapes torments derived from desire and other defilements. Thus
since there are no torments there is no burning (jvara). Furthermore dhyånas and pure
samåpattis induce joy and happiness that permeate bodily sensations and thus all
burnings become removed. Defilements (kleßa) that derive from false views
(d®∑†yapek∑a) or from craving are also called burnings, but since they are not present
in the Dharma, the Dharma is said to be free of torments of burning.
The Dharma is independent of time (akålika). The Buddha's Dharma functions
independently of time and yields its fruit (phala) independently of time. In the case
of the heretics (t¥rthika), there are certain rules that hold valid before the sunrise but
not after the sun rises, during the day but not during the night, or again during the
night but not during the day. In the case of the Buddha's Dharma the time does not
intervene: when one has practised the noble eightfold path, one gains nirvåâ. Just as
the fire burns once it finds wood, so does the pure wisdom, as soon as it is born, it
burns all defilements, and this happens independently of time. But the Buddha did
speak of such things as timely medicine, timely food, or the maturation of the roots
of merit at appropriate times. How can one say that the Dharma is independent of
time? On such occasions the Buddha conformed to the worldly conventions
(lokasaµv®ti) and in order to make the Dharma persist for a long time, he related his
rules to the concept of time. However, when one has accomplished the path, gained
nirvåâ, and all those wonderful qualities consisting of samådhis and wisdom, all
such qualities do not depend on time. While the heretical rules depend on time, the
Buddha's Dharma requires that only causes and conditions should be fulfilled. So
long as morality, meditation and wisdom are not accomplished, one does not gain
enlightenment, but once they are perfected, the fruit has been gained and it does not
depend on time. It takes a long time to gain the fruit, but once it is gained, there is no
longer the question of time.
The Buddha's Dharma leads to good places (aupanayika). The thirty-seven pure
limbs of enlightenment lead to nirvåâ. The heretical systems, which have never
been taught by an omniscient person (sarvajña), and which are permeated with
wrong views, lead to evil places and even if they lead to paradises (svarga), one
returns from them in order to sustain sufferings. The paradises are not eternal and
hence they are not good places.
63
However, if the leader (upanet®) does not exist how can the actual guidance to good
places ever happen? It is true that the leader does not exist as only dharmas can lead
other dharmas. The pure and positive elimination (prahåâ) of the five aggregates
(skandha), which are forcefully called a being (sattva), definitely leads to nirvåâ in
the same way as the wind blows dust or the water carries away grass. Even in the
absence of the leader there can be movement (gamana). Furthermore, within the
complex of causes and conditions, there is no agent (kåraka) or leader (upanet®) who
could exercise any sovereignty (vaßitå) over causes and conditions that depend on
retribution (vipåka); it is this that is called movement.
The Dharma constitutes an unimpeded penetration. Having at one's disposal the
Dharma-seals (dharmamudrå)117 of the Buddha, one's penetration is without
obstacles just as the one who holds the royal seal (råjamudrå) is never dislodged or
impeded. The term mudrå denotes three categories, namely all conditioned dharmas
(saµsk®ta) arising and perishing from moment to moment are impermanent, all
dharmas are anåtman, and peaceful is nirvåâ.
The yogin knows that the threefold world constitutes births and destructions
governed by causes. The saµskåras that existed before do not exist at the present
time, and those existing now will not exist in the future. This sequence of momentary
(k∑aîka) births and destructions arises in resemblance to the mental series
(samtånasåd®ßya) that can be known and perceived just as one can see the flame of a
lamp. It is for this reason that it is considered by people as a living being (sattva),
and it is due to the misconception of taking impermanent (anitya) for permanent
(nitya). Such is the meaning of all dharmas as being impermanent.
All dharmas are impersonal (anåtman) because in dharmas there is no master
(¥ßvara/svåmin), agent (kåraka), knower (jånaka), perceiver (paßyaka), living entity
(j¥va), or author of actions. All dharmas depend on causes and conditions, and hence
they are not autonomous (svatantra), and since they are not independent, there is no
åtmann, and its character is inexistent (nopalabhyate). Such is the seal of
impersonality (anåtmamudrå).
While conditioned dharmas (saµsk®ta or saµskåra) are impermanent, all dharmas are
impersonal (anåtma). It is so because since unconditioned dharmas are without
causes (ahetuka) and conditions (apratyaya), they do not arise or perish. As they do
not arise or perish, they are not called impermanent. One cannot generate any mental
attachment (cittåbhiniveßa) or misconception with regard to unconditioned dharmas,
and hence they are not designated as impermanent but only as impersonal. Since
people assert that the åtman is eternal, universally pervasive (vyåpin), and endowed
with knowledge (jñånin), it is stated that all dharmas are impersonal.
The state of nirvåâ is called calm (ßånta) because the flame of the three poisons and
of the three decrepitudes is extinguished. In the first seal there are the five skandhas,
in the second seal all dharmas are impersonal, and in the third seal it is the situation
of the fruit of the first two seals, namely it is nirvåna called as the seal of calm.
The assumption that all dharmas are impermanent leads to the destruction of the five
external objects of enjoyment considered to appertain to the self (åtm¥ya). The
affirmation that all dharmas are impersonal leads to the destruction of the internal
self (adhyåtman). Upon the destruction of the self (åtman) and of mine (åtm¥ya),
there results peaceful nirvåâ.

117. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1368: The dharmamudrå is understood here as the three
characteristics of dharmas: sarvasaµskårå anityå˙, sarvadharmå anåtmåâ˙, ßåntaµ nirvåâm.
This term dharmamudrå is not found in the Påli Tipi†aka but it is fairly frequent in Mahåyåna
texts.
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When the yogin considers conditioned dharmas, he experiences a sense of disgust for
the suffering of the world, but although he knows and feels disgust for the worldly
suffering, he still remains attached to the perception of åtman as a sovereign entity. It
is for this reason that the second seal of the Dharma is set forth. The yogin knows
that all dharmas are impersonal, and as he analyses the five aggregates, the twelve
bases, the eighteen elements, or the twelve links of dependent origination in search
of a master (svåmin), he fails to find one, and as such a master does not exist, all
dharmas are impersonal and inactive. Having recognised this situation, the yogin
does not pursue any verbal proliferations (prapañca), and remaining without any
other shelter (nißraya), he takes refuge in the cessation (nirodha) that is peaceful
nirvåâ.
The Mahåyåna texts say that dharmas do not arise or become destroyed, and that
they have only one unique characteristic, namely the absence of characteristics
(alak∑aâ). Why then do we have here a discourse on conditioned dharmas as being
impermanent? When one considers impermanence, one considers emptiness. If one
considers matter (rËpa) as momentary and impermanent, one knows that it is empty.
The past matter being already destroyed is invisible, and thus without the
characteristic of matter. The future matter, not being as yet born, remains without
any activity, function or visibility, and thus it is without the characteristic of matter.
Similarly, the present matter, being without any duration, and remaining invisible
and indiscernible, it is without the characteristic of matter. Thus the absence of the
characteristic of matter constitutes emptiness, which denotes non-origination and
non-destruction. Non-origination (anutpåda), non-destruction (anirodha), origination
(utpåda), and destruction (nirodha) are in truth (tattvena) one and the same thing, as
the exposition merely elaborates or summarises the things.
One can accept that the past and future categories of matter do not have any
characteristic of matter, but in the case of the present matter, one does perceive it
while it persists. Why then it is also said to be without any characteristic of matter?
The present matter also does not have any stable duration (sthiti). If the duration of
conditioned things constituted a stable duration, there would be no destruction. For
instance, if a pair of sandals is new from the very start, it could never become old,
because even subsequently it would remain new, and without ever becoming old, it
would remain eternal (nitya). Due to such eternity there would not be any sin (åpatti)
or merit (puˆya), and as there would be no sin or merit, the Buddhist path would
become disturbed. Since the characteristic of origination and destruction always
follows the formations (saµskåra), there is no time of duration, because if there were
such duration, there would be no origination or destruction. It is for this reason that
the present matter does not have any duration, and in duration there is no origination
or destruction, because duration reduced to a unique moment (ekak∑aâsthiti)
constitutes the characteristic of the formations (saµskåra).
In addition to the above considerations, the Dharma also has two other qualities: 1.
Buddha Word (Buddhavacana) includes the Tripi†aka, the twelve categories of
scriptures, and the eighty-four thousand articles of the Dharma; 2. The meaning of
the Dharma (dharmårtha) preached by the Buddha, namely the noble eightfold path
includes morality, meditation and wisdom, and the fruit of deliverance is nirvåâ.
The yogin should commemorate first the Buddha Word and then the meaning of the
Dharma.
The Buddha Word is marvellous, beautiful, truthful and useful. It is both profound
and not so profound. It is profound because it unveils the true characteristics of
phenomena, and not so profound because it is skilfully formulated. All its repetitions
are faultless, because each one of them has a specific significance. The Buddha
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Word rests on four foundations and is adorned with four qualities: wisdom, truth,
equanimity, and cessation (nirodha). It is irrefutable because it has at its disposition
the four ways to reply to questions (praßnavyåkaraâ): categorical response
(ekåµßena vyåkaraâ), response that makes distinctions (vibhajya), response by
questioning (parip®cchå), and response by not replying (sthåpan¥ya vyåkaraâ). The
Buddha's words are either permissions followed by interdictions, interdictions
followed by permissions, permissions not followed by interdictions, or interdictions
not followed by permissions. These four methods function in conformity and do not
contradict each other. The Buddha Word being endowed with the true characteristic
of phenomena is exempt from verbal proliferations (prapañca). Being expressed in a
reasonable manner, it eliminates all explanations concerning existence and
inexistence. It also conforms to the absolute truth (paramårtha), and even when it
discourses on conventional phenomena (saµv®tdharma), it is faultless because it does
not contradict the two truths. It functions with the view of bringing benefits (hita). It
addresses kind words to pure persons, and rude words to impure persons, and yet
whether it is kind or rude in both cases it is not defective (nirdo∑a). The Buddha
Word conforms to the good Dharma but it does not become attached to it. It acts as
an enemy of impure laws but without voicing any arrogance. There is nothing to add
or to deduct from the Buddha's Word, because whether it is summed up or expanded,
it is good in its summary and its expanded format. The Buddha Word is plentiful and
yet its flavour is not attenuated. It multiplies its varied discourses, but its sense
remains undisturbed. It attracts human hearts but it does not instigate any attachment;
its sublimities are diverse and yet it does not inspire any awe.
Among great assemblies everyone wishes to hear specific things and the Buddha
responds by enunciating one unique sound (ekasvara).118 Whether they are near or
far away, the ßråvakas seated in great assembles hear the Buddha's sound with the
same intensity. The Buddha's sound pervades the multiple world system, and reaches
the countless universes of the ten directions. The beings that are to be tamed
(vaineya) hear the Buddha's voice, and those who are not to be tamed do not hear it.
What is the commemoration of the meaning of Dharma? The meaning of Dharma is
faith (ßraddhå), morality, generosity (tyåga), erudition (ßruta), meditation, and
wisdom that constitute the path, all good dharmas, and also the already mentioned
three seals of Dharma conducive to the penetration (prativedha). The three seals
cannot be attacked by any master, and their discourses are so numerous and multiple
that nobody can transform the nature of phenomena (dharmatå), which remains
unassailable just as nobody can harm space (åkåßa). The noble person (årya) who
knows the triple characteristic of dharmas escapes all controversies that derive from
wrong views. Similarly, the person endowed with a vision, on viewing blind people

118. This matter has been well covered by P. Demiéville in HØbØgirin under butsugo, 207-9, button,
215-17.
According to the Vimalak¥rtinirdeßa, 109-110, the Buddha preached the Dharma in various
ways, and also by one unique sound or by an emission of sound in an instant
(ekak∑aâvågudåhåreâ). The Buddha voice enunciates the Dharma in its entirity, pervades all
regions of the universe, delights the minds of all beings, and destroys defilements. Every
listener, in accordance with his status and capacity, gains understanding and believes that the
Buddha taught just for him. This theory has been already formulated in the early period. The
Vibhå∑å states that the relevant phrase does not occur in the Tripi†aka and provides its own
interpretation. It states that although the Buddha's sounds are numerous and diverse, they are
equally useful, and therefore one speaks of one unique sound. The Mahåyåna texts have
approved this theory of the unique sound: Avataµsaka, RatnakË†a, DaßabhËmika, 79.27-29,
SukhåvativyËha etc.
66
discussing colours, takes pity on them and smiles, but without becoming involved in
their discussion.
IIa3. Commemoration of the Saṅgha 119
The community of the Buddha's disciples (ßråvaka) is endowed with the five pure
skandhas: morality, meditation, wisdom, deliverance, and knowledge and vision of
deliverance. It includes the four pairs or eight categories of people. It is worthy of
donations (dak∑iˆ¥ya), homage (pËjan¥ya), and veneration (arcan¥ya). It constitutes
for the world the supreme field of merit (puˆyak∑etra). The yogin should
commemorate the Sa∫gha praised in such terms by the Buddha, and meditate upon
the qualities of the Sa∫ghas of the Íråvaka, pratyeka-Buddhas, and Bodhisattvas
forming together the noble Sa∫gha (åryasa∫gha).
The five pure skandhas were already mentioned in connection with the
commemoration of the Buddha. Why are they mentioned again at this stage? In the
present context the five pure skandhas are considered in terms of their possession by
the Buddha's disciples. Perfection (saµpad) is of two kinds, namely real (bhËta) and
nominal (nåma). If one praises the perfection that is to be gained or is already gained
by the Buddha's disciples, it is the question of nominal perfection. On the other hand
when one is confronted with the perfection gained by the Buddha, it is real
perfection. The Buddha's Sa∫gha is also praised in order to distinguish it from
heretical communities (t¥rthika), itinerant communities (pravrajita) and the laity
(g®hastha). The heretical groups and the laity extol their prosperity, loftiness and
power, and the itinerant communities praise their wrong views, mortifications,
attachments, wisdoms, teachings, and ways of formal debate (vivåda). Since it is not
adequate to commemorate merely the monastic community with its morality,
meditation, and wisdom, the Buddha also praises all the remaining qualities of the
Sa∫gha, starting with its foundation and concluding with its knowledge and vision of
deliverance.
On account of the perfection of qualities inherent in the above five pure skandhas,
the Sa∫gha is worthy of offerings (dak∑iˆ¥ya). Just as a rich and noble person is
extolled by people, so does the Sa∫gha incorporating the power of the five pure
skandhas deserves to be given offerings, homage, salutation, and veneration.
The Sa∫gha is the best field of merit for the world. There are two kinds of
benefactors (dånapati): poor and rich. The poor donor is compensated for his
homage, respect and alacrity with regard to the Sa∫gha. The rich benefactor, in
addition for doing the same as the poor benefactor, is also compensated for his
material donations (åmi∑adåna). It is for these reasons that the Sa∫gha is the best
field of merit for the world. A good field that is well cultivated and irrigated yields
an abundant harvest. The same holds true for the field of merit that is the Sa∫gha.
The community includes the four pairs of persons120 or eight kinds of people. It is
called the best field of merit on account of these eight kinds of persons. Why on

119. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III; 1383-1406.
120. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1389-90: In contrast to the p®thagjanas, the åryas established on
the path to nirvåâ are divided into various groups. Two groups are the ßaik∑as and aßaik∑as or
arhats. The eight groups or four pairs (purußapudgala) are the four condidates and the four adepts
(fruits):
1. prathamaphalapratipannaka (candidate for the first fruit of religious life), 2. srotaåpanna
(stream winner), 3. dvit¥yaphalapratipannaka (candidate for the second fruit), 4. sak®dågåmin
(once returner), 5. t®t¥yaphalapratipannaka (candidate for the third fruit), 6. anågåmin (non-
returner), 7. arhattvaphalapratipannaka (canditate for the fruit of arhatship), 8. arhat.
The four pairs of people (puru∑ayuga) are formed from the above eight categories.
67
some occasions the Buddha said that the field of merit includes two categories of
persons, namely trainees (ßaik∑a) and arhats (aßaik∑a), and on some other occasions
that it includes eighteen or again eight? When the Buddha explains things at length,
he speaks of eighteen kinds of persons, but here he provides a summary and hence
mentions only eight. However, the twenty-seven kinds of persons are ultimately
included within the eight categories.
The Sa∫gha should also be commemorated as the true companion (sahåyaka) on the
path to nirvåâ. Being united in the same morality and vision, one rejoices in,
respects and follows the Sa∫gha without opposing it. While still in the world one had
wicked companions, but now one progresses towards nirvåâ with security in the
company of noble people. The Buddha is like a physician, the Dharma like medicine,
and the Sa∫gha like a nurse. One reflects that one must gain pure morality and
correct mental dispositions, apply the medication, and use the Sa∫gha as the unique
expedient to destroy the disease of the fetters. Since the Sa∫gha possesses the

There is also a list of twenty-seven kinds of people. It is known in the Påli sources but not fixed
as such, and it is the Sarvåstivåda-Vaibhå∑ika Abhidharma that fixes and identifies the list;
Abhidharmakoßa, VI, 193-217, 251-55, 277. The list includes eighteen kinds of ßaik∑as and eight
kinds of aißaik∑as.
The eighteen kinds of ßaik∑a: 1. candidate for the first fruit (prathamaphalapratipannaka); 2.
stream winner (srotaåpanna); 3. candidate for the second fruit (dvit¥yaphalapratipannaka); 4. once
returner (sak®dågåmin); 5. candidate for the third fruit (t®t¥yaphalapratipannaka); 6. non-returner
(anågåmin); 7. candidate for arhatship (arhattvaphalapratipannaka); 8. farer through faith
(ßraddhånusårin); 9. farer through the Dharma (dharmånusårin); 10. one inspired by faith
(ßraddhådhimukta); 11. one in possession of speculative theory (d®∑†ipråpta); 12. one traversing
from family to family among gods and men, and gaining nirvåâ after two or three rebirths
(kulaµkula); 13. one separated from nirvåâ by one rebirth (ekav¥cika); 14. one gaining nirvåâ
in the intermediate existence (antaråparinirvåyin); 15. anågåmin gaining nirvåâ as soon as
reborn (upapadyaparinirvåyin); 16. anågåmin gaining nirvåâ with effort (såbhisaµskåra-
parinirvåyin); 17. anågåmin gaining nirvåâ without effort (anabhisaµskåra-parinirvåyin); 18.
anågåmin proceeding upwards, namely not gaining nirvåâ in the place of rebirth on leaving the
Kåmadhåtu, but going higher to the Akani∑†ha or the summmit of existence or bhavågra
(Ërdhvasrotas).
The eight kinds of aßaik∑as: 19. arhat susceptible to fall (parihåâdharman); 20. arhat susceptible
to terminate his existence (cetanådharman); 21. arhat susceptible to guard what he has acquired
(anurak∑aâdharman); 22. arhat susceptible to abide in the fruit without fidgeting (sthitåkaµpya);
23. arhat susceptible to penetrate without effort into the immovables (prativedhanåbhavya); 24.
immovable arhat or not susceptible to fall (akopyadharman); 25. arhat possessing the state of
deliverance of the mind (cetovimukta); 26. arhat liberated through wisdom (prajñåvimukta); 27.
arhat liberated in both ways: from kleßåvaraâ, and from vimok∑åvaraâs (ubhayatobhåga-
vimukta).
The above twenty seven-types of persons are listed in the Dak∑iˆ¥yasËtra (preserved in Sanskrit
in Koßavyåkhyå, pages 566-67), and it is more developed than the one in the Påli
Dakkhiêyyasutta of the A∫guttara, I, 63.
The Påli sources have not fixed the personality types into twenty seven, but they know them and
provide definitions: For numbers 1-7 see: Saµyutta, V 202; for 8-11 D¥gha, III, 105, Majjhima, I,
478-79, A∫guttara, I, 74; for 12 &13: Saµyutta, V, 205, A∫guttara, I, 233, IV, 380-81; for 14-18:
D¥gha, III, 237, Saµyutta, V, 70, 237, 285, 314, 378, A∫guttara, IV, 14, 15, 146, 380, V, 120; for
26 & 27: D¥gha, II, 71, Majjhima, I, 439, 477, Saµyutta, I, 191, A∫guttara, I, 73, IV, 10, 77; for
all Puggalapaññatti, 14-18, Nettippakaraâ, 189-90.
The Prajñåpåramitå texts have used this source to establish their twenty categories of noble
persons, but in contrast to the early texts the final goal is not nirvåâ but saµbodhi. The
exposition of these types of noble persons is found in the Pañcaviµßati, 60-72, Íatasåhasrikå,
266-81; Abhisamayålaµkåra, I, v 23-24; Óloka, 35-36.
The Vijñånavådins have taken up the traditional categories of the twenty-seven types:
Abhidharmasamuccaya, 88-91.
68
immense perfections of morality, meditation, and wisdom, its virtues and qualities
cannot be fathom.
IIa4. Commemoration of morality (ß¥lånusm®ti)
There are two kinds of morality, namely impure (såsrava) and pure (anåsrava).
Impure morality includes morality of restraint (saµvaraß¥la) and morality connected
with concentrations (samådhi).121 During the preliminary stages, the yogin
commemorates the categories of impure morality, and upon completing the practices,
he commemorates only pure morality.
While the morality of restraint prevents the sins (påpa) from gaining a dominant
position and eliminates their corrupted qualities, the morality connected with
concentrations discards all defilements, and pure morality uproots both sins and
defilements. While the Buddha is the physician, the Dharma the remedy, and the
Sa∫gha the nurse, morality constitutes the submission to medical treatment. Morality
constitutes the support of all good dharmas, the first gateway of mendicants
(pravrajita), and the first cause and condition for reaching nirvåâ.
The yogin commemorates pure morality by reflecting on it as being faultless,
undamaged, unimpaired, invariant, liberating, free of unreasonable attachment, and
praised by wise men. When one commits all grave sins except for the first four out of
the five precepts (pañcaß¥la), it is morality with faults, and all other sins constitute
damaged morality. All sins committed with one’s body are called faults, and sins
committed with one's speech are called damages. Grave sins are called faults and
small sins are called damages. Morality remains unimpaired when the wholesome
mind (kußalacitta) directs itself towards nirvåâ and impedes on the fetters
(saµyojana) and on various evil examinations (vitarka) and judgements (vicåra).
When on some occasions the mind directs itself towards nirvåâ and on some
occasions towards saµsåra, it is variant morality, but when it directs itself
exclusively towards nirvåâ, it is invariant morality. When one follows pure morality
without becoming involved in external conditions or subject to desire, it is liberating
morality. When confronted with morality, the yogin does not become subjected to
the bonds of desire, pride and other vices, and when he knows the true characteristic
of morality, but he does not seize its characteristic marks (nimitta), it is morality free
of unreasonable attachment. If he grasps the characteristic marks of morality, he is
like a prisoner in handcuffs who upon being freed still remains bound by his
handcuffs. The person attached to morality by defilements of greed is similar to a
prisoner who is freed but continues to be bound by the handcuffs. However, the
yogin, who knows that morality is the cause and condition of purity does not
experience any attachment to it, remains free and unbound by the fetters. Such is the
morality free of unreasonable attachment. When the yogin practises the morality
praised by the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and pratyeka-Buddhas, it is the morality
praised by the wise men. The morality of the heretics is the morality of cows, wild
animals, dogs, and demons (råk∑åsa). Their morality is not praised by the wise men.
It is only pure morality that is praised by the wise men. It is indestructible and
unalterable, and when one relies on it, one gains true wisdom.
Just as the Buddha taught, pure morality is of three kinds, namely right speech, right
action, and right livelihood, which have been already explained above in connection
with the noble eightfold path. However, the place of morality within the noble
eightfold path requires some elaboration. If morality constitutes the cause and
condition of meditation, and if meditation constitutes the cause and condition of

121. Abhidharmakoßa, IV, 13.
69
wisdom, why within the context of the noble eightfold path the category of wisdom
is placed at the beginning, morality in the middle, and meditation at the end? It is so
because when one starts the path, it is a rule to start first by considering the path that
is to be pursued, and then to tread it. When one treads it, one must remain diligent,
and as one marches on with diligence, one always recalls the instruction given by the
guide so that one does not stray from the right path. The same holds for right view.
In the first instance one bases oneself on wisdom and considers the four noble truths.
The consideration of the truth of suffering and the rest constitutes right view. Once
his mind becomes stabilised, the yogin knows that saµsåra is false and must be
abandoned, and that nirvåâ is true and must be attained. This clear perception is
called right view. The yogin perceives all these things but as his determination is not
very strong, he is not capable of embarking on the path. He reflects and stimulates
right view so that it increases in strength, and this is called right intention. Once his
wisdom becomes intensified, he wants to express it and consequently he exerts right
speech, followed by right action and right livelihood. When one's morality is
activated, one is energetic and not lazy, and one acts in the manner of not stopping
the progress of material and formless samådhis. This is called right effort. Applying
right view, one meditates on the four noble truths, while constantly recalling and
never forgetting that defilements (kleßa) are one's enemies that are to be destroyed,
and that right view and other factors should constitute one's companions; this is
called right mindfulness. Next, one focuses one's mind on the four noble truths
without allowing any distraction, and avoiding to orient one's mind towards material
or formless samådhis, one orients oneself with determination towards nirvåâ; this is
right meditation.
At the start, the yogin gains wholesome but impure dispositions that are called heat
(u∑magata), head (mËrdhan), and patience (k∑ånti), and that become developed
during the initial, intermediate, and final states of the mind.122 When the yogin
submerges into the pure mind (anåsravacitta) that constitutes the first moment of
darßanamårga, he is perfected in a single instant of mind, and there is no more any
distinction or gradation between initial and other states.123
Right view is associated with right intention, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration. The threefold morality comprising right speech, right action, and right
livelihood, functions in association with the above members of the path.
Right view distinguishes between good and evil, and aims for a good goal; right
intention aims to stimulate right view; right speech, right action, and right livelihood
maintain good qualities of wisdom so that they don't become lost; right effort
stimulates wisdom so that it speedily advances without stopping; right mindfulness
recalls and never forgets the other seven members of the path which are to be
pursued; right meditation induces the purification of the mind and its freedom from
decadent dispositions (ka∑åya) and distractions (vik∑epa). It is right concetration that
assures the success (siddhi) of right view and the remaining members of the path. It
is in this manner that pure morality is embedded in the noble eightfold path.

122. These three and the laukikågradharmas constitute four auxilliaries conducive to the penetration
(nirvedhabhåg¥ya) of the truths, and are practised during the prayogamårga immediately before
the darßanamårga.
123. The prayogamårga is superseded by the darßanamårga that comprises sixteen moments of mind.
With the attainmnet of this first moment, namely the du˙khe dharmajñånak∑ånti, the yogin
becomes an årya.
70
IIa5. Commemoration of abandonment (tyågånusm®ti) 124
There are two kinds of abandonment, namely one consisting in dispensing gifts
(dånatyåga), and one consisting in abandoning all defilements (sarvakleßatyåga).
Abandonment of gifts includes material things (åmi∑adåna) and the gift of Dharma.
These three types of abandonment taken together constitute the nature of
abandonment.
Material gifts constitute the foundation of all good dharmas. While the first four
commemorations enable one to heal the disease of defilements, the actual obtainment
of these four commemorations is effected through the rare opportunity of bestowing
gifts upon the Three Jewels. This is evident from the fact that living beings within
this beginningless universe that ignore the Three Jewels acquire merits that
eventually become exhausted. However, since the qualities of the Three Jewels are
immense, the gifts bestowed upon them are inexhaustible and lead towards nirvåâ.
When the past Buddhas have generated the thought of enlightenment for the first
time, it was due to their many gifts, and the Buddha himself said that gifts are the
primary auxiliary of enlightenment. In addition to that, material possessions
constitute the causal and circumstantial conditions of all kinds of defilements and
sins. On the other hand morality, concentration, wisdom, and other good dharmas are
the cause and condition of nirvåâ. Consequently, one should abandon all
possessions, and since the Three Jewels are such an excellent field of merit why not
to offer one's possessions to them?
The advantages derived from the gift of Dharma are tremendous, because it is due to
such a gift that the Buddha's disciples found the path. The Buddha said that out of
two kinds of gifts, the gift of Dharma is the primary one. It is so because the
retribution of material gifts is limited while the retribution derived from the gift of
Dharma is boundless. While material gifts are retributed in the Kåmadhåtu, the gift
of Dharma is retributed within the entire sphere of the three worlds (traidhåtuka) and
also beyond them. When the yogin, without seeking his own glory or benefit, exerts
himself in the pursuance of the Buddha's path, activates great benevolence and
compassion, and saves living beings from the suffering of birth, old age, illness and
death, it is what is called the pure gift of Dharma. The material gifts even if they are
bestowed in abundance, they do eventually decrease, but the generous bestowal of
Dharma leads to the Dharma's augmentation. While the practice of giving material
things is an ancient custom, the practice of the gift of Dharma is an innovation since
it did not exist before the appearance of the good Dharma (saddharma). While
material gifts can alleviate hunger and thirst, and also diseases derived from cold and
other causes, the gift of Dharma can eliminate the ninety-eight categories of
proclivities (anu∑aya).
The gift of Dharma means the actual teaching of the twelve categories of scriptures
taught by the Buddha, doing it with pure intention and for the sake of merit. The use
of psychic powers (®ddhibala) for the sake of inducing people to find the path is also
called the gift of Dharma. Even if one does not voice anything and induces other
people to find the Dharma, it is also the gift of Dharma.
When one dispenses the gift of Dharma, one should take into account the mental
dispositions of living beings, the volume of their defilements, abilities and
weaknesses, and the capacity of their wisdom. One must rely on things that are
useful to them in order to teach them the Dharma. There are people who are
pervaded either by greed, hatred or delusion, or by their combination. Those
permeated by greed should be taught the meditation on the horrors, those permeated

71
by hatred should be taught benevolence, and deluded people should be taught the law
of dependent origination. The people pervaded by a combination of these three
defilements should be taught an appropriate mixture of practices. When one does not
know the nature of people's diseases, and applies wrong medicines, their situation
deteriorates. Those who believe in the existence of living beings (sattva) should be
taught that only the five aggregates exist and that there is no åtman within them. By
contrast those who deny the existence of living beings should be taught about the
constant flux (saµtåna) of the five aggregates so that they don't fall into the extreme
of nihilism. Those who search for riches should be taught about generosity, those
wishing to be reborn among the gods should be taught morality, those who are
afflicted should be taught about heavenly matters, wicked laymen should be taught
about becoming mendicants, people fond of money should be taught the five
precepts of lay devotees, and those who detest saµsåra should be taught the three
seals of Dharma.
The rejection and destruction of all defilements, starting with the first three fetters125
and concluding with the ninety-eight proclivities (anußaya) is called abandonment of
defilements. When one commemorates the rejection of all defilements, one acquires
security (yogak∑ema) and joy (pråmodya). Although this commemoration partly
corresponds to the commemoration of the Dharma, it is explained separately because
abandonment of defilements is difficult, matchless, and immense. In addition to this
there is some difference between these two commemorations. While the comme-
moration of the Dharma refers to the Buddha's Dharma as the first among all
excellent dharmas, the commemoration of abandonment refers to defilements and
sins as being rejected. Finally the commemoration of abandonment constitutes an
initial exercise before gaining expertise in dhyånas in which there is a risk of
experiencing pride (abhimåna).
IIa6. Commemoration of deities (devatånusm®ti) 126
In this commemoration it is the question of the six classes of gods inhabiting the
Kåmadhåtu from the Cåturmahåråjakåyikas up to the Paranirmitavaßavartins.
The Buddha's ßråvakas should commemorate only the Buddha and his Dharma. Why
should they commemorate the deities? The reason for practising this commemoration
is rooted in the fact that in return for their generous actions, people receive happiness
in different heavens (svargasukha) inhabited by the gods (deva). The Buddha himself
explained the reason for this commemoration. The disciple who commemorates the
gods should reflect on the Cåturmahåråjikadevas as born in their heavenly places due
to five wholesome dharmas (kußaladharma): faith in retribution of sin and merit,
morality, hearing good Dharma, practice of abandonment, and training in wisdom.
Next he reflects that he also possesses these five qualities, and he rejoices because it
is said that the gods gain their rebirth in happy places due to these qualities. He
further reflects that being endowed with such qualities, he could also be reborn in

125. satkåyad®∑†i, ß¥lavrataparåmarßa, and vicikitså; Abhidharmakoßa, V, 85; Pañcaviµßati, 79.8-9.
126. A∫guttara, III, 287; V, 331-32: The noble disciple (åriyasåvako) practises the commemoration of
the deities saying: there are Caturmahåråjika, Tråyastriµßa, Yåma, Tu∑ita, Nirmåâratin, and
Paranirmitavaßavartin deities. There are the devas Brahmakåyikas, and the devas that are higher
than these devas. It is because of being endowed with faith (saddhå), morality (s¥la), erudition
(suta), liberality (cågo), and wisdom (paññå) that they left this world (ito) and became reborn in
there (tattha). The same faith and the rest including pañña is found in me.
According to the Påli sources, the commemoration of deities can assure rebirth among the six
classes of the Kåmadhåtu devas, among the Brahmå devas of the RËpadhåtu, and even among the
higher devas than that, namely those of the ÓrËpyadhåtu. But in the Sanskrit/Chinese sources,
this commemoration affords rebirths only among the six classes of the gods of the Kåmadhåtu.
72
such places if he had such a wish. However, since the happiness of heavenly abodes
is transient, he declines to aspire for such places. The commemoration of the
remaining groups of gods is done in the same manner.
The three worlds include numerous pure deities in the RËpadhåtu and ÓrËpadhåtu,
why then one commemorates only the Kåmadhåtu gods? It is only in the ßråvaka
system that there is the commemoration of the Kåmadhåtu gods, but in the Mahåyåna
it is proscribed to commemorate the gods of all three worlds. However, the yogin
who has not obtained the path often remains attached in his thoughts to the five
objects of enjoyment relating to the world of human beings. It is for this reason that
the Buddha recommends to commemorate the gods. The yogin who destroys sexual
desire (råga) becomes reborn among the gods of the two higher worlds. If he does
not destroy it, he becomes reborn among the six classes of the gods inhabiting the
Kåmadhåtu, where the five objects of enjoyment are beautiful (praˆ¥ta), subtle
(sËk∑ma) and pure (vißuddha). The Buddha does not wish that human beings should
be reborn and enjoy the five objects of enjoyment. However, since there are beings
that are incapable of entering nirvåâ, it is for them that the Buddha recommends the
commemoration of the gods.
There are four kinds of gods: 1. gods by metaphor (saµmatideva) such as for
instance a king who is called “son of the gods” (devaputra); 2. gods by birth (upa-
pattideva), namely all gods of the three worlds; 3. gods by purity (vißuddhi-deva),
namely all noble persons born among human beings (åryapudgala); and 4. gods by
natal purity (upapattivißuddhadeva), namely all noble persons (åryapudgala) born
among the gods of the three worlds.127 The commemoration of gods refers to two
categories of the gods: those by birth and those by natal purity.
IIa7. Commemoration of respiration (ånåpånånusm®ti) 128
For this commemoration the Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra refers the reader to the
DhyånasËtra, which has been quoted in connection with definition of various
dhyånas and samåpattis.129 It is an ancient sËtra in which the nine anupËrva-
samåpattis are defined with some precision.130 The free version of the text runs as
follows. “A monk being distanced from desire and bad dharmas enters the first
dhyåna, which is endowed with examination and judgement, issued from
detachment, and which is joy and happiness. Through the suppression of
examination and judgement, he enters into the second dhyåna, internal peace,
fixation of the mind on one point, free from examination and judgement, born from
concentration, which is joy and happiness. Renouncing joy, he remains indifferent,
aware and conscious; he experiences happiness in his body; he enters into the third

127. The upapattivißuddha devas are:
a. srotaåpannas called kulaµkulas and sak®dågåmins named ekav¥cikas who, at times gain in the
heavenly abodes the state of anågåmins or arhats.
b. In the RËpadhåtu there are five kinds of anågåmins who are no longer reborn in the Kåmadhåtu
but gain the state of arhatship in the RËpadhåtu;
c. In the ÓrËpyadhåtu there is one category of anågåmins who, once detached from the
RËpadhåtu, become reborn in the ÓrËpyadhåtu where they cultivate the pure path, become arhats
and enter nirvåâ. (Abhidharmakoßa, IV, 215).
129. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, II, 1025.
130. This topic is covered quite extensively in canonical texts: Vinaya, III, 4; D¥gha, I, 37, 73, 172; II,
313; III, 78; Majjhima I, 21, 40, 89, 117, 159; II, 15, 204, 226; III, 4, 14, 25, 36. The Sanskrit text
of this sËtra is preserved in Lalitavistara, 129; Pañcaviµßati, 167; Daßasåhasrikå, 98-99;
73
dhyåna, which the holy persons called ‘indifferent, aware, abiding in happiness’.
Through the destruction of happiness and pain, through the previous suppression of
joy and dissatisfaction, he enters into the fourth dhyåna, free from pain and
happiness, purified in renunciation and reflection. Having gone beyond every notion
of matter, eliminating every notion of resistance, disregarding every notion of
multiplicity, he exclaims ‘infinite space’ and penetrates into the sphere of infinity of
space. Going beyond the sphere of infinite space, he successively penetrates into the
sphere of infinity of consciousness, the sphere of nothingness, the sphere of neither-
consciousness-nor-non-consciousness, and finally, into the samåpatti of the cessation
of perception and sensation.”
IIa8. Commemoration of death (maraˆånusm®ti) 131
There are two categories of death that one should commemorate, namely one’s own
death as such (åtmanå maraâ) and death caused by other beings (pareâ maraâ).132
One considers death, considering that if it is not caused by other beings, one will
inevitably die anyway, since life always concludes in death. As death is present in
the body all the time, one should not attach any importance to the bodily
accumulation of all kinds of sorrow, torments, and decrepitudes. The desire to live
makes one seek security (yogak∑ema) and immortality (am®ta), but such desires arise
only in confused people (mohapuru∑a). As the four great elements (mahåbhËta)
within the body mutually destroy each other, one should never place trust in this
bodily trunk containing four poisonous snakes.133 It is difficult to assure the
continuation of one's breathing in and out, or the succession of one's sleep by
waking. It is so because within and without the body there are many enemies. One
dies inside the womb, at birth or at a mature age due to all kinds of causes. One seeks
to avoid death, the cruel and wicked thief, and yet it is never possible to escape it and
find security. There are no effective discourses or supplications to free oneself from
it, or any fortified citadel to which one could escape. One cannot elude death by the
practice of pure morality or energy. Death is a merciless thief. When it arrives one
cannot flee from it to any secure place. It is explained in the Maraâsm®tisËtra that
one should not expect to live more than it takes to breath in or out.134 Conditioned
dharmas arise and disappear from moment to moment, and their duration is very
short. They are similar to a magic display (måyopama) that deludes ignorant people.
The order of the commemorations 135
As the Dharma is the teacher (åcårya) of all the Buddhas of the three times, why is
the Buddha commemorated first?136 What is the order of the eight commemorations?
Although the Dharma is the master of the Buddhas of the three times and the ten
directions, it is the Buddha who taught the Dharma, because his skills are very great.
The Buddha is comparable to a legendary king who constructed a ladder so that all
his people could reach the summit of a mountain of jewels (ratnagiri). The true
characteristic (bhËtalak∑aâ) of all dharmas of the world is similar to that mountain
of jewels. All kinds of heretics, and even Brahmå who seeks the true characteristic of
dharmas, cannot find it, and what can be said about other people? The Buddha, due

132. See D¥gha III, 231; A∫guttara, II, 159; Abhidharmakoßa, II, 219.
133. For the four venomous snakes see Vimalak¥rtinirdeßa, 136-7 note.
134. See Maraâsatisutta I, A∫guttara, III, 303-6, or IV, 316-19.
136. See Gåravasutta, Saµyutta, I, 138-40.
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to his benevolence and compassion, takes pity on living beings, and being endowed
with the six perfections, omniscience, and salvific expedients, he teaches the ladder
of the twelve classes of scriptures, and the eighty-four thousand articles of the
Dharma. His disciples, Ójñåtakauˆ∂inya and all others have gained all pure dharmas,
the powers, the limbs of enlightenment, the limbs of the path, and the true
characteristic of dharmas. Although the true characteristic of dharmas is something
marvellous, all living beings that are favoured by the Buddha receive them. It is for
this reason that the Buddha's commemoration comes as the first. Then there follow
the commemorations of Dharma and Sa∫gha. As the Sa∫gha is based on the
Buddha's words to explain the Dharma, it comes in the third place. While other
people cannot explain the Dharma, the Sa∫gha is capable to do so, and thus it is
classed as a Jewel. The Buddha is the jewel among human beings, the Dharma is the
jewel among ninety-six heretical systems, and the Sa∫gha is the jewels among all
communities. It is due to the Buddha that the Dharma appears in the world, and it is
due to the Dharma that there is the Sa∫gha. Relying on the Sa∫gha, one discards all
evil deeds (du∑k®ta) of one's body and speech. Thus it is morality that is listed as the
next. Being endowed with morality one aims to eliminate all sins committed in one's
mind (cittadu∑k®ta), namely covetousness (abhidhyå), malevolence (vyåpåda), and
wrong views (mithyåd®∑†i). Commemorating generosity one destroys covetousness,
aspiring for the benefactor to find happiness one destroys malevolence, and believing
in merit and its retribution one removes wrong views. Thus abiding in morality and
generosity, one becomes established in the ten wholesome pathways of action
(daßakußalakarmapatha),137 and escapes the ten evil pathways of action. When one
practices in a superior manner, the ten wholesome pathways of action generate the
fruit of rebirths among the pure gods of the RËpadhåtu or the ÓrËpyadhåtu, and
when one practices in an average manner, they generate the fruit of rebirths among
the gods of the Kåmadhåtu. It is for this reason that the commemoration of morality
and generosity are followed by the commemoration of the deities. While practising
dhyånas and samåpattis, one reaches the deities of the two higher worlds, destroys
adverse categories of reasoning (vitarka), amasses good dharmas, and focuses one's
mind on one-pointedness. It is for this reason that one commemorates the deities.
Next one commemorates breathing in and out. When one does it, one can destroy
adverse categories of reasoning, just as rains wash away dust. Observing the paces of
breathing in and out, one apprehends the dangers that menace the body. It is due to
breathing in and out that the body is maintained alive; hence the commemoration of
breathing in and out. Finally one commemorates death. It happens that while one is
consciously possessed of the first seven commemorations, and abides in their
qualities, one becomes surrendered to laziness (kaus¥dya). It is on such occasions that
one should commemorate death, because since death is constantly present, one
should not remain lazy or satisfied with the acquired qualities.
IIb. The commemorations according to the Mahāyāna 138
The above eight commemorations have been explained as practised by the ßråvakas,
but how does the Bodhisattva practise them? While the ßråvakas practise the
commemorations for their own sake, the Bodhisattva practises them for the sake of
all living beings. In the case of the ßråvakas, the commemorations bring solely the
state of liberation from old age, illness, and death, but in the case of the Bodhisattva
they perfect the qualities of omniscience. Such are the fundamental differences in the

137. Listed in Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, I, 501.
75
practice of these two types of commemorations. The Buddha said that it is through
the method of non-reliance (asthånayoga) that the Bodhisattva, who abides in the
perfection of wisdom, should accomplish the perfection of generosity and other
qualities, including the eight commemorations by asserting their non-existence
(anupalabdhi). Thus first there is non-reliance and then non-existence, the two seals
(mudrå) that constitute the difference between these two types of commemorations.
III. The ten notions (saµjñå) 139

At the initial stages when one trains in wholesome dharmas in order not to ever grasp
them, they are called commemorations. When one establishes their characteristic
marks (nimitta) as well as the mind (citta), they are called notions (saµjñå), and
when one knows with certainty (niyata) and without doubt (vicikitså), they are called
knowledge (jñåna).
The Påli sources have two different lists of the ten saññås. The first one in D¥gha, III,
291; Saµyutta, V, 132-33;140 and the second one in A∫guttara, V, 109 (see IV, 46-
53; V, 109-112).141
The Sanskrit Pañcaviµßati has ten142 saµjñås, and the Íatasåhasrikå has six.143
According to the Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, the Bodhisattva must accomplish the
following ten notions (saµjñå): 1. impermanence (anitya), 2. suffering (du˙kha), 3.
impersonality (anåtma), 4. repugnant character of food (åhåre pratikËla), 5. disgust
for the entire world (sarvaloke 'nabhirati), 6. death (maraâ), 7. impurity (aßuci), 8.
abandonment (prahåâ), 9. detachment (viråga), and 10. cessation (nirodha).
III.1 The notion of impermanence (anityasaµjñå) 144
The notion associated with wisdom that considers all conditioned dharmas as
impermanent is called the notion of impermanence. All such dharmas are
impermanent, because they constantly arise and perish, depend on causes and
conditions, and because they do not increase. When they arise they come from
nowhere, and when they disappear they go nowhere. They are impermanent because
the world of living beings and the universe (lokadhåtu) are impermanent. It is said
that the earth, Mount Sumeru, the divine abodes, and everything else in this world,
become dissolved. The noble person who was endowed with the ten powers, bodily
splendour, and immense wisdom, and who saved living beings, has disappeared and
is to be found nowhere. There is no sage that remains unaffected. Similarly Íåriputra,
SubhËti and other holy persons, universal monarchs, rulers of the forever happy
gods, deities, virtuous and noble people, all of them have also perished. At the end of
the cosmic time, the world becomes reduced to nothing, just as a lamp exposed to the
wind or the water poured through the sieve. There is thus impermanence because all
living beings and their abodes are transitory.

140. 1. asubha-saññå; 2. maraâ-; 3. åhåre pa†ikkËla-; 4. sabbaloke anabhirati-; 5. anicca-; 6. anicce
dukkha-; 7. dukkhe anatta-; 8. pahåna-; 9. viråga-; 10. nirodha-saññå.
141. 1. anicca-, 2. anatta-, 3. asubha-, 4. åd¥nava-, 5. pahåna-, 6. viråga-, 7. nirodha-, 8. sabbaloke
anabhirati-, 9. sabbasa∫khåresu anicca-, 10. ånåpånasati-saññå.
142. 1. Pañcaviṃśati, 20: anitya-; 2. du˙kha-; 3. anåtma-; 4. aßuci-; 5. maraâ-; 6. sarvaloke
'nabhirati-; 7. sarvaloke 'vißvåsa-; 8. parijaya-; 9. saµv®ti-; 10. yathåruta-saµjñåna.
The list in Kumåraj¥va's translation of the Pañcaviµßati is as follows: 1. anitya, 2. du˙kha, 3.
anåtma, 4. åhåre pratikËla, 5. sarvaloke 'nabhirati, 6. maraâ, 7. aßuci, 8. prahåâ, 9. viråga, 10.
nirodha-saµmjñå.
143. 1. anitya-; 2. du˙kha-; 3. anåtma-; 4. aßubha-; 5. sarvalokånabhirati-; 6. avißvåsa-saµjñå.
76
The Bodhisattva practises the notion of impermanence, because living beings that
become victims of the misconception of taking impermanent for permanent endure
many kinds of suffering, without succeeding to escape saµsåra. The Bodhisattva,
being endowed with this notion, matures living beings by teaching them that all
dharmas are impermanent, and that they should not become attached to the
misconception of eternalism, as this would forfeit their chances of entering the path.
Among the four noble truths, the truth of suffering is the first and impermanence is
the first among its four aspects; hence the Bodhisattva practises the notion of
impermanence.
The perfect notion of impermanence consists in establishing that all conditioned
dharmas arise and perish from moment to moment, like dust carried away by the
wind or a suddenly extinguished flame. They are without solidity or vitality, and
cannot be seized or retained. They resemble magic creations and delude ordinary
people. It is on account of impermanence that the yogin leaps over the threshold of
emptiness (ßËnya), and as no dharma exists in emptiness, impermanence too does not
exist. It is so because origination (utpåda), duration (sthiti), and destruction (bha∫ga)
do not coexist in one and the same moment (k∑aâ). Duration and destruction cannot
exist at the moment of origination; origination and destruction at the moment of
duration; and origination and duration at the moment of destruction. These three
things mutually oppose each other by their inherent nature (svabhåva) and
characteristic (lak∑aâ), and cannot exist together at the same time. Since they do not
exist, impermanence also does not exist.
Although impermanence does not exist, the Buddha taught impermanence as part of
the four noble truths because ordinary people, due to wrong views, assume that the
world is eternal (nitya). Thus, in order to destroy such eternalistic views
(ßåßvatad®∑†i), the Buddha spoke about impermanence, but not because he asserted
impermanence to be real (bhËta). Prior to the advent of the Buddha, ordinary people
were endowed only with mundane ways (saµv®timårga) to eliminate defilements, but
during the present period it is the question of removing the roots of defilements
(kleßamËla), and hence the Buddha teaches the notion of impermanence. The
heretical systems do speak of deliverance from the five objects of enjoyment, but the
Buddha explained that it is due to false notions that one is fettered (baddha) and that
it is through the true notion of impermanence that one becomes liberated (vimukta).
The notion of impermanence can be considered in two ways, namely with a
remainder or incomplete, and without a remainder or complete. When all beings and
phenomena utterly disappear, but their names still remain, it is the notion of
impermanence with a remainder, and again if they all disappear including their
names, it is impermanence without any remainder. Two other possible ways of
considering the notion of impermanence are the death and destruction of the body,
and the uninterrupted process of origination and destruction.
Some assert that morality constitutes the principal factor, because it is through the
reliance on morality that one gains the appeasement of the cankers (åsravak∑aya).
Other people allege that it is erudition (bahußruta) because it leads to wisdom, and
again some other people say that it is the group of the twelve ascetic observances
(dhËtaguâ),145 because they purify the practice of morality. However, since people
uphold specific practices as being principal, they do not seek for nirvåâ with
diligence. The Buddha said that all such attitudes impede on the progress towards

145. Sanskrit sources such as Mahåvyutapatti, 1127-39, have twelve and the Påli sources such as
A∫guttara, IV, 46, Vinaya, V, 131, 193, and Visuddhimagga, 48-67, have therteen such practices.
77
nirvåâ, and that the investigation into the impermanence of all dharmas constitutes
the true path.
The notion of impermanence is synonymous with the noble path. The Buddha
specifies the path through different names, such as the four foundations of
mindfulness, the four noble truths, or again as the notion of impermanence. It is said
in a certain text146 that when the notion of impermanence is cultivated, it destroys
every attachment to the three worlds, all arrogance (asmimåna), and ignorance. Thus
since it removes the ten fetters that bind one to the three worlds, it is synonymous
with the path.
III.2.The notion of suffering (du˙khasaµjñå) 147
This notion rests on the assumption that so long as conditioned dharmas are
impermanent, they are painful. When one becomes attached to such dharmas, one
experiences pain, and when one becomes detached from them, one does not
experience pain. However, since all conditioned dharmas, whether pure (anåsrava) or
impure (såsrava), are painful, it would imply that even the noble persons
(åryapudgala) experience pain. In order to explain and understand this situation, it is
necessary to distinguish two kinds of pain, namely physical (kåyika), and mental
(caitasika). Due to the power of their wisdom, the noble persons do not experience
any mental pains such as mental anxiety (daurmanasya), envy (¥r∑yå) or malevolence
(vyåpåda). On the other hand due to their actions in previous lives, they have
inherited their bodies, and consequently they experience bodily pains such as illness,
hunger, cold, old age and other kinds of physical pain. Pure conditioned dharmas are
not painful, because the noble persons do not attach themselves to them, but since the
bodies of such persons are impure, they suffer pains, but such pains are rare and
attenuated.
The Buddhist path as such is also impermanent like all conditioned dharmas but it is
not painful. The assertion that everything that is impermanent is also painful is
applied only to the five aggregates of grasping, but not to the path even if it is
impermanent in terms of mental formations (saµskåra). The path destroys suffering
and does not arouse any attachment (abhiniveßa). Being united with the knowledge
of emptiness and impersonality, it is only impermanent but not painful.
The significance of suffering should also be considered within the context of what
has been said in connection with mindfulness of sensations. The five aggregates of
grasping are suffering, but it is due to subjective notions of suffering that they are
painful. There are three kinds of sensation, namely pleasant, painful, and indifferent.
If suffering arises from the subjective notion of suffering, how can it be asserted that
the noble truth of suffering concerns true suffering? Such an assertion is correct
because the five aggregates of grasping are suffering, but ordinary people, being
under the influence of the fourfold misconception and being motivated by greed,
consider the five objects of enjoyment as happiness. Their situation is similar to a
man who would put an ointment on an ulcer, and once the pain subsides, he would
consider the ulcer as happiness, which it is not. The Buddha did speak of three kinds
of sensation, but he did it in conformity with worldly conventions although in reality
there is no happiness.148 If the five aggregates of grasping include a category of true

146. AnityasËtra of the Saµyukta that corresponds to the Aniccatåsutta of the Saµyutta, III, 155.
148. Rahogataka-sutta of the Saµyutta, IV, 216-17. After stating that there are three kinds of
sensation, the Buddha went on to say that everything that one feels is suffering. Then he
78
happiness, the Buddha would not have said that the destruction of the five aggregates
of grasping is happiness.149 The notion of suffering, like that of impermanence,
refers to the five aggregates of grasping.
III.3. The notion of impersonality (anåtmasaµjñå) 150
Everything that is impermanent is painful, everything that is painful is impersonal.
This is the true situation because the five aggregates of grasping do not possess any
autonomy (aißvarya/vibhutva), and since they have no autonomy, they are
impersonal. If there was such an entity as åtman, the body could not possibly
experience any pain. There are, however, ignorant people who assume the body or
the mind as being the åtman. They gradually become attached to it, and this happens
because they do not know the law of impermanence. Within the body there is no
agent (kåraka) or experiencer (vedaka). It is without a master but it does all sorts of
things. The six kinds of consciousness arise from the six sense faculties and their six
objects, and from the connection of these three, there arises contact (sparßa), which
in tern serves as the condition for the arising of sensation, recollection and action.
When the sense faculties, the objects and the consciousnesses are united, the action
that is to be accomplished becomes actualised.
There is no åtman because the characteristics (lak∑aâ) of the åtman do not exist.
Dharmas must have characteristics in order to know that they exist. Thus, when one
sees smoke or feels heat, one knows that there is fire. Since there are characterising
differences between the sense faculties and their objects, one knows that they exist.
Since living organisms understand and characterise the things in different ways, one
knows that there is the mind and its concomitants. However, since the åtman does
not have any characteristic, one knows that it does not exist.
Such things as respiration, life, thought, pain, affection or aversion, determination
and other attributes, which are said to be the characteristics of the åtman are not its
characteristics but those of consciousness. It is so because when there is
consciousness there is respiration and all other things, and when consciousness
leaves the body all such things disappear. In addition to that all such things as
respiration and the rest are material dharmas, which operate due to consciousness.
The argument that in such states as deep and dreamless sleep or the unconscious
attainment (asaµjñi-samåpatti), the process of respiration and life continues to
persist without consciousness, is counteracted by asserting that consciousness may
be temporarily suspended, but it re-emerges because it does not leave the body. The
period during which consciousness exists is long and the period during which it
disappears is short, hence the inspiration and the life force constitute the
characteristics of consciousness. Furthermore suffering and happiness, affection and
aversion, determination and other things are associated with the mind
(cittasaµprayukta), mutually conditioned (sahabhËpratyaya), and concomitant with
the mind (cittånuparivartin). When the mind exists, they also exist, and when the
mind does not exist, they also cease to exist. Thus they constitute the characteristics
of consciousness and not of the åtman. If the åtman exists, it is either eternal or
impermanent. If it is eternal it cannot undergo new existences (punarbhava). Being
eternal and without rebirth, it would also be without deliverance. It would be
infallible and inactive, and per force there would be no sinner, saint or experiencer

explained that taking into consideration impermanence of the formations (sa∫khåra), everything
that is felt is felt as suffering.
149. Saµyutta, II, 7; III, 14; A∫guttara, I, 177.
150. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, 1447-52.
79
(vedaka). The abandonment of åtman and self-appropriation (åtm¥ya) leads to the
obtainment of nirvåâ. If the åtman is impermanent, it must perish with the body,
and thus in this case too there would be no sin or merit. Since there is no åtman, one
knows that the notion of åtman in all dharmas is false. The knowledge that there is
no åtman in dharmas prevents the formulation of the idea of åtman. Since åtman does
not exist, the idea of “mine” (åtm¥ya) does not exist either, and once the ideas of both
åtman and åtm¥ya cease to exist, the bonds (bandhana) cease to exist, and that is
nirvåâ. Thus it is necessary to cultivate the notion of impersonality.
The relationship between impermanence, suffering, and impersonality 151
The Buddha stated that what is impermanent is painful, and what is painful is
impersonal. Does this statement imply one or three different things? They are one
and the same thing in the sense that they represent the precise apprehension of
impure dharmas, but as they unfold three different perspectives, they are
differentiated into three distinct aspects.
The notion of impermanence is associated with the aspect (åkåra) of impermanence,
the notion of suffering with the aspect of suffering, and that of impersonality with the
aspect of impersonality.152 The notion of impermanence does not lead into the three
worlds, the notion of suffering makes known the defects (do∑a) of the three worlds,
and the notion of impersonality induces the rejection (parityåga) of the world.
Impermanence induces the mind of disgust (udvegacitta), suffering produces fear,
and impersonality drives towards deliverance.
With regard to impermanence the Buddha said that the five aggregates of grasping
are impermanent, with regard to suffering that what is impermanent is painful, and
with regard to impersonality that what is painful is impersonal. Impermanence
implies the destruction of the five aggregates, suffering induces sorrow, and
impersonality suggests rejection. Impermanence destroys craving, suffering discards
the view that there is happiness of nirvåâ in this world, and impersonality discards
all possibilities of attachment. Impermanence refers to those who attach themselves
to permanent things, suffering refers to those who imagine the possibility of
happiness, and impersonality refers to those who imagine a stable self. Thus
impermanence, suffering, and impersonality constitute one notion having three
different aspects.
III.4. The notion of repugnance for food (åhåre pratikËla-saµjñå) 153
This notion of repugnance arises when one establishes that food derives from impure
or repugnant (aßubha) causes and conditions. Thus the flesh (måµsa) derives from
sperm (b¥ja), blood (ßoîta), and urine (mËtra). It is the seat of pus (pËya) and worms
(k®mi). Ghee, milk and curds, produced from the transformation of blood, are not
different from rotten things.
When food is placed in the mouth, secreted saliva becomes mixed with the mucus
(khe†a) and produces flavour. The chewed food which resembles vomit (vånta)
descends into the stomach where it becomes integrated by the earth element,
dissolved by the water element, agitated by the wind element, and burned by the fire
element. The kidneys (ka†i) have three orifices. Under the impact of the inner wind
the fatty liquid spreads through one hundred veins (sirå), becomes mingled with
blood, coagulates, and then becomes transformed into flesh. From that new flesh

152. Anitya, du˙kha, and anåtman along with ßËnya constitute the four aspects of the first noble truth.
80
there are produced fat (meda), bones (asthi), and marrow (majjan), and from them
the organ of touch (kåyendriya).154 The union between the recent flesh and the new
flesh induces the arising of the five sense faculties (pañcendriya), and from them the
five categories of consciousness (pañcavijñåna), followed by the mental
consciousness (manovijñåna), which analyses and seizes the characteristic marks
(nimitta), and discerns beauty and ugliness. Next there arise the ideas of åtman,
åtm¥ya, defilements (kleßa), and evil actions (nigha).
Thus, the yogin meditates on food whose primary and secondary causes involve
many impurities. He perceives that his internal great elements (mahåbhËta) do not
differ from the external great elements, and that it is solely due to the wrong view of
åtman that one formulates the existence of åtman. The yogin also considers that the
production of food involves much effort and suffering in terms of cultivating the
fields and planting seeds, and yet when food is consumed it becomes transformed in
one night into excrement and urine. At first it has a pleasant flavour, and then when it
is digested, it turns into horrible impurities. He further considers that if he becomes
attached to food, he will fall into hells where he will consume balls of blazing metal.
After that there will follow rebirths among animals such as goats, cows, or pigs
eating filthy kinds of food. Thus when one thinks of food in such ways as to induce
the notion of disgust (udvegasaµjñå), then through digust for foot one should
become dissatisfied with the five sense objects of enjoyment. When one is attached
to food, one likes eating and drinking. Upon seeing the pleasant appearance and
flavour of food, one overlooks its impurities. At some later stage when one endures
unpleasant retributions, one may have regrets. If one is able to perceive the origin of
food and its limitations, one develops thoughts of disgust, eliminates one's desire for
food (åhårat®∑ˆå), and then rejects the five objects of enjoyment. Becoming
completely detached (virakta) from the felicities inherent in the Kåmadhåtu, one cuts
off the five objects of enjoyment, and one also becomes liberated from the five lower
fetters.155
The logical order of the ten notions 156
The anitya, du˙kha, and anåtman notions are associated with pure wisdom
(anåsravaprajñå), and the four subsequent notions, namely repugnance for food,
dissatisfaction with the whole world, death and horrors are associated with impure
(såsrava) wisdom. In that case it would seem logical that the order of their treatment
should be reversed. The reason for the present sequence of these notions is that the
Buddhist doctrine incorporates a double path, namely the path of vision
(darßanamårga) and the path of meditative cultivation (bhåvanåmårga). It is during
the path of vision that through the use of the first three notions one destroys wrong
views and gains the quality of årya, but one does not become detached from desire
(virakta). It is thus for the reason of detachment (vairågya) that there follow the
subsequent four notions through which one succeeds to become liberated from greed
and other defilements (rågådikleßa).

154. Abhidharmakoßa, I, 101, II, 104: one of the 22 sovereign faculties.
155. The five lower fetters (pañcåvarabhåg¥yasaµyojana) which favour the Kåmadhåtu and which
prevent the escape from the world, or induce reappearance in it are: believe in personality
(satkåyad®∑†i), unjustified confidence in the efficacy of morality and vows (ß¥lavrataparåmarßa),
doubt (vicikitså), greed for pleasure (kåmacchanda), and malevolence (vyåpåda). D¥gha, I, 156;
II, 92, 252; III, 234; Majjhima, I, 432; Saµyutta, V, 61, 69; A∫guttara, IV, 459; V, 17.
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The first three notions refer to the path of vision, the next four notions refer to the
path of meditative cultivation (bhåvanåmårga), and the remaining three (prahåâ,
virågya, nirodha) refer to the path of non-learner (aßaik∑amårga).
III.5. The notion of dissatisfaction with the whole world (sarvaloke 'nabhirati) 157
When one considers attractive and positive things in the world, one develops the
notion of contentment, and when one considers all misfortunes one develops the
notion of dissatisfaction.
There are two categories of hardship in the world, namely living beings and regions
(pradeßa).
Living beings experience eight kinds of hardship and torments: 1. birth, 2. old age, 3.
illness, 4. death, 5. separation from dear things, 6. union with disliked things, 7. not
obtaining desired things, 8. in short, the five aggregates of grasping are suffering.158
The wickedness of living beings is derived from different defilements. Due to the
excess of greed (råga), they fail to distinguish beauty from ugliness, forget the
teachings received from parents and teachers, lack shamefulness (hr¥) and modesty
(apratråpya), and do not differ from animals. Due to the excess of hatred (dve∑a),
they fail to distinguish between trivial and serious matters, and being pervaded by
anger (krodhavi∑a), they go so far as to reject the Buddha's Dharma.159 They do not
aspire to hear the Buddha's Dharma, do not fear evil destinies, inflict violent
punishments, disregard the miseries of other people, and penetrating into a mighty
darkness (mahåtamas), they do not perceive anything. Due to the excess of delusion
(moha), they fail to achieve the things for which they search, do not understand the
causes of things, just as if attempting to draw milk out of a horn (vi∑åâ).
Being pervaded by ignorance (avidyå) they fail to see anything even if they were
provided with the sun's brightness. The excess of avarice (måtsarya) makes their
habitations similar to graves that nobody wants to approach. Due to the excess of
pride and haughtiness (manastambha), they do not respect noble persons (årya) and
their parents, and being negligent (pramatta), they induce their own ruin and have no
integrity. Due to the power of wrong views (mithyåd®∑†i), they do not believe in the
present or future existences (janman), and as they do not believe in sin (åpatti) or
merit (puˆya), it is impossible to cohabit with them.
Being completely pervaded by defilements, devoid of any integrity, and saturated
with sins, living beings commit the five heinous sins (pañcånantarya). Among living
beings inhabiting this world, honest people (sådhu) are few and rare, and wicked
people (durjana) are numerous. It just happens that righteous people become vile,
rich people follow wicked ways of conduct, generous people are without resources,
and wealthy people are greedy. The people who are reticent and mentally composed
are accused of being arrogant and unhelpful, those who are charitable and courteous
of being deceitful or servile, and those who are eloquent of being mediocre or
arrogant. Simple and good people are often ill treated and tyrannised, those who are
congenial and kind are often despised and treated in harsh ways, and those who
follow morality are labelled as hypocrites.
All the regions are full of calamities and unfavourable qualities such as heat or cold,
famine, plagues, epidemics, diseases, death and other such things. As all such evil

158. This is an excerpt from the first sermon, Vinaya, I, 10, Mahåvastu, III, 332, Lalitavistara, 417,
159. The rejection of the Saddharma (pratik∑epa) constitutes a particularly serious error;
Í¥k∑åsamuccaya 95 and Pañjikå, 147.
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things arise in all regions, there is no place where they can be avoided. Although
there may be places which are peaceful and prosperous, the majority of such places
are permeated by defilements, and thus do not deserve to be called happy places. All
the regions include physical and mental sufferings. There is no happiness in the
world as its living beings and regions include all kinds of miseries.
III.6-10. (6) The notion of death 160 (maraâ-saµjñå) should be understood within
the context of what has been said about mindfulness of death, and (7) the notion of
impurity (aßuci-saµjñå) within the context of mindfulness of the body.
The notions of (8) abandonment (prahåâ), (9) detachment (viråga), and (10)
cessation (nirodha) have as their object the characteristics of nirvåâ.161
Due to the act of abandonment of the fetters (saµyojana), one has the notion of
cutting off. Due to renunciation of the fetters, one has the notion of detachment, and
due to the elimination of the fetters, one has the notion of cessation. These three
notions fundamentally refer to the same thing, but they denote three different aspects,
in a similar way to the notions of impermanence, suffering and impersonality. In this
case wickedness and misery of the world are so serious that they are condemned in
three different ways. Since nirvåâ, never gained previously, is an excellent (praˆ¥ta)
dharma, it is praised in three different ways. Since it represents the abandonment of
the triple poison, it is called “cutting off”. Since it abandons greed (råga), it is called
detachment. Since it eliminates all sufferings to the extent that they never arise again,
it is called “cessation”. During the preparatory path (prayogamårga) constituted by
the four dharmas auxiliary to penetration (nirvedhabhåg¥ya), the yogin endowed with
right knowledge (samyagjñåna) distances himself from defilements (kleßa), and this
constitutes the notion of detachment. Upon gaining the pure path (anåsravamårga),
he cuts off the fetters, and this is the notion of abandonment. Finally, when he enters
nirvåâ, he eliminates the five aggregates of grasping to the extent that they cease to
continue, and this is the notion of cessation. The notion of abandonment is the
nirvåâ with a remainder (sopadhiße∑anirvåâ), the notion of cessation is the nirvåâ
without remainder (nirupadhiße∑anirvåâ), and the notion of detachment constitutes
the expedient (upåya) and the portal (dvåra) leading to the two kinds of nirvåâ.
IV. The eleven knowledges (jñåna) 162
The ancient sources speak of many kinds of knowledge (jñåna/ñåâ), which
eventually were classified by scholars of the classical period. In the Påli canonical
texts, classifications of knowledge are rather rare. A group of suttas in the Saµyutta
(II, 56-60) refers to two classes of knowledge: one comprising forty-four, and one
comprising seventy-seven categories. The first list is achieved through attribution to
eleven links of dependent origination (from jaråmaraâ to sa∫khåra) the four kinds of
knowledge relating to suffering, its origin, its destruction, and the path. The second
list is constructed through attribution of seven other kinds of knowledge to the same
links of dependent origination.

161. A∫guttara, V, 110-11, provides a description of these three notions. The notion of abandonment
is described as rejection and elimination of all thoughts that might arise in the form of greed,
malevolence, and malicious dharmas. The notion of detachment consists in withdrawal to solitary
places, reflections on the benefits of appeasing all mental formations, and reflections on nirvåâ.
The notion of cessation is described in a similar way to the previous one.
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Some other groupings, which are more important, include: four knowledges163
referring to: 1. Knowledge of dharmas, 2. Subsequent knowledge (anvaye ñåâµ), 3.
knowledge of other people's minds (paricchede ñåâµ or paresaµ cittaparicchede
ñåâµ), 4. conventional knowledge (sammutiñåâµ); four knowledges that form
right view (sammådi††hi), and that refer to: 1. suffering, its origin, its suppression,
and the path; and two kinds of knowledge appropriate to arhats and referring to:
knowledge of the destruction of impurities (kåye ñåâµ), and knowledge of the non-
arising in the future (anuppåde ñåâµ). The later Påli scholarship grouped together
these different classes to make up a list of ten.
The Sanskrit Sarvåstivåda-Vaibhå∑ika Abhidharma texts speak of ten kinds of
knowledge.164
1. knowledge of phenomena (dharmajñåna). It is the pure fourfold knowledge with
reference to: formations (saµskåra) associated with the Kåmadhåtu; cause of
formations associated with the same world; destruction of formations associated with
the same world; and the path leading to the destructions of formations associated
with the same world.
2. subsequent knowledge (anvayajñåna). It is the pure knowledge with reference to:
formations associated with the RËpadhåtu and the ÓrËpyadhåtu; cause of formations
in these two worlds; destruction of formations in these two worlds; and the path
leading to the destruction of formations associated with these two worlds.
3. knowledge of other people's minds (paracittajñåna). This knowledge is acquired
through meditative cultivation of knowledge (jñånabhåvanå), and it constitutes the
support (nißraya) of the fruit of meditative cultivation. Being gained in that manner,
it constitutes unimpeded (apratihata) knowledge of other people's minds (citta) and
mental concomitants (caitta) associated with the Kåmadhåtu, and also a part of other
people's pure (anåsrava) minds and concomitants.
4. conventional knowledge (saµv®tijñåna). This category implies all sorts of impure
knowledge (sarvasåsravajñåna).
5. knowledge of suffering (du˙khajñåna). It is pure knowledge that arises when one
reflects (manasikurva) on the five aggregates of attachment as impermanent, painful,
empty, and impersonal.
6. knowledge of the origin of suffering (samudayajñåna). It is pure knowledge that
arises when one reflects on the cause of impure dharmas as cause (hetu), origin
(samudaya), production (prabhava), and condition (pratyaya).
7. knowledge of the suppression of suffering (nirodhajñåna). It is pure knowledge
that arises when one reflects on the destruction of suffering as destruction (nirodha),
calm (ßånta), excellence (praˆ¥ta), and liberation (ni˙saraâ).
8. knowledge of the path leading to the destruction of suffering (mårgajñåna). It is
pure knowledge that arises when one reflects on the path as path (mårga), model
(nyåya), resource (pratipatti), and escape (nairyåîka).
9. knowledge of the appeasement of defilements (k∑ayajñåna). It is pure knowledge
that arises when one reflects that one fully knows suffering, that one has abandoned
the origin of suffering, that one has accomplished the destruction of suffering, and

163. D¥gha, III, 226, 277.
164. Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1466-68. This list of ten is given in Vasumitra's Abhidharma-
prakaraâpåda, Kåtyåyan¥putra's Abhidharmajñånaprasthåna, Harivarman's Satyasiddhißåstra,
Abhidharmad¥pa, 374, Mahåvyutpatti, 1234-43. The definitions given here are those of
Vasumitra.
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that one has executed the path. It is knowledge, vision, perception, intelligence,
luminosity, and comprehension.
10. knowledge of the non-arising of defilements (anutpådajñåna). It is pure
knowledge that arises when one reflects that suffering, which one has perceived, is
no longer to be known, that the origin, which one has abandoned, is no longer to be
abandoned, that the destruction, which one has realised, is no longer to be realised,
and that the path, which one has accomplished, is no longer to be pursued. It is
knowledge, vision, perception, intelligence, luminosity, and comprehension.
The Mahåyåna masters165 have retained the list of the Sanskrit Abhidharma, but they
provided quite different interpretations and added an eleventh category of
knowledge.
The lists given in the Sanskrit Pañcaviµßati and the A∑†ådaßasåhasrikå are practically
identical:166 1. du˙kha-jñåna; 2. samudaya-; 3. nirodha-; 4. mårga-; 5. k∑aya- ; 6.
Anutpåda-; 7. dharma-; 8. anvaya-; 9. saµv®ti-; 10. parijaya- (or paricaya-); 11.
yathåruta- (yåthåruta- or yathåvaj-jñåna).
Śāstra exposition of the eleven knowledges 167
The Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra follows the list given in the Íatasåhasrikå (61.6-
62.16) and defines the first ten categories of knowledge very much on the pattern of
Vasumitra’s definitions that are given above. The eleventh category of knowledge is
an addition made by Mahåyåna adepts. The definitions given in the Śåstra are as
follows.
1. Knowledge of phenomena (dharmajñåna). This knowledge includes: pure
(anåsrava) knowledge of dharmas associated with the Kåmadhåtu, pure knowledge
of their cause, pure knowledge of their destruction, pure knowledge of the path
leading to their destruction, , and also pure knowledge concerning the knowledge of
dharmas themselves and the level of such knowledge (dharmajñånabhËmi).
2. Subsequent knowledge (anvayajñåna). The definition of this knowledge is the
same as that of the first knowledge, but it refers to dharmas associated with the
RËpadhåtu and ÓrËpyadhåtu.
3. Knowledge of other people's minds (paracittajñåna). It is the knowledge of other
people's minds and mental concomitants appertaining to the Kåmadhåtu and
Rūpadhātu, and also a small part of their pure minds and concomitants.
4. Conventional knowledge (saµv®tijñåna). This category of knowledge includes all
kinds of impure knowledge.
5. Knowledge of suffering (du˙khajñåna). It is pure knowledge (anāsravajñāna) that
arises when one reflects on the five aggregates of attachment as impermanent,
painful, empty, and impersonal.
6. Knowledge of the origin of suffering (samudayajñåna). It is pure knowledge that
arises when one reflects on this cause of impure dharmas as cause, origin, production
(prabhava), and condition.
7. Knowledge of the destruction of suffering (nirodhajñåna). It is pure knowledge
that arises when one reflects on this destruction as destruction, calm, excellence
(praˆ¥ta), and liberation (ni˙saraâ).

166. Lists: Pañcaviµßati, ed. N. Dutt, 208.23-9.1; A∑†ådaßasåhasrikå, ed. E. Conze, 193.18-23.
85
8. knowledge of the path leading to the destruction of suffering (mårgajñåna). It is
pure knowledge that arises when one reflects on this path as path (mårga), model
(nyåya), resource (pratipatti), and escape (nairyåîka).
9. Knowledge of the appeasement of defilements (k∑ayajñåna). It is pure knowledge
that arises when one reflects that suffering is fully known (parijñåta), that the origin
of suffering is fully abandoned (prah¥â), that the destruction of suffering is fully
realised (såk∑åtk®ta), and that the path leading to the destruction of suffering is fully
accomplished (bhåvita). It is wisdom (prajñå), vision (darßana), science (vidyå), and
intelligence (buddhi).
10. knowledge of the non-arising of defilements (anutpådajñåna). It is pure
knowledge that arises when one reflects that suffering, which one has perceived, is
no longer to be known (na parijñåtavya), that the origin of suffering, which one has
abandoned, is no longer to be abandoned (na prahåtavya), that the destruction of
suffering, which one has realised, is no longer to be realised (na såk∑åtkartavya), and
that the path leading to the destruction of suffering, which one has accomplished, is
no longer to be accamplished (na bhåvitavya). It is wisdom (prajñå), vision, science,
intelligence.
11. Knowledge in conformity with reality (yathåbhËtajñåna). It is the kind of
knowledge that exactly conforms to reality, that is free from obstacles (apratihata),
and that refers to general characteristics (såmånyalak∑aâ) and specific
characteristics (svalak∑aâ) of all dharmas.
IV.1. The ten knowledges according to the Abhidharma 168
1. Knowledge of dharmas (dharmajñāna). This knowledge takes as its object:
dharmas associated with the Kåmadhåtu, their cause, their destruction, and the path
leading to their destruction.
2. Sabsequent knowledge (anvayajñāna). This knowledge is the same as the first
knowledge but it refers to dharmas of the RËpadhåtu and the ÓrËpyadhåtu: their
knowledge, cause, destruction, and the path leading to their destruction.
3. Conventional knowledge (saṃvṛtijñāna). This knowledge takes all dharmas as its
object.
4. Knowledge of other people's minds (paracittajñāna). This knowledge takes as its
object the minds and mental concomitants, pure or impure, that are present in other
in other beings.
5-6. Knowledge of suffering (duḥkhajñāna) and knowledge of its origin
(samudayajñāna). These two knowledges have as their object the five aggregates of
attachment.
7. Knowledge of destruction (nirodhjna). This knowledge takes as its object the
destruction of suffering.
8. Knowledge of the path (mārgajna). This knowledge takes as its object the five
pure aggregates (pañca-anåsrava-skandha).
9-10. Knowledge of appeasement (kṣayajñāna) and knowledge of non-arising
(anutpādajñāna). The two kinds of knowledge have as their object the four truths
(catu˙satya).
Out of the ten knowledges, conventional knowledge is impure (såsrava), eight
knowledges are pure (anåsrava), and the knowledge of other people's minds that has
as its object pure and impure minds, is pure when its object is pure, and impure when
its bject is impure.

86
The reciprocal inclusion of the ten knowledges is as follows.
1. The dharmajñåna includes: dharmajñāna, and a small part (the part relating to the
Kåmadhåtu) of the paracitta-, du˙kha-, samudaya-, nirodha-, mårga-, k∑aya-, and
anutpåda-jñånas.
2. The anvayajñåna includes the same knowledges as the previous one but one must
substitute the RËpadhåtu and ÓrËpyadhåtu for the Kåmadhåtu.
3. The saµv®tijñåna includes saṃvṛtijñāna, and the impure part of paracittajñåna.
4. The paracittajñåna includes paracittajna, a small part (the one present in other
people's minds) of dharmajñåna, anvaya-, saµv®ti-, mårga-, k∑aya-, and anutpåda
jñånas.
5. The du˙khajñåna includes duḥkhajñna, and a small part (the one that has as its
object the truth of suffering) of dharma-, anvaya-, k∑aya-, and anutpåda jñånas.
6-7. The samudaya and nirodha jñånas are explained on the same principle as the
previous one.
8. The mårgajñåna includes mārgajñāna, and a small part (the one that has as its
object the fourth truth) of dharma-, anvaya-, paracitta-, k∑aya-, and anutpåda jñånas.
9. The k∑ayajñåna includes kṣayajñāna, and a small part (the one that has the
suppression as its object) of dharma-, anvaya-, paracitta-, du˙kha-, samudaya-,
nirodha-, and mårga jñånas.
10. The anutpådajñåna is explained on the same principle as the previous one.
The associations of the ten knowledges with:
—The indriyas: Nine knowledges are associated (saµprayukta) with eight faculties
(indriya) with the exclusion of prajñā-, daurmanasya-, and du˙kha-indriyas. The
saµv®tijñåna is associated with ten faculties, with the exclusion of prajñendriya.
—The three samådhis: dharma-, anvaya-, and du˙kha jñånas are associated with
ßËnyatåsamådhi; dharma-, anvaya-, nirodha-, k∑aya-, and anutpåda jñånas with
ånimitta-samådhi; dharma-, anvaya-, paracitta-, du˙kha-, samudaya-, mårga, k∑aya-,
and anutpåda jñånas with apraîhitasamådhi.
—The saµjñås: dharma-, anvaya-, saµv®ti-, du˙kha-, k∑aya-, and anutpåda- jñånas
are associated with anitya-, du˙kha-, and anåtma- saµmjñås; saµv®ti-jñåna is
associated with four saµmjñås: repugnant character of foot, dissatisfaction with the
whole world, notion of death, and notion of impurity; dharma-, anvaya-, nirodha-,
k∑aya-, anutpåda jñånas are associated with the three final notions: notion of
abandonment, detachment, and cessation.
Mutual knowledge of the ten knowledges: dharmajñåna has as its object nine
knowledges with the exclusion of anvayajñåna; the same holds for the anvayajñåna
which excludes dharmajñåna; samv®ti-, paracitta-, k∑aya-, and anutpåda- jñånas have
as their object ten jñånas; nirodhajñåna does not include any; mårgajñåna has as its
object nine jñånas with the exclusion of saµv®tijñåna.
IV.2. The eleven knowledges according to the Mah āy āna 169
The knowledge in conformity with reality (yathåbhËtajñåna) has a special character,
and it is fully explained in subsequent chapters of the Prajñåpåramitå.170
The eleven categories of knowledge are defined as:
1. Knowledge of phenomena (dharmajñåna). It is the knowledge of the five skandhas
of attachment as impermanent, painful, and impersonal. It knows that all dharmas are

170. This knowledge sums up all knowledge of the Mahåyåna, and it merges with sarvåkårajñåna.
87
issued from causes and conditions in the sense that saµskåras are conditioned by
ignorance, and so forth, concluding with old age and death being conditioned by
birth.
2. consecutive knowledge (anvayajñåna). Knowing that the present five skandhas of
attachment are impermanent, painful, empty, and impersonal, one deduces that the
five skandhas of attachment are also the same in the past and in the future, in the
RËpadhåtu and the ÓrËpyadhåtu.
3. knowledge of other minds (paracittajñåna). This knowledge cognises the minds
(citta) and concomitants (caitta) of other beings.
4. conventional knowledge (saµv®tijñåna). It is the knowledge of mere designations
(prajñaptijñåna). The årya knows that so far as reality (tattva) is concerned, ordinary
people (p®thagjana) know it only through designations (prajñapti); that's why it is
called knowledge of designations. Conventional knowledge does not know the true
meaning (bhËtårtha) of things but only their designations.
5. knowledge of suffering (du˙khajñåna). This knowledge sets at work the wisdom
about suffering in order to condemn the five skandhas of attachment. This wisdom
can be impure (såsrava) or pure (anåsrava). It is impure in the preparatory path
(prayogamårga) when it is in the stages of heat (u∑magata), summit (mËrdhan),
patience (k∑ånti) and supreme mundane dharmas (laukikågradharma). It is pure when
one penetrates into the path of vision (darßanamårga).
6-8 The three knowledges of origin (samudaya), cessation (nirodha), and path
(mårga) are characterised in the same way as the knowledge of suffering.
The knowledge of suffering knows that the aspect of suffering (du˙khåkåra) does not
really arise. The knowledge of origin (samudaya) knows that dharmas are disjoint
and without conjunction. The knowledge of cessation knows that dharmas are
forever calm (ådißånta) and similar (sama) to nirvåâ. The knowledge of the path
knows that dharmas are forever pure (nityaßuddha), and without rectitude or malice.
9. knowledge of appeasement (k∑ayajñåna). This knowledge perceives that all
dharmas are non-existent (anupalabdha).
10. knowledge of non-arising (anutpådajñåna). The knowledge of non-arising of
defilements knows that dharmas, so far as they are unreal (abhËta) and undetermined
(aniyata), do not arise (anutpanna).
11. knowledge in coformity with reality (yathåbhËtajñåna). This knowledge cognises
what the previous ten knowledges cannot know. Since this knowledge corresponds to
reality, it knows the characteristics (nimitta), conditions (pratyaya), particuliarities
(prabheda), and considerations (paßyanå) proper to each of the ten knowledges.
However, in this knowledge conforming to reality, there is no chracteristic,
condition, or particuliarity. This knowledge destroys all considerations about
dharmas.
The dharma-eye and prajñå-eye are present in the first ten knowledges; and the
Buddha-eye is present in the eleventh knowledge.171
The first ten knowledges are possessed in common by arhats, pratyekaBuddhas, and
Bodhisattvas. The Buddha alone possesses the eleventh knowledge, because he alone
possesses the infallible (aßå†hya) Dharma. When the first ten knowledges merge with
the knowledge conforming with reality, they lose their original names, and thus there
remains only one true knowledge; just as all rivers of the ten directions conflating
into the great ocean lose their names, and are called great ocean.

171. The remaining eyes are flesh (måµsa-) and divine eyes (divya-cak∑us); defined at Pañcaviµßati,
77-83; Íatasåhasrikå, 290-301.
88
V. Three sam ādhis 172
Sūtra (Pañcaviṃśati): The Bodhisattva mahåsattva must accomplish the three
samådhis in a perfect manner,173 namely 1. samådhi with reasoning (savitarka) and
with investigation (savicåra); 2. samådhi without reasoning (avitarka) but only with
investigation (vicåramåtra); 3. samådhi without reasoning (avitarka) and without
investigation (avicåra).
V.1. The three sam ādhis according to the Abhidharma 174
According to Abhidharma works the term samådhi denotes all dhyånas and all
samåpattis that concentrate the mind. From the beginningless time of this universe
the mind's thought is always twisting (ku†ila) without retaining uprightness, but when
one reaches the spheres of correct mind, it becomes rectified.
Samādhi can be of three kinds:175
1. In the Kåmadhåtu, the preliminary meditation (anågamya) of the first dhyāna, and
in the first dhyåna, the samådhi is associated with vitarka and vicåra, and
consequently it is called savitarka and savicåra.
2. In the dhyåntara, a variety of the first dhyåna, the samådhi is with vicåra alone,
and consequently is called avitarka and vicåramåtra.
3. Starting with the second dhyåna and up to the bhavågra (or the fourth
årËpyasamåpatti), the samådhi, being dissociated from reasoning and judgement, is
avitarka and avicåra.
Why is it that although some twenty cittas and caittasikas176 are associated with
samådhis, only vitarka and vicåra are actually mentioned? It is so because they cause
difficulties during samådhis. Even if they are wholesome, they are enemies of
samådhis, and it is difficult to eliminate them. Some people even say that the mind
(citta) accompanied by vitarka and vicåra is not concentrated. Thus the Buddha said
that the samådhi with vitarka and vicåra lacks stability.177 While vitarka and vicåra
are limited, it is possible to gain a proper samådhi. When they are attenuated they
can produce a samådhi but they can also destroy it. Good vitarka and vicåra can
produce the first dhyåna. However, once the first dhyåna is gained, vitarka and vicåra
induce great joy (mahåpr¥ti), and consequently the mind becomes distracted
(vik∑ipta), and its concentration is weakened. It is for this reason that vitarka and
vicåra are mentioned here in the context of samådhis.
Vitarka represents the coarseness of the mind (cittaudårikatå), and vicåra the subtlety
of the mind (cittasËk∑matå). Vitarka is the first movement of the mind towards its
object and vicåra that follows is an analysis (vibha∫ga), a judgement of the beautiful
and the ugly (suvarâdurvarâ).
There are three kinds of coarse vitarka (audårika): the mind of greed (kåmavitarka),
the mind of malevolence (vyåpådavitarka), and the mind of annoyance
(vihiµsåvitarka). There are three kinds of wholesome (kußala) vitarka: the mind of
renunciation (nai∑kramyavitarka), the mind of non-malevolence (avyåpåda-), and the

173. Pañcaviµßati, 20.9-11; Íatasåhasrikå, 62.17-63.4.
175. Dīgha, III, 219, 274; Majjhima, III, 162; Saṃyutta, IV, 362-63; Abhidharmakoßa, VIII, 183.
176. Abhidharmakoßa,, II, 167.
177. Majjhima, I, 454: It is said there that so long as vitarka and vicåra are not suppressed the samådhi
is agitated (iñjita).
89
mind of non-violence (avihiµså-).178 There are also three kinds of subtle (sËk∑ma)
vitarka: thought of one's relatives (jñåti-), thought of one's country (janapada-), and
thought of not dying (amaraâ-). Six kinds of vitarka prevaricate samådhi. Three
kinds of good vitarka can open the gateway to samådhi, but if vitarkas and vicåras
dominate it too much, they induce the loss of samådhi.
The sūtras speak of three kinds of dharmas: 1. with vitarka and vicåra; 2. without
vitarka and with vicåra; 3. without vitarka and without vicåra. They also speak of the
stages (bhËmi) in the same manner.179 Why then in this context only samådhis with
vitarka and so forth are mentioned? It is so because the texts speak of what can be
used in the best possible way. Dharmas with vitarka and vicåra are the dharmas that
are associated with vitarka and vicåra and exist in the Kåmadhåtu, the anågamya
(preliminary meditation of the first dhyåna), and in the first dhyåna; such dharmas
are good, bad, or neutral. The dharmas without vitarka and with vicåra are the
dharmas that are associated solely with vicåra and exist in the dhyånåntara; such
dharmas are good, bad, or neutral. The dharmas without vitarka or vicåra are
deprived of vitarka and vicåra, namely all matter (rËpa), saµskåras dissociated from
the mind, and asaµsk®ta dharmas.
The bhËmis with vitarka and so forth are: 1. bhËmis with vitarka and vicåra are:
Kåmadhåtu, anågamya, a part of Brahmaloka (the first two levels of the first dhyåna
inhabited by the Brahmakåyikas and Brahmapurohitas); 2. bhËmi without vitarka but
with vicåra is the dhyånåntara, and those who cultivate this level are the
Mahåbrahmaråjas; 3. bhËmis without vitarka and without vicåra are the levels
inhabited by: all the Óbhåsvaras (Par¥ttåbhas, Apramåˆåbhas, and Óbhåsvaras)
occupying the three levels of the second dhyåna, all the Íubhak®tsnas (Par¥ttaßubhas,
Apramåâßubhas, and Íubhak®tsnas occupying the three levels of the third dhyåna),
all the B®hatphalas (Anabhrakas, Puˆyaprasavas, and B®hatphalas occupying the first
three levels of the fourth dhyåna)180, and all the four categories of the gods
inhabiting the four levels of the ÓrËpyadhåtu (also called the bhavågra).
V.2. The three sam ādhis according to the Mah āy āna 181
In the prajñāpāramitā texts, it is a matter of superior things, namely samādhis. What
are such samådhis? 1. The samådhis of the arhats and prayteka-Buddhas expand
from the three samådhis (ßËnyatå, ånimitta-, and apraîhita-samådhis; also called the
three vimok∑amukhas) up to the vajrasamådhi (vajropamasamådhi).182 2. The
samådhis of the Buddhas expand from the samådhi on the Buddhas of the ten
directions (daßadig-buddhasamådhi) up to the samådhi of the sovereign’s progress

178. For these two kinds of vitarka see Majjhima, I, 114. This classification of vitarka occurs
frequently in the canonical texts, e.g. Aṅguttara, I, 275, II, 76, III, 429.
179. The samådhis must not be confused with their respective bhËmis. When it is the case of the
dhyånas or samådhis, the samådhis are of two kinds: 1. samådhi in a proper sense as a
concentration through which a yogin reaches certain psychic levels of the RËpa or ÓrËpya
dhåtus; and 2. samådhi spheres of existence in which the gods of the RËpa and the ÓrËpya dhåtus
are reborn for specific periods of time. The first category of samådhis is called induced samådhi
(kåraâsamådhi), and the seocond category denotes existential samådhis (upapattisamådhi) or
fruitional samådhis (kåryasamådhi). See Abhidharmakoßa, VIII, 128.
180. The text mentions only three classes of gods although it is inhabited by eight classes; See
Abhidharmakoßa, III, 2.
182. vajrasamådhi or vajropamasamådhi is the path of abandonment (prahåâmårga) through which
one abandons the ninth category of defilements attached to the highest sphere of existence, which
is the fourth samåpatti or bhavågra; it is the 161rst moment of the bhåvanåmårga.
90
(ßËraµgamasamådhi), from the sarva-saµßayasamucchedasamådhi (samādhi
destroying all doubts) up to the samådhiråjasamådhi (samādhi of the king of
samādhis). Here it is the question of some one hundred and eight or one hundred and
twenty samådhis proper to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.183
These multiple expositions provide a summary of the three samādhis.
VI. The three faculties of comprehension (indriya) 184
Preliminary considerations. This is a group of three pure (anåsrava) and transcendent
(lokottara) faculties (indriya), which assure, at different stages, perfect compre-
hension (åjñå) of the four noble truths.
1. The faculty that denotes: “I will understand (the four noble truths) which I do not
as yet understand” (anåjñåtam-åjñåsyåmi-indriya).
2. The faculty of comprehension that assures the comprehension (of the four truths)
(åjñendriya).
3. The faculty of the noble person who has understood (the four truths) (åjñåtå-
v¥ndriya).
These three faculties form a homogenous group and are already mentioned in the
canonical sources.185
In the Pañcaviµßati186 they are described as follows:
1. anåjñåtam-åjñåsyåmi-indriya: these are the faculties of faith (ßraddhå), energy
(v¥rya), mindfulness (sm®ti) concentration, and wisdom in persons who exert
themselves, but do not as yet comprehend the truths.
2. åjñendriya: these are the same faculties in persons who still exert themselves, but
already possess the comprehension of the truths.
3. åjñåtåv¥ndriya: the same faculties in persons who have nothing more to learn or
practise, namely arhats, pratyeka-Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and Tathågatas, all of
whom are fully enlightened.
Similar definitions are given in the Vijñānavāda works: Madhyāntavibhāga, 156;
Abhidharmasamuccaya, 75; Siddhi, 449-52.
In the Abhidharma works, Pāli and Sanskrit, the above three faculties of
comprehension are incorporated into a numerically ordered list of twenty-two
faculties.
This list of twenty-two faculties does not seem to appear in the Påli Nikåyas or in the
Sanskrit Ógamas. However, according to the Abhidharmakoßa (I, 101) and the
Abhidharmad¥pa (44), the Buddha taught them in a sËtra. The list given below
follows the most frequently adopted order. It is found in all Abhidharma works,
which provide extensive comments. The twenty-two faculties comprise the sense
organs, the sensations or the faculties:187

183. A list accompanied with short explanations is included in Pañcaviµßati, 142-44, 198-203;
Íatasåhasrikå, 825-35, 1412-26, Mahåvyutpatti 505-623. ÍËraµgamasamådhi-sËtra and
Samådhiråja-sËtra deal with the most important samådhis.
185. D¥gha, III, 219; Saµyutta, V, 204.
186. Pañcaviµßati, 209; also in Íatasåhasrikå, 1442; similar definitions in Yogåcåra texts:
Madhyåntavibhåga, 156.6-14; Abhidharmasamuccaya, 75-76; Siddhi, 449-52.
187. The list given here follows the Mahåprajñåpåramitåßåstra, III, 1494. Other references:
Visuddhimagga, 417; Abhidharmakoßa, I, 101.
91
1. eye (cak∑us); 2. ear (ßrotra); 3. smell (ghråâ); 4. taste (jihvå); 5. touch (kåya); 6.
mind (manas);
7. male faculty (puru∑a); 8. female faculty (str¥); 9. vital faculty (j¥vita);
10. sensation of pleasure (sukha); 11. sensation of pain (du˙kha); 12. sensation of
satisfaction (saumanasya); 13. sensation of dissatisfaction (daurmanasya); 14.
sensation of equanimity (upek∑å);
15. faculty of faith (ßraddhå); 16. faculty of energy (v¥rya); 17. faculty of
mindfulness (sm®ti); 18. faculty of concentration (samådhi); 19. faculty of wisdom
(prajñå);
20-22. three faculties of comprehension of the truths as defined above.
Why out of so many other faculties only these twenty-two dharmas are named as
faculties? The term indriya is synonymous with supreme power (paramaißvarya) or
sovereignty (adhipatya). They possess the character of sovereignty with regard to the
living being (sattva) in that which concern its 1. primary constitution (mauladravya),
2. its differentiation (vikalpa), 3. its duration (sthiti), 4. its moral impurity
(saµkle∑a), and 5. its moral purification (vyavadåna).
In effect:
1. The support of the mind (cittåßraya) is constituted by the six sense organs, the
organ of vision and so forth (indriyas 1-6).
2. This support is differentiated by way of the two sexual organs (indriyas 7-8).
3. It is sustained for a period of time due to the life-faculty (9).
4. It is defiled due to the five kinds of sensation (indriyas 10-14).
5. Its purification is prepared by the five moral faculties (indriyas 15-19).
6. The purification is definitely assured by the three faculties of comprehension
(indriyas 20-22).
Since this character of sovereign faculty is missing in other dharmas, the number of
faculties is limited to twenty-two only.188
The three faculties of comprehension are considered in both the Sarvåstivåda
Abhidharma and in the Mahåyåna as being anåsrava and lokottara. The difference
between the two systems is that in the Abhidharma the term comprehension refers to
the four noble truths, and in the Mahåyåna to the true character of all dharmas.
VI.1. The three faculties according to the Abhidharma 189
According to the Abhidharma works the first faculty (anåjñåtam-åjñåsyåmi-indriya)
constitutes a group of nine pure faculties (åsravendriyasåmagr¥). These nine faculties
are found in those who pursue the truth through faith (ßraddhånusårin) or those who
pursue the truth through scriptures (dharmånusårin), and who are in the path of
vision of the truths (satya-darßanamårga). This group is called åjñåtam-åjñåsyåmi-
indriya and comprises the following nine faculties: 1. faith , 2. energy, 3.
mindfulness, 4. concentration, 5. wisdom, 6. satisfaction, 7. happiness, 8.
equanimity, and 9. mind. With regard to the three paths, these nine faculties are also
called the three faculties of comprehension. In the darßanamårga they constitute the
anåjñåtam-åjñåsyåmi-indriya, in the path of bhåvanåmårga the åjñendriya, and in the
non-trainee path (aßaik∑amårga) the åjñåtåv¥ndriya.190

188. All this is explained in Abhidharmakoßa, II, 110-11.
190. The three indriyas of comprehension constituted in principle by these nine indriyas actually
include only seven because sensations of pleasure, satisfaction, and equanimity never co-exist
together: satisfaction is present in the first two dhyånas, pleasure in the third dhyåna, and
92
In the people inspired by faith (ßraddhådhimukta) or in those possessed of
philosophical views (d®∑†ipråpta), and who are in the bhåvanåmårga, this group of
nine faculties changes the name and is called åjñendriya, and in the case of those in
the åßaik∑amårga it is called åjñåtåv¥ndriya.
Why out of the twenty-two faculties, the three faculties of comprehension are single
out? The name indriya is applied to something that has an evident and effective
sovereignty (adhipatya) as its characteristic (lak∑aâ). While in the first nineteen
faculties the characteristic of sovereignty is not complete (paripËrâ), the three
faculties of comprehension are acute (t¥k∑â) and lead directly to nirvåâ. They are
sovereigns (adhipati) among all conditioned (saµsk®ta) dharmas, retain sovereignty
and surpass all other faculties. Among the first nineteen faculties, ten are exclusively
impure (såsrava) (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, femininity, masculinity, life-faculty,
sensation of pain, dissatisfaction) and have no benefit. Nine of them (manas, sukha,
saumanasya, upek∑å, ßraddhå, v¥rya, sm®ti, samådhi, prajñå) are morally
undetermined (aniyata), at times såsrava and at times anåsrava. Since some of the
first nineteen indriyas are always impure and others are at times kußala or akußala,
the PrajñåpåramitåsËtra refrains from saying that the Bodhisattva must accomplish
them in a perfect manner. However, since the ten notions (saµjñå) explained above
are at time pure and at times impure, one may ask why did the PrajñåpåramitåsËtra
say that the Bodhisattva must accomplish them in a perfect manner? It is so because
the ten saµjñås constitute auxiliaries of the path and contribute towards the
pursuance of nirvåâ. However, the five faculties, faith etc., even if they are kußala,
they do not exclusively seek for nirvåâ. It is said in the Abhidharma that the person
endowed with faith and the other faculties has not cut off the kußalamËlas, which
means he is not fully engaged in the path of nirvåâ. Furthermore, when these five
faculties become clarified and pure, they merge with the three faculties of
comprehension. Within the three faculties of comprehension there is necessarily the
mental faculty (manaindriya), and at least one of three sensations, either sukha,
saumanasya, or upek∑å. Thus the PrajñåpåramitåsËtra speaks here only of the three
faculties. Finally some of the twenty-two indriyas are kußala, some akußala, and
some avyåk®ta.191 That is why the PrajñåpåramitåsËtra does not say that they must
be accomplished.
The three faculties of comprehension are comprised within the vedanå-, saµskåra-,
and vijñåna-skandhas. The first of these three is found in six bhËmis, namely the four
dhyånas, the anågamya and the dhyånåntara bhËmis. The other two are found in nine
bhËmis, the same bhËmis as the first one, and in the first three årËpyasamåpattis.
The three faculties of comprehension have as their object (ålambana) the four noble
truths. They are associated with (saµprayukta) with the following six notions
(saµjñå): impermanence, suffering, impersonality, abandonment (prahåna),
detachment (viråga), and cessation (nirodha).
VI.2. The three faculties according to the Mah āy āna 192
The interpretation of these three faculties is presented here taking into account the
doctrinal configurations of the darßana and bhåvanå mårgas.

equanimity in the anågamya and dhyånåntara, the fourth dhyåna, and the first three årËpya-
samåpattis.
191. Eight of them, namely the five faculties of faith etc, and the three faculties of comprehension are
soly kußala; daurmanasya is kußala or akußala; the manaindriya and four sensations (sukha,
du˙kha, saumanasya, upek∑å) are kußala, akußala, or avyåk®ta; the five material sense faculties,
the vital faculty, and the two sex faculties are avyåk®ta. Koßabhå∑ya, 46.
93
First in the darßanamårga. The first faculty of comprehension (anåjñåtam-åjñåsyåmi-
indriya) refers to the true characteristic (bhËtalak∑aâ) of dharmas. Aspiring to
understand what he has not as yet understood, the yogin generates the five faculties,
faith etc., and through the force of these faculties, he can discover the true
characteristics of dharmas.
The Bodhisattva from the time of generating the first thought of enlightenment
(prathamacittotpåda) aspires to become a Buddha, but he has not accomplished in a
perfect manner the five moral faculties (ßraddhå etc). Although he has an aspiration
(praîdhåna) and wants to know the true characteristics of dharmas, he does not
succeed. However, once he has produced these five moral faculties, he can penetrate
into the true characteristics of dharmas. Being in the possession of these faculties, he
can believe in the true characteristics of dharmas as being unborn (anutpanna)
undestroyed (aniruddha), unstained (asaµkli∑†a), as being neither purified
(avyavadåta), nor existent (sat) nor inexistent (asat), nor ungrasped (anupåtta) and
nor rejected (aparityakta), as being always appeased (ßånta), pure, and similar to
space (åkåßasama), undefined (anirdeßya), and inexpressible (anabhilåpya). This
characteristic constitutes the destruction of all pathways of discursive speech
(sarvavåda-mårgoccheda), it transcends the domain of all thoughts and mental
activities (sarvacittacaitasikadharma-gocarasamatikrånta), and is the same as nirvåâ.
Such is the Dharma of the Buddha.
Making use of the faculty of faith, the Bodhisattva acquires the force of the faculty of
energy; he thus marches on with zest and without falling back. Through the power of
the faculty of mindfulness, he wards off all bad dharmas and amasses all good
dharmas. When the Bodhisattva’s mind is distracted by objects of enjoyment, he
concentrates it through the power of the faculty of concentration. Through the power
of the faculty of wisdom, he gains a fairly large access to the wisdom of the
Buddhas, a certain part of which cannot be destroyed. The support of these five
faculties, namely his mental faculty (manaindriya) is necessarily united with the
sensation of satisfaction, happiness, or equanimity. It is through the reliance on these
five faculties that the Bodhisattva penetrates into the Bodhisattva certainty
(bodhisattva-niyåma).193 But since he has not acquired the fruit of his conviction that
dharmas do not arise (anutpattikadharmak∑ånti), it is still the level of the first faculty
of comprehension (anåjñåtam-åjñåsyåmi-indriya).
Second in the bhåvanåmårga. The Bodhisattva knows the true characteristics of
dharmas and since he understands it well, there is the faculty of comprehension
(åjñendriya). The interval of this faculty includes the following progressively

193. Generally it is the eighth bhËmi, the åcala, that marks a very important turning point in the
Bodhisattva's career. It is in that bhËmi that he gains the definite (pratilåbha, pratilambha,
pratilambhatå) conviction or certainty that dharmas do not arise; SËtrålaµkåra, 122.2, 131.17,
Madhyåntavibhåga, 105.11; BodhisattvabhËmi, 350.27, 351.13-14. From that time onwards the
Bodhisattva is certain of his destiny (niyåma). He is assured with regard to his future
buddhahood: niyatipatita; Madhyåntavibhåga, 190.20; SËtrålaµkåra, 83.24; BodhisattvabhËmi,
367.12. He is the Bodhisattva without receding back (avaivartika) and in the possession of a non-
reversal conviction (avaivartikak∑åntipratilabdha); Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka, 259.13. The åcala
bhËmi is also called the niyatabhËmi, avaivartikabhËmi; DaßabhËmika, 71.12, SËtrålaµkåra,
176.22, BodhisattvabhËmi, 235.18. This bhËmi represents the start of non-receding career
(avaivartacaryå, avivartanacaryå), the unfailing (abandhyacaryå) that is pursued during the last
three bhËmis; Mahåvastu, I. 1.3, 63.13-14, BodhisattvabhËmi, 290.21. In the eighth bhËmi the
Bodhisattva's activity evolves spontaneously, without karmic activities (abhisaµskåra), without
mental modification (åbhoga) because that bhËmi is no longer agitated by objects or notions, that
is why it is called anabhisaµskårånåbhogavihåra or anåbhoganirmittavihåra; Madhyåntavibhåga,
105.18-21, SËtrålaµkåra, 178.3, BodhisattvabhËmi, 367.11, Saµgraha, 202.
94
ascending stages expanding from the acquisition of the fruit of the conviction that
dharmas do not arise, the entry into the non-receding stage (avaivartikabhËmi), the
bestowal of prophesy (vyåkaraâ), and up to the completion of the ten stages
(daßabhËmi), taking the seat under the tree of enlightenment (bodhimaˆ∂a), and the
execution of the diamond concentration (vajrasamådhi).194
In the final path (aßaik∑amårga), the Bodhisattva destroys all permeations of
defilements (kleßavåsanå) and gains the highest and perfect enlightenment
(anuttarasamyak-saµbodhi). Since the Bodhisattva has understood and perfectly
accomplished all dharmas that are to be known (sarvajñeyadharma), this is called the
faculty of one who knows (åjñåtåv¥ndriya).

194. The functioning of the åjñendriya persists from the eighth to the tenth bhËmi called
dharmamegha, paramavihåra (BodhisttvabhËmi, 367.13), sarvajñånåbhi∑ekabhËmi (DaßabhË-
mika, 82.8) or abhi∑ekåvasthå (Madhyåntavibhåga, 190.24). According to the Pañcaviµßati,
225.8 and Óloka, 104.8-9, the Bodhisattva of the tenth bhËmi should be called tathågata but not a
perfectly enlightened one (samyaksaµbuddha).
95

Practices Conducive To Enlightenment

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PRACTICES CONDUCIVE TO ENLIGHTENMENT

The Thirty-seven Bodhipåk∑ikas and Other Practices

London, SOAS, University of London, 2009

A: THE THIRTY-SEVEN BODHIPĀK›IKAS 1

ŚĀSTRA EXPOSITION OF THE BODHIPĀKṢIKAS 23

II.6. The seven limbs of enlightenment 45

I. The nine notions of horror92

III. The ten notions (saµjñå) 139

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