US History Notes

Key Challenges throughout history and contemporary time:

 Big v/s Small governments
 Individual v/s group rights
 Free market v/s controlled trade
 American project v/s internal segment
EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION
Exploration
1. Trade linkages b/w Europe and Asia-Challenge
2. Christopher Columbus – A man with Ambition
3. Discovery of America and Ancient Civilization
4. Era of European Imperialism & Colonization in America
USA as a British Colony: England most powerful, GB started imperial game later. England had no
interest till discovery of America by Columbus, Venetian navigator John Cabot was sent by Kin of
England to find west ward route to East Indies and then to eastern coast whereby he reached
Virginia. His journey provided claims of British presence in North America.
1. How colonization started: 100 yrs later than spain due to several factors incl conflict b/w
Catholics and Protestants (Henry VIII 1509-1547, broke away to start his own Anglican Church).
Succession problem as he has 2 daughters, Elizabeth (Protestant) and Mary (Catholic); colonial
problems in Ireland; commercial and pol rivalry with Spain. 1583 (Gilbert), 1584 (Walter Raleigh) –
reach north Carolina and acquired control in the name of Queen and preceded towards south –
2nd exp in 1585, left some men (later murdered). Challenges: attitude of native Americans,
weather and illness – they realized to come well prepared for triumph. New companies developed
for trade and colonization (13 colonies).
2. The story of 13 colonies: North American colonies founded b/w 1607(Virginia) and 1732
(Georgia), East coast of North America that declared Indep in 1776 and formed USA – similar pol,
constitutional and legal sys, dominated by protestant English speakers (divided into 3 groups
Royal, proprietary and charter)
MOTIVATION FOR COLONIZATION BY EUROPEAN POWERS
We must find new lands from which we can easily obtain raw materials and at the same time the
cheap slave labor available from natives, these colonies would also provide dumping ground for the
surplus goods produced in our factories: Cecil Rhodes
16th and 17th century, Europe held indisputable interest in exploration and expansion of new land,
joined Spain and Portugal which started for finding new riches and trade routes. All these were later
followed by England and French. Some chief factors are:-
1. Finding New Routes: Europe – for short routes to east to trade – routes to Asia blocked after
Othman took over control of Constantinople in 1453. Europeans depended on Asians for trade,
herb and agriculture and therefore financed navigators.
2. Religious Persecutions: idea of untamed land – Reforms of John Calvin, Puritans migrated to
North America where they hoped to conclude such reformation. Voiced discontent with corrupt
practices of Rome. They left to create pure state – Pilgrims, Puritans and other groups.
3. Immense Resources, Forests & Slaves, Imperialism through diplomacy: Demand of slaves
on tobacco & rice
4. Renaissance Spirit of Curiosity and Adventure in Europe: Era b/w 14th to 17th cent – middle
ages to enlightenment – no of discoveries and people accepted it; earlier people thought it was
against their religion – Rise of Philosophers and Intellectuals – Europeans were now keenly
interested in learning and exploring – Printing Press (1450).
5. Desire for Fabulous Wealth: Spain and Portugal upon entering new World found Gold and silver
– took it to home cty – these material gains urged other ctys as well.
6. The Industrial Revolution: new sources of raw material to feed their factories – estb colonies –
regular supply i.e. Egypt by Britain (Cotton).
7. Search for new markets: European ctys in lookout for markets of manufactured goods –
Industrialists with surplus capital were looking for profitable channels of investments – invested in
colonies and made huge profits.
8. Surplus Population: 100 Mn people in Europe – too many, some should go elsewhere. Chief
profession of Europeans was Agriculture with archaic methods with poor yields – search for
cultivatable land and America proved to be the ray of hope for Europeans.
9. Improvement in Technology: summit of creativity – major improvements in ship building and
map making – made exploration and colonization easier.
10. White Man’s Burden: Rudyard Kipling – whites ordained by God to civilize backward people.
European imperialists understood it to justify imperialism as noble enterprise of civilization.
Politicians to civilize backward people as part of divine plan.
11. Royal Patronage: Colonization would not have been possible w/o state patronage – Royal
Patronage – no internationally defined rules for immigrants – early efforts failed mainly due to lack
of state patronage – English kings gave protection to people and people started founding colonies.
French Kings took personal interest in colonization.
12. Imperial Race: Imperial powers in race of accumulating more and more land in America which
was a matter of prestige that time.
13. Geographical advantage, Soldiers to fight on behalf of colonial masters
Why Britain Were last in Colonizing US
They were busy in European Affairs – Distance – Not interested to divide their navy – people related
to trade & commerce were not interested – less explored area
AMERICA – A MELTING POT OF CULTURES
America is God’s crucible, the great melting pot where all the races of Europe are melting and
reforming: Israel Zangwill
Nation of the Nations – idea of melting pot – uninhabited land with sources of gold, silver and fertile
land – Europeans (land of opportunities) – Imperial race began (Spanish and Portuguese later joined
by England and France). Some wanted more gold, some freedom of religion and some colonies estb
as military barrier – hostile response from natives. 13 colonies dominated the imperial game – 1775,
colonies united to get a piece of land where they are free from Britain – waged war of Independence
– today these are perfect example of Unity among diversity because people from various
backgrounds black, Dutch, French, Spanish or Irish once migrated. Melting pot is metaphor for
heterogeneous society becoming more homogenous – Giant soup pot with each migrant its ingredient
with its own flavor when they came together, they learnt about each other’s cultures. Country of
immigrants, people from diverse area came to have better life. Some brought families, some other
valuables and some with determination – part of their culture.
AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE – 4TH JULY 1776
The distinction b/w the Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers and Englanders are no more. I am
not a Virginian but an American: Patrick Henry
Greatest – not same as revolution – lasted for century and a half – brought hope, expectations and
cultural unity – first time people fought for their indep on certain universal principles.
Pol integration & autonomy: French Indian War (1754-1763; 7 yrs war), westward expansion and
integration among colonies – Benjamin Franklin called colonies to Join or die
1. Actors of War: tension b/w 13 North American colonies and colonial governments – unique
example of war b/w feeble and dominant.
2. War of Independence Disposition: war waged in number of stages – 1 st phase (colonies
boycotting British orders indly) – inhabitants comprised Patriots (wigs and revolutionaries), Tories
(Loyalists) – Pre-mature phase (1600-1775), Mature phase (19 Apr 1775 – 3 Sep 1783) with indep
of 13 colonies.
3. Foreign Interventions: France and Spain as reprisal of France’s defeat in French and Indian war.
4. Role of Blacks: George Washington (5000 Blacks supported while 25-30 thousand did not).
5. Causes of American War of Indep: though 13 colonies enjoyed self-govt in internal
administration, trade and commerce were under full ctrl of British.
a. Defective Administration of British: colonies meant to serve mother country. Contention and
misunderstanding b/w elected reps and Governor of Crown who didn’t do anything w/o prior
approval of Parliament.
b. Self-Government: Virginia, NY, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Carolina got self ctrl b/w 1703
and 1750, produced local pol ldrs who helped in uprisings.
c. Mercantilism: Adam Smith; 15th century, adopted by British to bring wealth and resources to
their cty.
(1) Opinions about Mercantilism: Jacob Viner (root/ main cause), Robert B. Ekelund (not the
only).
(2) Acts passed in Mercantilism: Navigation Act 1651 (all trades to be carried in English or
colonial vessels), Enumerated Commodities Act 1660 (ban on colonial export; if
conducted only to England or its colonies), The Staple Act 1663 (King Charles II – passed
by Parliament – all exports to be brought to English port and then reshipped after payment
of duty), Duty Act 1673 (strict measures for checking smuggling), Enforcement Act 1696
(enforcement of all acts), molasses Act 1733 (imposed tax of six pence/ gallon on
molasses to stop import of French West Indian Molasses), Sugar Act 1764 (decreased
molasses tax, imposed new taxes on commodities to reduce markets of colonies),
Currency act 1764 (ban on printing of new notes), Quartering Act 1765 (House soldiers
in Barracks of colonies if more soldiers then accommodate in localities)
d. British Restriction on Manufacturing: Wool Act 1699 (ban on exporting wool, wool yarn or
cloth outside the colony), The Hat Act 1732 (limits on manufacturing, sale, exportation of
colonial-made hats), Iron Act 1750 (inc importation of pig and bar iron from colonies and
preventing building of iron related production facilities to limit potential competition, particularly
in North America).
e. Great Awakening (1730-50): Evangelical Revival – Role of Religion in government –
movement started by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield (spread idea that religion
could be personal) – Virginia passed Declaration of Rights bill on freedom of Religion – to
remain united while exercising different religions. These led to greater religious toleration and
Indl freedom. This encouraged settlers to begin identifying themselves as Americans.
f. Albany Plan of Union 1754 (NY): inter-colonial congress – Benjamin Franklin proposed
Albany Plan of Union – colonial defense and self-imposed tax to pay for that defense.
g. Seven Years’ war (1754-1763): French and Indian War – North America – Tussle b/w Britain
and France to become supreme imperial power – both sides claimed Ohio – war ended in
French defeat – Peace conference 1763, British received Canada from France and Florida
from Spain, Permitted France to Keep West Indian sugar Islands and gave Louisiana to Spain
– Opened Mississippi Valley for westward expansion.
h. Royal Proclamation of 1763: restricted opening of new lands for settlement – WWE towards
Appalachian Mountains – Two fold reasons (keep colonies tied to coasts; ease in collection of
taxes and British were in dire need of taxes to refill their coffers).
i. Pontiac’s Uprising: Chief Pontiac united a group and attacked British – prevent incursions
encouraged Ohio people to rise up – Fort Detroit taken by British and stringent changes – Attk
on Detroit Fort – Colonel John Bradstreet and colonel Henry invaded Ohio and Pennsylvania –
lack of ammunition Wyandot surrendered but Pontiac signed treaty with British in 1776. Ohio
people still cont to fight against British.
Taxation w/o representation – King George III
j. The Stamp Act, 1765 – Prelude to Revolution: internal tax levied dir to Americans – British
in debt from 7 yrs war (1756-63) – collect revenue because British felt that colonies should
share the burden – Mar 1765, British PM George Grenville auth the act “all newspapers,
documents incl official court docus be printed on Stamp papers from London” –
colonists had to pay for stamped papers, the papers had to be bought in British Hard
Currency rather than colonial paper currency. Parts of revenue used in maintaining British
Soldiers in NA to maint peace - $100,000/ yr revenue: stamp office in London, colonial
inspector and stamp distributor.
(1) Colonial Confrontation: midst of eco hardship – aroused vehement resistance –
widespread and unconcealed hostility – townspeople rioted, assys debated. Samuel Adams
and Benjamin Franklin argued “No taxation w/o representation” – many argued that
taxation for revenue would threaten foundations for self-gov. Massachusetts (1st to act
formally – appealed Reps of HoRs to meet and formulate protest). British countered theory
of virtual rep “members of parliament are held to safeguard interest of British and
colonists alike”.
 (2) Stamp Act Congress: gained momentum as date of implementation drew near. Patrick
Henry’s fiery oration made him famous, submitted series of resolution to his colony’s assy
(House of Burgesses)- denying Parliament’s right to tax and called to resist – tenor for
proclamation of Stamp Act Congress – extralegal convention of delegates from 9 colonies
met Oct 1765 – wrote petition to the King highlt loyalty and conviction.
k. Sons of Liberty - 1765: Opponents of Stamp Act estb rabble of Boston – this mob paraded
through the streets with Effigy of Andrew Oliver (Stamp Distributor) hanged from liberty tree
and beheaded – took form of pol org – marched while shouting “liberty, property and no
stamps” – group disbanded after abrogation of act in 1766.
l. Declaratory Act 1767: abrogation of stamp act celebrated as victory – Grenville replaced by
Rockingham (proved sympathetic) – passed declaratory act “Parliaments auth was same in
America to make laws that were binding on American colonies” – this created anguish and
they become revolutionary.
m. Townshend Policies: Townshend (Chancellor of Exchequer, who eventually became real ldr)
– passed measures which further estranged rels, tried policies of Grenville and imposed new
taxes (glass, lead, paint and tea) – customs setup a/w admiralty courts for smugglers
“Townshend Acts” – colonists boycotted British goods to pressure – as customs official arrived,
oppsn intensified – acts reviled in Boston, HQ of custom Board – Non-importation agreement
followed agrrement by NY and Philadelphia merchants in 1768-69 resp. Bristish sent Mil and
Naval officials to enforce which led to Boston Massacre 1770.
n. Boston Massacre 5 Mar 1770: mob of angry people encircled British sentry, shouting and
throwing rocks – Redcoats opened fire killing five Bostonians and wounding several – Crips
Attuck (sailor, 1st cas of American Rev) – Thomas Preston (OIC), arrested & later acquitted –
Even soldiers recalled but the event fomented rev sentiments – Massacre showed Tyranny of
British – Maj signpost where Foundation of American Indep was laid, Jhon Adams.
o. Tea Act and Boston Tea Party: part of resistance – Parliament’s efforts to rescue EIC –
final straw in unpopular policies – act granted the company right to ship its tea dir to Colonies
w/o bringing it to England – coy hadn’t to pay addl tax which lowered price in colonies – EIC
got monopoly and others handicapped – revived resistance as of Stamp Act – several other
mobs like sons of liberty joined, intimidated and forced coy’s ships to return w/o unloading.
Massachusetts, Boston (3 ships – Beaver, Dartmouth and Eleanor) tried to unload – group of
mobs led by Samuel Adams refused, LG and CJ Thomas Hutchinson refused to return the
ships and held in Harbor till resolving matters – 16 Dec 1773, Griffin’s Wharf, 150 Bostonians
boarded the ship disguised and dumped 342 chests of tea (10,000 pound) which resulted in
open hostility.
p. Intolerable Acts 1774: British responded by passing series of laws “intolerable acts or
coercive acts”
(1) Boston Port Act: port closed until reimbursement and satisfaction of King – Colonists
objected, all punished, no opportunity for testify.
(2) Massachusetts Govt Act: took royal character of colony – appts made by British – only
town meeting allowed.
(3) Administration of Justice Act: Gov to order trial of British in England if feels lack of fair
trial – George Washington “Murder Act”.
(4) The Quartering Act: reinforced 1765 act giving Gov to take nec measures for troops
shelter.
(5) Quebec Act: Extend Province of Quebec incl west Mississippi – religious reforms in favor
of Catholic maj in Quebec allowing Catholics to hold office.
These not welcomed – miscalculations of British – org oppsn – violation of constitutional and
natural rights and colonial charter – threat to American Liberty. HoR appt cte of corres from
colonies to decide course of action – inter-colonial congress.
q. First Continental Conference (Sep-Oct 1774): coercive acts raised suspicion about others
rights – 56 Delegates except Georgia (fighting Native American’s uprising, dep for Mil supplies)
gathered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – No. of future luminaries.
(1) Galloway’s Plan of Action: 13 colonies united Parliament – each colony had veto over
others’. Not accepted and polarization of parties.
 (2) Suffolk Resolves 9 Sep 1774: By ldrs of Suffolk county, Massachusetts – Paul Rever
submitted the copy – docu denounced intolerable acts and specifically resolved to:- (i)
Boycott imports (ii) no obedience to Boston Port Bill (iii) Resignation of Appt under new act
(iv) no tax payment (v) sp colonial govt in Massachusetts till abrogation of act (vi) urge
colonies to raise militias.
(3) Declaration of Rights and Grievances (17 Oct 1774): denied right to tax colonies and
lambasted for stationing troops, insult to colonial liberties, raised militias but didn’t
challenge colonial loyalty to British Monarch. Articles of Association- stop imports, end of
commercial rels with Britain. Address to Americans, Canadians and British. Adjourned and
decided to meet again on May 10 1775.
(4) Actions and Reactions (Battle of Lexington and Concord): Lord North’s Govt – King
George declared colonies as rebels and Parliament sp. Jan 1775 (orders to prevent 2 nd
Continental Conference) – Mil reinforcement under 3 Generals (William Howe, Henry
Clinton and John Burgoyne) – General Gage sent sldrs to Concord to seize weapons and
arrest John Hancock and Samuel Adams (ldrs of Patriots) – Sldrs fought Minute Men (8
Died). Ralph Waldo Emerson “Shot heard around the World”- Revolutionary War began (73
British Sldrs killed & 200 injured, Patriots (49 dead & 46 injured))
r. 2nd continental Conference: for Dir war effort & set system of govt to replace British rule –
delegates convened at State House of Philadelphia (HoI) on 10 May 1775. Reapt Peyton
Randloph and Secy Charles Thomson. Salient approvals are:- (i) Complete isolation from
Britain (ii) colonies in state of defense (iii) July 14, 1775 (continental Army, George Washington
C-i-C) (iv) Print paper money. Most imp meeting.
(1) Radicals and Conservatives: tripartite division with, w/o and neutral – Conservatives
(John Jay and John Dickinson) & Radicals (John Adams and Thomas Jefferson). Olive
Branch Petition (final attempt to negotiate, demanded free trade and tax equal to British) –
rejected, Proclamation of Rebellion – Declaration of Causes (Congress) “Our cause is just,
our union is perfect”. 2 July 1776, resolution for Indep (Declaration of Independence).
s. Common Sense By Thomas Paine: Pro Indep Pamphlet pub in Jan 1776 – presented
argument for freedom when Q for Indep was undecided – pub anonymously (to escape
censuring) – 120,000 copies in 3 months – donated royalties to Continental Army – though
idea most known in upper strata, it helped inc discourse of indep disseminating idea of
Republicanism, bolstering enthusiasm and encouraged recruitment in Continental Army.
t. Declaration of Independence: Original docu signed by 13 colonies to announce obliteration
of colonial era in July 1776. 7 June 1776, Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee to introduce
resolution in Continental Congress “These United States colonies are, and ought to be, free
and independent States” – form foreign alliance and plan of confederation. Members of
congress wanted rational explanation to this reality to justify their actions to the world. 11 June
– 5 member cte (Jhon Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston &
Thomas Jefferson) to produce draft declaration. TJ was to write draft, his objs were (i) dispel
notion of rebellion against British (ii) Convince loyalists the inevitability of indep. 1 st point
removed by Jhon Locke’s “Doctrine of Natural Rights” – 2 nd point Charges against the King in
2nd half of Declaration of Independence – Draft submitted to Continental Congress on 28 June
1776 – 1st July convened to vote (9/13) agreed – delayed to July 2 then votes (12/0) resolved
to declare independence – 2 days for rephrasing document – July 4, Benjamin Franklin “We
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and sacred honors – NY agreed to sign –
Congress gathered to sign original docu on 2 nd Aug. Constitution, Bill of Rights and Declaration
of Indep – 3 crucial docus.
u. Waging a War
(1) Battle of Lexington and Concord: 19 Aug 1775 – tensions in between (Massachusetts),
Thomas Gage sent soldiers from Boston to Concord to investigate stockpile of weapons.
Sldrs to seize weapons and arrest John Hancock and Samuel Adams.
(2) Battle of Bunker Hill: 17 June 1775 – new army gathered in Boston under command of
Warran, Putuam and Prescott – sldrs sent to occupy Hills surrounding Boston, 1200
militiamen under Colonel Prescott made fortification on Breed’s Hill instead of Bunker Hill.
June 17, under Cmd of MG William Howe and BG Robert, 2200 landed on Charlestown
 peninsula intercepted 3 times and 3rd time in hand-to-hand battle. Americans defeated but
800 redcoats injured and 226 Killed (mainly officers) – significant battle for Americans.
(3) Battle of Fort Ticonderoga: Fort on Lake Champlain – key point of access Canada and
Hudson River during French and Indian War. 10 th May 1775, strategic imp for attacking
colonies from Canada. Ethan Allen and Colonel Benedict Arnold thought it as easy target –
168 Green Mountain Boys and militias captured Fort from British. Captain William De
Laplace surrendered and no one was killed. Cannons from Fort tpt to Dorchester Heights.
Threat of Cannons forced British to evacuate Boston. Morale booster and Key artillery
captured.
(4) Battle of Brooklyn: 27-20 Aug 1776 – 1st large scale war (George Washington – Colonies
and General Howe – British) – British desire to capture NY, isolating New England from
colonies. After Boston evacuation, General Howe came to NY. Washington 18,000 troops.
General Howe crossed Staten island to Brooklyn, inflicted heavy losses and forced
Washington to leave. Timely rainstorm enabled Washington’s forces to escape Manhatten
to Hudson River to Delaware River. Decisive victory for British, showed both side that war
is not easy and many man could die.
(5) Battle of Trenton and Princeton:
(6) Battle of Saratoga: British strat to isolate colonies and cap Philadelphia – intricate scheme
in 1777 to crush rebellion. Gen Burgoyne to move from Canada towards Albany and Gen
Howe troops to advance Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany and 3 rd force from
west, Lake Ontario to Albany. Gen Burgoyne (700 sldrs) moved through St Lawrence River
and captured Ticonderoga and Fort Edward on 16 July 1777 – Gen Howe moved south to
attack Philadelphia through Chesapeake Bay on 25 Aug 1777 and defeated colonists in
Battle of Brandywine. Burgoyne didn’t rec reinfo and executed plans himself which proved
disastrous. He was harassed by Yankee farmers in south. Resultantly, Colonist under
Horatio Gates, Arnold and Philip outnumbered British and Burgoyne had to surrender.
v. War efforts with French Allies: Foreign aid for army stuck 18 Miles from Philadelphia
captured by General Howe for two winters (Short on food and shelter) – Declaration of Indep
allowed to make alliance with Foreign Countries. Comte de Vergennes French FM convinced
King Louis XVI to secretly send munitions to America through a fake supply company (reprisal
against defeat in French and Indian Wars), Spain also contributed through her company.
Victory of Saratoga (French Victory). 1778 two treaties (i) Treaty of Amity and Commerce (ii)
Treaty of Alliance (War and Peace). General Clinton (successor of Howe) marched towards
NY with 10,000 men and Washington followed him towards south where British could get sp
from Loyalists. Georgia and South Carolina in 1779. Gen Cornwallis cap Charles town and
moved further. General Nathanael newly appt to Southern Theatre (man of infinite patience
and used strategy of delay), General Cornwallis to follow him, resulting delay and exhaustion
of army, Lost some battles but won campaign.
w. Surrender to Yorktown: General Cornwallis after estb base at Yorktown thought British Navy
ctrl waters and Americans troops were preoccupied with British but didn’t knew French Admiral
De Grasse was on his way to join Americans in Yorktown. Lafayette hovered near Yorktown,
discouraging Cornwallis to move his army. Washington and Comte surrounded Cornwallis
while de Grasse defeated British fleet. 19 Oct 1781, Cornwallis surrendered with 7,000 men
which brought immediate end to the war.
6. Treaty of Paris: British tired of war – HoC voted against cont of war, March 1782 lord North
resigned ending rule of King George III. He called Whigs to form ministry, Rockingham PM and
Lord Shelburne (FM), wanted to keep French influence away from America. Congress nominated
5 members cte to negotiate treaty which was signed on Sep 3, 1783 setting the terms of rels b/w
two ctys. On same day they signed two other treaties Versailles. 3 treaties together known as
Peace of Paris. Terms of treaty are (i) acknowledgement of United States (ii) Estb boundaries (iii)
granting Fishing rights to American Fishers (iv) lawful contracted debt recognized (v) future
prevention of confiscation of property of loyalists (vi) PoW to be released (vii) Perpetual access to
Mississippi River (viii) Territories cap after treaty to be returned by Americans (ix) Ratification
within 6 months.
7. Role of Women: fundraising, supplying, tending sldrs. Townshend Act (Daughters of Liberty,
boycotting British goods); Martha Washington; spearhead domestic production(Textile imp);Esther
De Berdt Reed (association for clothing troops and raised funds $ 300,000 –6 states)- spies.
FEDS VS ANTI-FEDS
Led by George Washington Led by Thomas Jefferson
Pol: common man can not run the govt therefore 4th July 1776 – we all are equal – essence of
he shall not be at the helms of affairs of power; democracy – can be at helms of affairs
no pol experience
Eco: must be controlled with biased distribution Laissez Fair Eco – less gov role – distribution
Gov: strong center, weak states Relatively strong center as compared to states
Representation in Congress: According to Fixed electorates – 2 houses – 2 reps & equal
population rep – bills must be passed from both houses
Bill of Rights: Pkg of demand by anti-feds Constitution ratifying with Bill of Rights
Ratification of Constitution Jefferson personally convinced by Washington
for ratification and rights will be incorporated later
TREATY OF PARIS 1763 VS 1783
Signed Feb 1763 Signed 3 Sep 1783
Concluded 7 yrs war (French-Indian War) Concluded American War of Independence
Between France, Spain/ Portugal, Britain Between US & GB
Colonial empire of France was destroyed, leaving Independence of 13 colonies from British masters
GB dominant power in North America – ended British colonial rule in US
French renounced NA east of Mississippi and British retained Canada, navigation of Mississippi
Britain restored West Indian Islands whereas whereas surrendered Tobago & Senegal. Access
Spain recovered Havana & Manila to new found land & fisheries and no
impediments in collection of debts
French gave up all territories to British effectively Ratified by American Congress on 14 Jan 1784
ending any foreign military threat to colonies due to slow means of communication
Prohibited colonists to move west of Appalachian US boundaries established – significant effect on
mountains because England was still in debt America in 18th century
Royal proclamation to calm fears of Native 10 articles treaty
Indians – halting Westward expansion
SALIENT FEATURES OF US CONSTITUTION
1787 during Philadelphia Convention (55 Men under George Washington) - make necessary changes
in Article of Confederation – Two plans (Virginia, Feds and New Jersey, Anti feds) – Connecticut
compromise (2 Houses) - Written constitution (7 Articles & 27 Amendments) – Federal by nature
(Strong center) – Presidential - Popular sovereignty & individual rights - supremacy of constitution –
Judicial review – Independent & Powerful judiciary – separation of powers along with Checks and
Balances – Dual Citizenship – Spoil System – Bill of Rights (10 Basic Human Rights) – Rigidity –
Republicanism – Secular State – Bicameralism – Universal Suffrage – Supremacy of People.
PROBLEMS IN FORMATION OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
No Constitution – No common currency – No national military force – little centralized control over
foreign policy – no national system of imposing and collecting of tax – Feds vs Anti-Feds – Foreign
policy – Economic weakness – slavery – powers and election of president
GEORGE WASHINGTON (1789 – 1801)
unanimous choice as the 1 president – born 22nd Feb 1732 in Virginia to an English family – brother
st

married to royal family – Soldier, led army of 13 colonies – more general than politician.
Achievements: Hamilton Financial Plan (taxation, payment of national $ 54 Bn debt, estb of Natl
bank, uniform currency) - Bill of Rights – Judicial Act – Whiskey Rebellion (Pennsylvania farmers
refused to pay tax, 1500 militia), Rise of Political Parties – Westward Expansion (Public land act
1796) – Greenville treaty (Ohio surrender). FP: French Rev (Remained neutral) - Jay’s Treaty (US CJ
to Britain for ships seizure) – Proclamation of Neutrality (French – British War) – Pinckney Treaty
(Spain, lower Mississippi access) – XYZ Affair (French, ships, Bribe) – Convention of 1800
(Napoleon)
THOMAS JEFFERSON (1801-1809)
13th April 1743 in Virginia – Orphan – studied law – admitted in House of Burgess – Member of
Continental Congress – Wrote Declaration of Indep – his presidency in called 2 nd American
Revolution. Achievements: Louisiana Purchase (Napoleon, King Charles IV, 280,000 sq miles for $15
Mn – Doubled the Size of US) – Judicial Impeachment (John Marshal) – Understandable Federal
Budget (Albert Galton) – Laissez Fair Eco – Religious tolerance – Autonomy to States – Slavery
Issue (evil) – Layman rule – Speedy Trail of Cases – immigrant issue (5 yr)
WAR OF 1812
2 War of Indep – Britain first defensive (Napoleonic wars) – aggressive after 1814 – America was
nd

weak (7,000 regular soldiers, west and south fav). Causes: Free Sea & Trade (French & British) –
Impressment of US Sailors in British Navy – British sp to Red Indians – War Hawks (Henry Clay) –
Declaration of War (talks failed) – Invasion of Canada (British responded effectively) – Burning of
White House (Chesapeake campaign) – Treaty of Ghent (Both wanted to end war) – The war Legacy
(gained respect of other nations, accept Canada as neighbor, hold of feds ended, native American
surrendered, British goods unavailable led to more factories in US, Strong feeling of Nationalism)
MISSOURI COMPROMISE (1820)
Missouri Slave, Maine Free & prohibition of slavery in Louisiana – Repealed by Kansas-Nebraska Act
1854 (Dred Scott Decision, No auth of Congress prohibit slavery) – 11 Free & 11 Slaves States –
Threat to balance in Congress – Henry Clay (2 part solution) – 1 Slave & 1 Free, No slavery in new
states, Ban on slavery over Mississippi
MONROE DOCTRINE (1823)
Regular national address – 2 Dec 1823 – Imp pillar of US FP in 19th Cen – laid ground of westward
nd

expansion with non-interference in trans-Atlantic relations – 1817 to 1824 (Era of Good Feelings),
1824-1829 (Hard Feelings) – Principles (Anti-colonization, Non-intervention, Self Defense, American
Nationalism) – Use (British alliance with Texas 1836, 1845 WWE, French Empire in Mexico) –
effects (Spain restrained, Britain trade power) – US Navy till 1880 (implement Monroe Doctrine)

ANDREW JACKSON (1829-1837)

Era of common man or Jacksonian Democracy – 15 th Mar 1768 (Saddle Maker) – orphan at 14 –
hardships – excellent law student – Major General – 2 nd Hickory – 2nd custodian of Democracy.
Achievements: Rise of Democratic society (no diff in Rich & poor) – Politics of Common man –
Universal Male Suffrage (All White male can vote) – Party Nomination Convention – Max use of Veto
– Rise of Pol parties – More elected offices – Popular campaigning – Spoilt System – Kitchen Cabinet
– Peggy Eaton Affair (wife of SoW, gossips, invited to party, VP Calhoun resigned) – Indian Removal
Act 1830 (94 treaties to drive out of Mississippi, Trail of Tears 4000 Cherokees died) – Re-charting
Bank of USA (exploiting masses, Henry Clay opposed in Congress, vetoed) – Balanced FP.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1861-1865)

12 Feb 1809 in log cabin near Kentucky – named after grandfather – family moved to Indiana &
Illinois (gained edu in law while working along) – Illinois legislature. Policies: Popular leadership (C-
SPAN poll 2009) – Abolition of Slavery (13 th Amdt) – Domestic Society (Homestead Act: poor people
of east acquire land in west, Morrill Act: Agri and mech colleges in each state, National Banking Act)
– Wisest President – Fugitive Slave Act 1850 (runaway slaves returned) – Good rels with Cabinet
(story telling) – FP (prevention of foreign involvement in Civil War)

CIVIL WAR
Growing abolitionist movement – South Carolina ceded in 1860, next 2 weeks 6 others as well –
Causes: Election of Lincoln – Discrimination of race – Slavery – The abolitionist (wanted to end
slavery) – difference in economy – western expansion. Mitigation: Institutional control – Institutional
interference – Listened North & South separately and addsd reservations with unbiased apch, rigidly
solved the issues – Military out of political corridor (no proxies meanwhile). Consequences: Physical
devastation (4 yrs, 620,000 killed) – Spread of Disease (more died of sickness than war) – Hunger &
Homelessness (4 Mn slaves freed, Freedmen Bureau). Effects: Nation reunited – south under mil
rule & divided in mil districts – supremacy of Federation proved – Reconstruction & Industrialism had
begun.

PROGRESSIVISM (1890-1920)
Industrialism – led by Progressivists, middle and lower class due to awareness – Optimize every
institution of US – Change 4 evils (corruption, Business Monopoly, inefficiency, social injustice) –
followed on 3 layers – Lower/ Municipal layer: awareness & rejection by municipal level dev of
powers (Schools, hospitals, sanitation, streets) State level: Direct state elections instead of party
basis - popular referendum for law – Direct senator election – women voting rights – ended Child
labor. National Level: regulations for betterment of life standards (anti-trust laws) – lowered tax –
federal control over banking system. Presidents: Roosevelt, Taft & Wilson. Role of Muckrakers
(Journalists/ writers): made people aware (shame of cities 1904, history of Standard Oil company).
Motives: inc gap between rich & poor – conflict b/w labor & capital – corrupt politicians – Racism –
Women suffrage – Greater democracy – Monopoly. Reforms: Political (power in people’s hand,
change in city govt, direct senate elecs, vote to women) – Social (child labor laws, 10 hour work,
safety standards on Job, Immigration restriction). Impacts: Exploitation checked, natural resources
secured, responsibility in politician’s behavior, fair power distribution b/w state and fed, strengthened
local govt.

WOODROW WILSON (1914-1919) & WWI

The progressive era president – noble prize winner – balanced policy in WWI – Wilson 14 points.
WWI Overview: Austria-Hungary war on Serbia, Russia involved to save Serbia, Germany attacked
Russia, France against Germany & Austria-Hungary, Germany attacked France through Belgium
pulling Britain into war, Japan, Italy and US joined later. Causes: Assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand in Bosnia 1914 – Mutual Defense Alliance – Militarism in 20 th Century – Serbia Nationalism
(Slavic people) – Imperialism in Africa & Asia. Causes of American Entry: Trade relations with
Europe – German Submarine Warfare (March 1918, torpedoed Lusitania) – Zimmerman Note
(German FS, Mexico alliance) – Russian Revolution – Weapons credibility issue – Declaration of War
(2nd Apr 1917). The world must be safe for democracy - Wilson
GREAT DEPRESSION 1930
Started 1929 Black Tuesday Market crash (selling of 130,000 shares on 24 Oct 1929, The Wall street
Crash) – FDR new deal bring out America but in reality the cty geared up in 1941 before WWII.
Causes: Dust Bowl Draught (1930-1936, rapid urbanization) – unequal distribution of wealth (1% had
75% wealth) – War debts ($10 Bn debt on European nations, US insisted, they forced Germany
(treaty of Versailles) – High tarrifs (Fordney Mc-Cumber Act) – Over-production in Industry – Farm
over-production – Stock Market crash. Effects: Unemployment (25%) – people lost life savings
(9,000 banks closed) – US GNP dropped 33% - Federal Welfare & Social Program (FDR New deal,
CCC, Fed Housing administration & Social security act) – Increased Tax on wealthy people (88%) –
FDIC to ensure safety of Public money – Changes in Stock market

COLD WAR ERA (1947 – 1991)

WWII & Stalin Communism (American refusal to treat USSR as legitimate community & delayed entry
into WWII) – Post war Soviet expansion in Europe. Containment: Long Telegram by George Kenan
(communist threat) – no modus vivendi b/w US and USSR (long term, patient & vigilant strategy) –
Truman Doctrine (mil and arms support to democratic nations) Atomic Age: NSC 1968
recommended use of force (Atomic race started, Hydrogen bomb on Marshal Islands) – Space: 4 Oct
1957 (Sputnik V, threats to put warhead in space) – 1958 (Explorer I by USA) – President
Eisenhower created NASA. The Red Scar: spies within American govt – 1947 House Un American
Committee hearing. Cold War Abroad: Korean war (1950) - West Germany as member of NATO
(1955) - USSR responded with Warsaw Pact – Bay of Pigs Invasion (1960) – Cuban Missile crisis
(1961) – Vietnam crisis {President John F Kennedy} Closure: Nixon diplomacy instead of military
action – Recognition of CPC’s govt in China (preclude coop with USSR) – SALT-1 & SALT-2 – Regan
Era (again funded anti-communist govts & insurgencies) – Communist govts replaced with Non-
Communist Govts – Berlin Wall destroyed – 1991 (Afghanistan War) – USSR defeated &
disintegrated

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Mass protests in 1950s against racial segregation & discrimination (supremacy of whites) – roots in
century long efforts of African slaves who emancipated as result of Civil war and granted civil rights
through 14th & 15th Amdt – struggle to secure constitutional protection of these rights – 1964-65
legislations (inalienable rights of life & liberty) – Free blacks endured racial discrimination & enforced
segregation – African-American & other subordinate groups used non-violent means. Steps:
American Anti-Slavery society (William Garrison) – Abolition Movement by Frederick Douglas –
Rejection of Citizenship claims by Supreme Court (Dred Scott Decision) – Abraham Lincoln & civil
war – Emancipation Proclamation 1863 - 13th -15th Constitutional Amdt after civil war – Supreme
Court (No equality) – Jim Crow Laws & inc lynching incidents (southern states)– Reconstruction era &
efforts to integrate freed black in society (1863-1877) – Voting Rights (15 th Amdt in 1861) –
Reformation of NAACP (1909) – Civil Rights Movement (1954-1968) {Non-violent resistance, civil
disobedience, sit-ins, boycotts, Marches}. Manifestations: Brown vs Board of Education (Little Rock
High School 1954) – Lynching of Emmett Till (14 yr boy, said something to white women, next day
kidnapped & killed) – Rosa Parks defiance (refused to vacate seats) – Montgomery Bus Boycott
(1956) – Martin Luther King (1956-1963) {Southern Christian Leadership Conference – 1963 March, I
have a dream, multiple other marches} Legal End: Civil Rights Act (1965, nullified Jim crow laws) –
Voting Rights Act (1965) – Black Power Movement (1965-1985) {Malcom X and Black Panthers}
US CONSTITUTION – BLUE PRINT FOR DEMOCRACY
World’s strongest surviving constitution – We the People – Preamble (principles of Democracy) –
Article-1 (3 branches, separation of powers, checks and Balances, Bill of Rights) – Equal
representation of States in Senate – Amendments (Weapons, no quartering of soldiers, no search
w/o warrant, remain silent, speedy trial, no excessive tax)
JEFFERSONIAN VS JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
Political: Universal Male suffrage (test of character vs requirement abolished), Office holding
(educated vs everyone), Presidential Candidate (caucus vs nomination).
Economic: Chosen Class (Yeomen farmers vs working class), Industrialization (feared
consequences vs accepted essentiality), corporate Charters (favorite people vs competitive sys), US
Central Bank (Both disapproved, saw as monopoly of rich)
Social: Slavery (owned slaves but wanted it eradicated vs little attention towards abolition), Women &
Minority Rights (Not equal vs negative attitude towards native Americans), Education (Necessary vs
not necessary), Social Mobility (education & ambitions vs economic means)
Religion: Separation of Church & State (eliminated estb churches after revolution, both wanted
separation)
NIXON WATER GATE SCANDAL (1972-1974)
Democratic National Committee in Watergate Hotel complex, Washington – one of Burglars had links
to White House – investigation by Cte to Re-elect President – reputation of many politicians tarnished
– resulted in resignation of President Nixon – CREEP (1972, 5 men arrested, James McCord denied
culpability) – Nixon 2nd Victory (against George McGovern) – Adm involvement (open Congressional
hearing of case, Nixon adm enemies list, misuse of govt agencies and resources for own profit) –
Saturday Night Massacre (tapes, executive privilege, resignation and replacement by Cox) – Charges
and Judicial Cte (VP Andrew resigned and pleaded no contest of income tax evasion, cte asked for
return of tapes) – Nixon Resigned on 9 Aug 1974