B.A. (Hons.

) Political Science Semester-IV

Core Course
Paper-IX : Public Policy and Administration in India
Study Material : Unit 1-5

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

Editor : Dr. Mangal Deo

Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout
Department of Political Science
 Graduate Course

Paper-IX : Public Policy and Administration in India

Contents
Pg. No.
Unit-1 : Public Policy
(a) : Definition, Characteristics and Models Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 01
(b) : Public Policy Process in India Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 15
Unit-2 : Decentralization Ms. Revathy V Menon 28
Unit-3 : Budget
(a) : Concept and Signification of Budget Vishal Kumar Gupta 44
(b) : Budget Cycle in India Vishal Kumar Gupta 51
(c) : Various Approach and Types of Budgeting Kumari Sushma 60
Unit-4 : Citizen and Administration Interface
(a) : Public Services Delivery in India Ms. Revathy V Menon 68
(b) : Redressal of Public Grievances: RTI, Lokpal, Citizen’s
Charter and E-Governance Dr. Neelam Jain and Dr. Shradhanvita Singh 81
Unit-5 : Social Welfare Administration
(a) : Concept and Approaches of Social Welfare Kumari Anupama 96
(b) : Social Welfare Policies Ms. Ashna Monga 109

Edited by:
Dr. Mangal Deo
Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
 Unit-1 : Public Policy

(a) Definition, Characteristics and Models

Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury

Structure
 Introduction
 Definitions of Public Policy
 Characteristics of Public Policy
 Types of Public Policy
 Models of Policy Making
 Relevance of Public Policy
 Conclusion
 Check Your Progress
 References

Introduction
A better understanding of public policy is very crucial for understanding the relationship
between the state and its people. The presence and relevance of the state is evident in all
aspects of lives and with the rapid geo-political and economic changes, the mutual
relationship between public and state has also become very significant. In this regard, the role
of public policy has enhanced tremendously.
Simply put, public policy is a like a strategical framework which the government within
a state uses to fulfill its functions. And, in this regard, public policies become very significant
as it holds the power to change and reshape the lives of the public in their given political
system.
The presence of public policy can be seen in every socio-economic aspect of public.
States are enacting policies to bring economic development and promote social justice and
empowerment of all sections of the society. So, not only the economic but the social
relationships are also getting transformed due to the sound public policy. In this way, it
become essentially important to understand the public policy so as to know the state and
society and their relationship better.
Definitions of Public Policy
The significance and relevance of public policy lie in the fact that its presence and scope
relate to all aspect of a society. One important point which is necessary to highlight here is
that as countries are different in all aspects, the public policy also differs. The nature, process,
policy priority and impact of policy is significantly varying from country to country

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depending on social, political, economic aspect, priorities, available resources, stakeholders’
involvement etc.
In simple definition, a policy is described as a set of principle or set of rules which guide
decisions and achieve rational objectives. It is a course of action which is goal oriented, the
goals here are defined in terms of demands based on societal and economic needs, societal
values, preferences. Policy is based on preconceived outcomes and course of action is
planned to achieve the objectives.
In India, the policies are made keeping in mind the problems of poverty, illiteracy,
rampant unemployment, food insecurity, priorities like social and gender justice,
empowerment of the weaker section of the society, development of agriculture and industries,
sound economic growth, for better human security indicators, environmental sustainability,
and national security broadly. One can realize the comprehensiveness and complexities of
public policy as it is highly interconnected to different aspects.
Therefore, it is also become difficult to give a define public policy. This means that on
the basis of semantics, simply put, linguistically it is difficult to define public policy because
of the comprehensiveness of the very nature of public policy. Public policy has been defined
by different scholars in different ways focusing on different aspects of the policy and policy
process. Different definitions give different perspectives and dimensions to understand policy
making.
Thomas R. Dye says that “public policy is whatever government choose to do or not to
do”. (Dye 2008).
According to William Jenkins, “public policy is a set of interrelated decisions taken by a
political actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving
them within a specified situation where those decisions should, in principle, be within the
power of those actors to achieve”.
According to David Easton, “public policy is the authoritative allocation of values for the
whole society”.
According to Cochran et al, “the actions of government and the intentions that determine
those actions”.
Harold Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan define public policy as “a projected program of
goals, values, and practices”.
Robert EyeStone defined public policy as “the relationship of government units to its
environments”.
According to Carl J. Friedrich “public policy is a proposed course of action of a person,
group or government within a given environment providing opportunities and obstacles
which the policy was proposed to utilize and overcome in an effort to reach a goal, an
objective or purpose”.

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 From the above definitions, it becomes very evident that public policies are decisions
taken by government to achieve preconceived goals which involves proper planning, and a
well-planned course of action. Definitions also make clear the public policy is a product of
well-coordinated relation and meaningful interaction between various stakeholders like
government agencies as executive, legislature, judiciary, bureaucracy, various associations,
pressure groups, civil society, and private and international organizations etc. (Krafts and
Furlong 2004)
However, where such definitions as feasible to understand public policy in ordinary
circumstances, but these are not sufficient indicators of a systematic study of public policy.
As Adam A. Anyebe (2008) mentioned that “these definitions make public policy look like
mere decisions, as expression of interests. It is true that these definitions work as a reference
point for starting with the discourse of public policy, but a more precise definition is required
to properly channelize thought process in correct direction and thus facilitating a more
effective communication with all units.
Another dimension of public policy is resource allocation based on public demands and
optimal utilization of available resources in efficient manner to meet the demands. This
approach of helps us to understand what actually has been done rather what has been
proposed for doing in a complex environment with multiple challenges.
The characteristics, types, policy analysis, approaches and policy cycle can help make
meaningful understanding of public policy. Policy analysis helps to understand the policy as a
whole, the linkages with political and social system and develops a scientific investigation of
the factors which influence public policy and its outcome. According to Thomas Dye “policy
analysis is a perquisite to prescription, advocacy and activism”. (Dye 2008)
The policy process or policy cycle presents a very basic, most fundamental framework of
understanding a policy which includes formulation, implementation and evaluation stages.
Characteristics of Public Policy
● Public policy is goal oriented.
Public policy is purposive. It is designed to achieve objectives based on societal and
economic demands. The basic objective of a public policy is to achieve predetermined goals
on the basis planned course of action by utilizing the available resources and infrastructure.
● Public policy is a course of action not merely a decision.
Public Policy is just not a decision rather it is course of action which is designed,
implemented based on combination of decisions. It is the result of collective action of
government decisions. It shows the action pattern of the government officials and reflects
their concerns and commitments towards the citizens.
● Public policy is the result of ‘doing, it is ‘action oriented’ and it is not about what the
government obligated or intended to do.

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 Government forms public policy on the basis of number of parameters. The availability of
resources, financial commitments, priority groups, complexity of the problem, data
availability, engagement of various stakeholders in a political environment within in a
specific administrative system.
● Public policy is outcome of a strategic and ethical process.
Public policy is designed and implemented to meet societal and economic requirements.
In public policy, decisions are taken based on scientific understanding and also keeping a
balance with the societal values and norms. It upholds the state’s commitments to social
justice, welfare of all and sustainable growth.
● Public policy is highly dynamic.
It is a continuous activity which takes place within a structure of political system and
external environment work as social and political system. It is dynamic because public
policy is not static and changes with changing issues. As environment is changing
drastically, it is posing more challenges to the public policy than ever and public policy is
also getting more comprehensive and dynamic in the process.
● Public policy is a complex process.
Multiple issues with demands, societal preferences are influencing public policy
designing and these aspirations, needs are coming in form of demands. It becomes very
challenging for the government to accommodate each demand into consideration. There
are several aspects which government must keep while designing policies. There are
social, economic relevance, national integrity and security, financial constraints, budget,
infrastructure availability, validity of the information and data and so on which makes the
public policy highly complex in nature.
● Public policy includes different components.
Public policy is made of various structures environment, system, and feedback
mechanism. It comprises of environment which provides demands and support to the
system. This environment is basically social and economic environment. The system is
political system. Demands are individuals’ and group’s requirements, their needs which
they provide to the government present in political system and supports are in form votes,
supporting the ideology and political party etc.
Political system is the system demands are processed and converted into policies and then
get implemented on the environment itself.
The feedback loop sends the evaluated reviews to the environment which affects the
policy outcome, people’s perceptions and generate new demands.
● Public policy is a product of well-coordinated relationship between various stake holders.
Multiple stakeholders participate starting with executive, legislature, judiciary,
bureaucracy, think tanks, civil society, people, media, all formal and informal structures
etc. Every agency, actor has an important role to play in the making of public policy.

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● Public policy is a well-planned, well researched course of action.
Public policy gets implemented with a sanction of law and authority to it.
● Public policy is based on guidelines.
It lays down major policy guidelines based on that policy is implemented. Policy
guidelines inform about the principles of policy making and functioning of policy.
● Public policy is directed towards future.
Public Policy is based on objectives. It is based on public interest. These objectives strive
to achieve social justice, sustainable growth and economic development which makes the
nation ahead. Policies make the future of a nation. More sound and holistic the polices
are, better it will be for the nation.
Policy making is also flexible as future holds lots of uncertainties, policy making change
its tone and course as the future requirements.
● Public policy uses the best available methods.
Public policy uses both quantitative data and qualitative data for designing the public
policy. Scientific data and normative values are considered, and available infrastructure
are used in best possible manner to make the policy effective and efficient.
Types of Public Policy
1. Distributive policy involves allocation of benefits and services for a specific section
of the society. Through these policy government try to reach out to all sections of the
society benefitting specially the vulnerable sections of the society. These policies
allocate resources and use of public funds to assist vulnerable communities, groups
and industries. Example of these policies are education policy, poverty alleviation
policy, health policy etc. These are for specific sections of the society.
2. Redistributive policy involves deliberate actions of the government to
allocate/redistribute the rights, income, property among all sections of the society.
These are basically concerned with social economic changes and rearrange policies to
achieve welfare of the society in general. These policies are difficult to design as it
involves allocation of huge finances, proper use of power and rights. These polices
are managing the economy of the country. The techniques involved here managing
the fiscal (tax) and monetary (flow of money) policy in the country. Redistributive
policies tend to benefit one group (vulnerable section, lower income group) by
reallocating wealth of another group (higher income group). Examples of
redistributive policies are taxation policy, fiscal policy, social welfare policy etc.
3. Another typology of the public policy is regulatory policies. These policies allow the
administrative state to authoritatively control or simply put imposition of restriction or
limitation on the behaviour of individuals the citizens for some activities. The
examples are regulative control for the consumption of alcohol and tobacco,

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 environmental protection policies, environmental pollution control polices, health and
safety policy etc. These policies focus on those sectors which need to be regulated
keeping in mind public interests.
4. According to procedural/substantive policies are related to those governmental actions
to deal with problems like roads, highways, dam construction, maintenance of the
public property, irrigation polices, environmental protection etc. Basically, while
making such procedural policy, the main focus is how the policy is designed and who
are the actors, what are their functions. All administrative procedure is taken into
consideration in this type. These polices are concerned with welfare and overall
growth of the society and all are not related to any particular segment of the society.
5. These are the types of policies on the basis of governmental functions. Apart from
these types, on the basis of various administrative business, activities, there are
several other policies like patronage/promotional policies which are further divided
into sub polices as: contract, license and subsidy. One type is capitalization policy,
another is constituent policy.
6. Other types are symbolic or material policies, private goods policies, collective
policies.
Models of Policy Making
Policy scientists have developed various models to understand the whole policy making
process.
Importance of models of public policy according to Thomas Dye:
● Simplification and clarification of political ideas, thoughts and public policy.
● Identification of relevance aspects of policy problems in all possible manner.
● Establishment of effective communication with all involved units highlighting the
essential features of social and political life.
● Properly direction for a better understanding of public policy by suggesting the
important elements and what are unimportant.
● Suggestion for effective explanation for public policy and predict its consequences.
Thomas Dye in his book has talked about the ‘policy model’ in great length, and following
the same conceptual scheme, the main models of public policy are as follows.
Process model Institutional model Rational model
Elite model Incremental model Group model
Public choice model System model Game theory
One important point which needs to be highlighted here that each model is understanding the
public policy from a specific point of view and give a different understanding of public

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policy making. However, the policies are the product of public choice, elite preference,
political process, system process, rational planning, incrementalism, group activity and game
function.
1. Process model:
In this model, the pattern of political activities that is ‘process’ of policy making is examined.
The various stages of process model are:
● Problem identification: policy problem is identified by analyzing the demands which
the various groups within society or society as a whole present to the government for
action.
● Agenda setting: different stakeholders like administrative officials, media focus the
attention to the specific demands and decision is taken on what should be decided as a
course of action
● Policy formulation: policy proposals is developed by various stakeholders involved.
● Policy legitimation: a specific course of action is selected to tackle the problem and
enactment is through legislature, executive and administrative system.
● Policy implementation: the policy is now get executed through public officials and
government institution.
● Policy evaluation: the outcome and further implications are analyzed. Government
agencies themselves, and various other actors like media, think tanks, private
consultancies, and civil society, general public evaluate the policy outcome.
This model is beneficial to understand the various activities of the policy making in a
structured way.
2. Institutional model:
Public policy and political institutions are intricately related to each other. All political
activities are performed by political institutions like president, executive, legislature,
judiciary, bureaucracy, urban and rural government institutions and public policies are also
designed, executed by the government institutions.
Thomas Dye mentioned that “the relationship between public policy and government
institutions is highly interrelated. A policy converts into public policy when it is formulated
and implemented by government institutions”. (Dye 2008)
The government institutions give three distinctive characteristics to public policy.
1. Legitimacy: It gives legitimacy to the policies. Government policies become legal
obligations and seek compliance of the citizens for the same. The legal legitimacy is
sanctioned through the government institutional activities.
2. Universality: The government institutions are the only and legal institutions through
which government policies are extended to all people in a society.

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 3. Coercion: Government can use authoritative force against the people who are not
complying to the policies and government regulations. Only government has the
legitimate authority to use force against the violators.
3. Rational model of public policy making
Thomas Dye mentioned that a rational policy is achieves ‘maximum social gain’ which
means that the governments should choose such policies which yield more societal gains than
the input costs and governments should not choose those policies which cost more gain less.

Image source: Dye 2008

The two important prerequisites to maximize social gain are:
● Policy should not be adopted if its input costs are exceeding its output benefits or
returns.
● While selecting policy as the final course of cation, decision maker should choose that
policy which gives maximum benefit in comparison to input costs.
In this way, a rational policy is that policy which gives maximum returns over cost. In
words of Thomas Dye the policy would be considered rational when the values it achieves is
more than the values it sacrifices or in words, is positive, and that value is higher than other
policy alternatives available.
This model works on certain principles which policy maker must possess:
● Policy maker should have the perfect knowledge of societal values, preferences,
● Policy maker should know all the possible alternatives of solving specific problem,
● Policy maker should envision the outcomes of each possible course of action,
● Policy maker should know the cost benefit analysis of each policy alternative,
● Policy maker should be rational, knows the value preference and society demands and
select the most effective and efficient alternative.

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This must possess characteristics make it clear that policy making is a rational process which
includes all perfect information about possible policy alternatives, cognitive and
computational ability to process the information and weigh cost benefit analysis and can
facilitate rationality in policy design.
4. Elite model
According to this model, public policy is the result of preferences and values of elite. It
reflects the interests of the elites and achieving their ends through the policies. Thomas Dye
explains that elite model shows that the people are ill-informed and less aware about public
policy, and elites actually shape public opinion on demands and policy problems whereas the
common public have no role in forming elite opinion. Thus, the elites’ preferences are
reflected in form of public policy. Administrative bureaucrats and whole machinery just
enforce the policies as structured by the elite. Policies flow from elite to masses in downward
direction, and they do not arise from mass demands to elite in upward manner.
In this model, public policy making has been studied from the point of elitist theory.
Elite theory postulates that the decision-making power is in the hands of powerful groups in
the society. Mosca, Pareto, Michels are the thinkers who have developed the elitist model of
political theory. In public policy, this idea of elitism has been developed to show the
domination of elites in decision making mechanism. According to Dye, “public policy shows
elite values, serves elite ends, and is a product of the elite”. (Dye 2008)

Image source: Dye 2008

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Thomas Dye summarized the elitist theory as:
1. Society is divided into two groups. First group is lesser in number but have power and
second is large in number but have no power. This small number allocate values for
society and mass with no power have no role in policy making process.
2. The few who are governing are not proportionate to the masses who are governed.
These elites are coming from the upper socio-economic section of society.
3. The movement of non-elites to elite positions is very slow and but continuous to
maintain stability and avoid public dissent. Those non-elites who have accepted the
basic elite consensus are slowly getting entry to governing circles.
4. Elites share a common consensus on the basic values of the social system which make
the preservation of the system much easy.
5. Public policy is not reflective of public demands. It is designed based on elite
preferences.
6. Elites influence masses more than masses influence elites. (Dye 2008)
Elitist theory, however, does not mean that elitists make the public policy completely hostile
to common people but highlights the responsibility of elitists towards the society as a whole.
5. Incremental model
This model is associated with the works of political scientists David Braybrook and Charles
Lindbloom. They first developed this model as a critique of rational model of decision
making. They argued that policy makers face many constraints like complex societal
demands, time constraints, infrastructural limitations, financial constraints, while deciding
about existing and proposed polices in an administrative system. (Anyebe 2017)
The incremental model recognizes the limitations and realistic barriers of a perfect
rational decisions making process and helps the policy makers to adopt a more broad and
practical approach to decision making.
In this model, the focus is given to small incremental change which a policy creates and
also to the changes in the cost benefit analysis in policy and expenditure aspect.
6. Group model
According to this model, public policy is a result of group struggle. Anderson (1997) explains
that a group public policy model shows how each group present within the society tries to
influence the policy making in their favour and it also represents an equilibrium which all the
contending groups trying to win in their favour.
Groups are made on common interests and they form different interest groups on the
basis of that. Individuals being part of group become important actor in politics. Group works
as a link between individual and government. Within a political system various groups are
present with often conflicting interests. The political system manages those conflicts and

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create accommodative policies by addressing the demands, conflicts of the groups and thus
balance all the group conflict, and make public policies. (Kingdon 2003)
Thomas Dye mentions that “at any given time, public policy is the equilibrium reached
in the group conflict with the relative influence of involved interest groups. Any change in
the relative influence of any group can bring change in public policy.

Image source: Dye 2008

The group which exert more influence, policy will move in its direction and not reflect the
other group preferences. There are various sources through which group exert influence like
the group strength in terms of numbers, organization capacity, wealth, leadership quality,
communication channels and networking links etc.
7. Public choice model
It is an economic study of public policy making. It postulates that in ‘politics’ and in
‘marketplace’, all individual actors in different role as voters, taxpayers, government
officials, private owners, political parties, interest groups, behave in the same manner and
take their choices on the basis of the principle of ‘maximization of the individual benefits in
both politics and marketplace.
This theory maintains that individual doesn’t behave differently which means when it
comes to political choices, individual will think differently and in marketplace differently.
Similar to marketplace, in politics too individuals come together for their mutual benefit.
And, by coming together, they influence the policy decisions and thus enhance their own
wellbeing also. (Kraft and Furlong 2004)
Thomas Dye explained that on both politics and marketplace, people pursue their own
self interest. But even with pursuing their own selfish motives, people mutually benefit each
other through the process of collective decision making.

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8. System model
David Easton has developed this approach and widely used in public policy discourse too.
The public policy is considered as a political system which responds to demand coming
from the environment. Environment consists of social, economic phenomenon, and settings
that are external to political system. The political system consists of interrelated systems of
administrative machinery and activities as the authoritative allocation of values that are
getting implemented on the society. There are demands and support in political environment.
Demands basically are the claims for decisions that people seek to satisfy their personal or
group interest and societal values. Support is given by the citizens to the political system as
taxpayer, casting vote, abiding by the law.

Image source: Kingdon 2003

The feedback loop is the subsequent impact that alters environment and converts into demand
once outcome of the policy is visible. Policy output leads to fresh demand and it’s a cyclical
process.
9. Game theory
Game theory of public policy making is about analyzing rational decisions in the conditions
where two or more than two participants have to take decisions and outcome of that decisions
depends on the choices that they have made.
Game theory is not about how people are making their choices rather it informs that how
the people should make their decisions knowing their selected course of action is going to
bring specific outcome and as a rational man, people know that outcome depends on their
selected choices.

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 Each model is relevant and crucial to understand the public policy making from different
dimensions. Each model has its advantages and disadvantages. Some model can be more
suitable to understand some situation or events in comparison to others. A good policy model
is based on objective analysis of the political behaviour without validity one preferred
theoretical biases. (Kraft and Furlong 2004) The goal of inquiry into public policy discourse
should be flexible and inclusive and should contribute for the better understanding of the
problems and solving the issues.
Relevance of Public Policy
As policies are made for public, society at large and through policies, state can overcome
several challenges and fulfill basic demands of the citizens. Good policies promote positive
change and growth of the nation. As the time is growing, each country is facing more and
more challenges on every front. These problems are complex and more severe. Along with
national and security challenges, today we have more human security threats too like
population, food insecurity, water insecurity, health security, unemployment, poverty,
illiteracy etc. In such case the relevance of public policy becomes more crucial and ever
expanding.
Public policy helps to understand the society better and it brings a combination of
scientific understanding and value normativity to the discourse of policy science. It is
multidisciplinary in nature and develop linkages between social, economic, political aspects.
It equips the citizens to analyze the policy outcome, evaluate the performance of the
government and also highlights the significant role of the individual, group in public policy
making.
In India, there is a proper well-coordinated administrative machinery including president,
prime minister, cabinet, executive, legislature, state government, Niti Aayog (erstwhile
Planning Commission), bureaucracy, local urban and rural governing institutions etc. along
with thin tank, policy planners, academicians from different discipline address, media,
people, interest groups, civil society, international organization engage, debate and design
policies which then government implements.
The most important objective of public policy in India is socio-economic development.
Many agricultural, industrial polices, health, education, employment policies have been
implemented since independence. The main aim is to achieve socio-economic development
with social justice and national integrity.
Understanding of public policy help us to know our country better, it helps us to
understand our problems more closely and equips us with more dynamic and realistic
approach to explore public policy.
Conclusion
In nutshell, for a democratic country like India, development of rational, goal oriented public
policy is extremely important. The whole policy cycle with proper coordination and

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communication works to achieve the stated objectives. However, there are numerous
obstacles which it faces on its course. The challenge is to overcome those hindrances and
create effective and positive policy for the betterment of the society. Public policy helps the
government to aim for development and social and economic upliftment of the society. It
ensures the equity, effectiveness, and responsiveness of the government toward its own
citizens.
Thus, the study, the relevance and a sound understanding of Public policy is very as it is
the most important and dynamic connection between society and polity.

Check Your Progress

Q.1. What is Public Policy? Explain the characteristics of Public Policy.

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Q.2. Define the Public Policy, Critically examine the kinds of Public Policy.
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Q.3. Explain the models of Public Policy. What is relevance of Public Policy?
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References
Anyebe, Adam A (2017) An Overview of Approaches to the Study of Public Policy.
International Journal of Political Science (IJPS) Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2017, PP 08-17.
Anderson, J.E. (1997). Public Policy-Making: An Introduction, Boston: Houghton Miffilin
Company.
Dye, T. R. (2008). Understanding Public Policy, 12th Edition, Upper Saddle River New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kingdon, J. W. (2003). Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd Edition, New York:
Longman.
Kraft, E. M., and Furlong, S. R. (2004). Public Policy: Politics, Analysis and Alternatives,
Washington D.C.: CQ Press.

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 (b) Public Policy Process in India
Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury

Structure
 Introduction
 Importance of Understanding Policy Process in India
 Types of Policy
 Main Institutions and Actors in Policy Process
 Role of Various Institutions in Policymaking
 What is Policy Cycle
 Understanding Policy Formulation
 Policy Implementation
 Policy Evaluation
 Remedies of Policymaking in India
 Conclusion
 Check Your Progress
 References
Introduction
The significance and relevance of public policy lie in the fact that its presence and scope
relate to all aspect of a society. In simple definition, a policy is described as a set of principle
or set of rules which guide decisions and achieve rational objectives. It is a course of action
which is goal oriented, the goals here are defined in terms of demands based on societal and
economic needs, societal values, preferences. Policy is based on preconceived outcomes and
course of action is planned to achieve the objectives.
India, being a land of diversity faces complex issues of poverty, inequality, imbalanced
growth and thus role pf public policy becomes highly essential to meet the needs of people
and bring positive change in society. It the most effective and practical mechanism in
addressing the concerns in the most structured manner.
Importance of Understanding Policy Process in India
In order to understand the real issues of the society, the functions, role and responsibilities of
a government and how the government is managing the resources, affairs of the country to
address those issues, challenges, understanding the policy process is the important task.

15
Policy process helps us to understand the core issues, the decisions, the actors, the agencies
involved in the process and also suggests how to improve upon it and how we can make it
more people centric and result oriented.
There is a three-way process in the policy process:
a.) the upward flow of demands and influence from the people within the system,
b.) downward flow of decisions in terms of polices from the government to society and,
c.) feedback mechanism where results are evaluated and feedback are transferred to the
system which are processed to improve policies.
Government uses the public policy as a plan of action to achieve the purpose of bringing
substantial development and growth in nation. The policy inputs shapes government
decisions to prioritize and address the problems.
Generally, in a policy process there are three key elements involved.
a.) the problem,
b.) the player and,
c.) the policy.
The first element is problem or the issues that needs to be analyzed. There would be number
of issues, complexities around it which needs to be prioritized.
The second element is the player which can the affected group, community that have to
addressed upon, different agency which will form the policies. Various government officials,
agencies, discuss and frame a policy structure. Thus, policy process is a multi-stakeholder
collaboration.
The third element is policy which depicts the final course of action which would be
implemented to solve the problem and thus provide benefits to the people.
All elements together makes the public policy a deliberate course of action taken by
government based on purposive behaviour.
Types of Policy
Policy can be classified on various basis like span, objective etc. On the basis of objective,
policies can be categorized into these types:
a.) Distributive policies refer to providing services, cash benefits and goods to the
citizens, meant for specific section of society. Examples: poverty alleviation,
education, health services, welfare, providing public safety etc.
b.) Redistributive policies are concerned with re arrangement of existing policies to bring
socio-economic change by avoiding the disproportionate distribution of income and
wealth. These policies transfer values from one group (well off) to needy groups.

16
 c.) Constituent policies mean the policies that are created by executive power to deal the
fiscal and monetary matters.
d.) Regulatory policies are the policies which regulate the sectors to meet the public
interest.
e.) Substantive policies are policies of welfare, development and growth of the society in
general and not related to any specific target group.
Apart from these types, there are other extractive, capitalization, symbolic, constituent,
welfare, development policy types.
Broadly, one can understand the government policies as:
a.) Social assistance policies refer to policies that affect social security concerns of the
society like education, food security, water security and health care etc. It shows the
government responsibility for its citizens.
b.) Fiscal policy refers to the government taxing and expenditure polices that are
designed to provide support and improve the economy.
c.) Monetary policy means the policy which affect the value, supply, demand of currency
of India.
Both the fiscal and monetary policies are economic policies which are very vital for the
government and private business and work as a main tool to govern the nation economy.
All these policies are interrelated to each other and together these address the basic concerns
of society. The elements of public policy are rules and regulations, programs (welfare, health,
poverty alleviation, education, food, water), laws, (National Food Security Act, Right to
Education) getting implemented at national, state and local levels.
Main Institutions and Actors in Policy Process
Executive : Prime Minister’s office (PMO)
Cabinet secretariat
Cabinet committees
Various ministeries/departments/agencies
Legislative : Parliament and parliamentary committee
Judiciary : Courts
Agencies : Bureaucracy, Niti Ayog
Civil Society : Interest groups, pressure groups, NGOs, think tanks,
Academia, media, public opinion, people’s movements

17
Role of Various Institutions in Policymaking
The role of executive in policymaking
The government as a institution is the most powerful branch of the government and plays a
pivotal role in policy making process. Executive decides what political resources are to be
utilized, valued and how decisions would be taken with participation of all in the
parliamentary system. In the parliamentary system, the executive and legislative branches are
interdependent of each other. The legislative branch is elected and as executive prime
minister and cabinet emerge from the legislature.
The executive makes policies, coordinate and communicate within ministries, agencies
involved in the making and implementation of the policies.
The role of legislators in policymaking
Legislature is the most important part of parliament and constitute primary policy making.
Legislature constitutes elected representatives from various constituencies and legislators
present and articulate the demands, issues, needs of their respective constituencies, translate
those interests into policy process. The policies are discussed, debated and scrutinized by the
parliament and by relevant parliamentary committee and then passed and forwarded for the
president’s assent. And, after the president’s assent, the executive would implement policies.
The role of the judiciary in policymaking
The constitutional responsibility of judiciary is the interpretation of the laws, constitutional
provisions, and adjudication of conflicts arising between governmental institutions,
individual, groups etc. Judiciary’ powerful instruments are judicial review, interpretations of
the cases, judicial activism. According to Laxmikant, “judicial review implies a.) the power
of the judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of laws and executive orders. b.) the
power of the judiciary to question the wisdom of the laws enacted by the legislatures. c.) the
power of the judiciary to review all the legislative enactments before they are assented to by
the president. d.) the power of the judiciary to review its own judgements given earlier in
similar or different cases. Judicial activism refers to the interference of the judiciary in the
legislative and executive fields. It mainly occurs due to the non-activity of the other organs of
the government. It is a way through which relief is provided the disadvantaged and aggrieved
citizens”. Judiciary through such instruments ensures constitutional validity, justice, fairness
in policy process.
The role of bureaucracy in policymaking
Bureaucracy works with government and plays important role in each step of policy making.
Bureaucracy generate, initiate, formulate, implement and evaluate policies to solve the social,
economic problems. Bureaucrats ensure continuity and regulation of decisions and actions in
the policy process. Officers will engage, facilitate and restrict policy design, choices and
implement policies. The bureaucracy possess adequate skill expertise and professional
knowledge to exert enormous influence in the policy process.

18
The role of interest groups in policymaking
Interest groups are groups of individuals who share common beliefs, aspirations and common
interests, demands. These interest groups are civil society organizations that present and
advocate the group interests and demands wand thus influence the policy process. According
to Anderson (1979), “the interest groups perform an interest articulation function, that is, they
express demands and present alternatives for policy actions. They may also supply public
officials with much information, often of a technical sort – concerning the nature and possible
consequences of policy proposals”. Interest groups mobilize public, create awareness and
work as advocacy group for certain policy draft also.
What is a Policy Cycle?
The policy cycle suggests that the policy making is a continuous process and comprises of
multiple stages. Thomas Dye mentioned that “policymaking is a continuous process rather
than a single event; different actors are influential at different stages and previous decisions
set the agenda for future decisions”. (Dye 2008)
Public policy is model in two ways:
a.) As a prescriptive model postulates how policymaker should ideally operate in a
planned and systematic way. It is based on the idea of what a public policy should be
‘what ought to be’.
b.) Descriptive model explains how a public policy is operating, how decisions are taken
in the policy making process. It is based on the idea of ‘what it is’.
The generic policy cycle

19
1. Issue identification and agenda setting
It implies identifying the problems that requires governmental support and policy attention, it
also defines the nature of the problem and prioritizing the issues.
2. Policy formulation
This is the formal stage of policy formulation. It involves setting of the objectives,
identification of the input cost, exploring different possible course of action, selecting policy
instruments, projecting the outcomes, and selection the suitable alternative as decision
3. Policy legitimation
This involves ensuring that the decision which has been taken as suitable alternative should
have support and legal approval. The support included legislative support, support of
complete administration and consent of interest groups too.
4. Policy implementation
This is the very important stage of policy cycle which includes discharging duties to various
administrative units, making proper infrastructural arrangements for the smooth enactment of
the policies, and carrying out the decisions.
5. Policy evaluation
The final and one of the most important stage of overall policy cycle is policy evaluation in
which the results of the policy are evaluated, assessments are made about the success of
policy, achievement of the desired results and effects of the policy.
6. Policy maintenance, succession, or termination
The cycle is followed depending on the political setup, societal needs, budget commitments,
etc. and on the basis of these things, new polices are launched, many of the ongoing policies
are continued, discontinued or modified according to the present requirements.
Understanding Policy Formulation
According to Kingdon, “Formulation of policy consists of policymakers discussing and
suggesting approaches to correcting problems that have been raised as part of the agenda.
Effective policy formulation consists of analysis that identifies the most effective policies and
political authorizations”.
Policy formulation involves developing a plan, a method for achieving societal needs.
It involves:
● Research involves gathering and processing information,
● Review means exploring possible alternatives,
● Projection determines feasibility of each alternative and possible outcomes,
● Selection involves refining and selecting suitable alternative as possible course of action.

20
There are two types of formulation model.
1. Model based on rational planning which is systematic and well structured.
2. Model based reacting which is more spontaneous and unplanned. (Knoepfel et al
2007)
Actors Involved in Policy Formulation
There are multiple actors involved in stage of policy formulation. Inside government, there is
executive which is identifying the problems, goals, prioritizing and making policy
alternatives.
Bureaucracy develop plan and proposal at this stage.
Legislature discusses the policy and seek answer and clarification concerning the policy
matter and after debate, discussion, policies are put for vote in houses and for President’s
final approval. The whole idea is to make the proposed policy relevant for the society.
Outside government, there are think tanks, policy networks, interest groups, civil society,
citizen organizations, private organization, international organization which influence the
policy formulation.
Various actors and their specific roles
Actor Role
Politician Power
Bureaucrat Institution
Interest group Representation
Technocrat Knowledge
Donors Influence

Source: Walt and Gilson 1994

Formulation guideline:
● Formulation requires active participation of multiple actors and agencies.
● Formulation should be based on clear definition of problem and attached agendas.
● Formulation and reformulation happen before selecting a final policy proposal draft.
● The process of formulation itself never has any neutral impact.
● Efforts are made to formulate a more comprehensive and holistic policy proposal for
treating number of intertwined complex problems.

21
● Estimation of cost benefit analysis is done for a more pragmatic and realistic policy
proposal. However, welfare of all is the first priority with fulfilling financial
commitments.
Different ways of policy formulation:
● Routine formulation means formulation similar policy proposals.
● Creative formulation involves approaching the problem with a new insight, with an
unprecedented way.
● Analogous formulation uses past experiences and policy results, past problems for
treating the current, new problem.
● Policy maker should think of achieving legitimation. (Howlett and Ramesh 1995)
It is important to highlight here that each policy formulation involve these different ways.
In a democratic country like India, there are certain ways through which administration
can be made aware of the societal needs and problems. The elected peoples’ representatives
as Member of Parliament (MP) and Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA) in Parliament
and in their respective state assemblies raise problems, issues and want action for those.
These issues vary ranging from government’s failure or inadequate policy or any new issue
etc. Then, several interest groups, pressure groups also influence government decision
making. Civil society organization, media, research groups are also active participants in the
process and influence or draw government’s attention to problems and area of concern.
Government itself also pays attention to the societal needs and take actions accordingly.
After this, once the problem is identified, then setting of agendas are done. Here three
important factors influence the whole process.
● The goals and objectives should be arranged in such a way that these should generate
holistic set of policy. For example, for elimination illiteracy, it is necessary to understand
what all should be done to eliminate illiteracy, what are the main causes? On the basis of
that one broad policy should be formulated to tackle problem of illiteracy and has to be
made linked to other policies too like poverty alleviation and Midday meal schemes. This
is done because illiteracy is not a single problem rather it is linked to poverty,
unemployment, school dropout ratio, girl child enrolment to school, health parameters
etc. Proposals should also be based on long term and short term projections.
● Second factor is related to developing alternative possible strategies needed to enact the
policy. Like, direct benefit transfer or subsidy, deciding about the various ways of
providing goods and services to the beneficiaries. A strategy also is developed for
correctly identifying the beneficiary and gathering correct information of the
beneficiaries. Correct data helps the policy proposal to be more realistic and achievable.
● The third factor involves selecting the way through which policy would be implemented.
For example, setting up new institutional setting or working with existing setup. Like

22
 Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was established for helping the poor
people for income generation, Anganwadi setup under Integrated Child Development
Scheme (ICDS) for providing pregnancy and maternity facilities, healthy food, primary
health care, immunization, primary education etc. to children under 6 years to poor and
malnourished beneficiaries. All the roles and functions of each and every administrative
units are clearly calked out in this stage itself.
The policy formulation clearly spells out the objectives, strategies, and mechanisms of
instruments. It is the significant stage as it leads the basic foundational structure and support
to whole policy, through this stage a coherent and realistic policy gets the needed base, it is
the stage which leads to better coordination between all agencies in an integrated manner. A
policy formulating needs expert knowledge and skill for which the government works with
non-governmental agencies also. For a better choice of strategy and enactment, multiple
partnership between different avenues are done to make the stage more impactful and
dynamic.
Policy Implementation
According to Thomas Dye, “policy implementation is a process of interaction between the
settings of goals and actions geared to achieve them. It is a dynamic conversion process of
policies and plans into specific programmes and projects”.
Approaches to policy implementation
● Procedural/managerial approach
This approach establishes appropriate processes, techniques for the management and
implementation of the policies.
● Structural approach
It involves selecting the most appropriate administrative form for achieving the outcome.
● Political approach
Political approach understands the challenges which a policy could face in environment
or within political system and look for its solution.
● Behavioural approach
This approach creates consensus and raises acceptability by eliminating the conflictual
interests between multiple stakeholders through stakeholder analysis, organizational
development method etc. (Howlett and Ramesh 1995)
This is a very significant stage in whole policy design. The relevance of policy
implementation stage are as follows:
● Information: it makes the citizen aware about the policy
● Inducement: help people and government both to adopt new approach

23
● Enforcement: seek compliance of the people under legal sanctity
● Benefaction: provides benefits to those who change their political behaviour and allow
the policy to be implemented and offer their compliance to the policy. (Anderson 1997)
It needs to be ensured that policies get proper flexibility and sufficient autonomy to be
implemented properly, implementation too needs sufficient power for its validation. The
effectiveness and efficiency of implantation hugely depend on proper policy design.
However, many a times policies, which are implemented, did not achieve required results.
There are many reasons for which an implemented policy might be unsuccessful.
● Policy failure
Policy failure is basically an implantation gap which forms between policy and
implementation.
There are two types of policy failure:
a.) Non implementation policy failure is the one the policy is not enacted as it was
described due to some reasons.
b.) Unsuccessful implementation happens when a policy is enacted properly but external
factors are not complying to the policy.
● Complexity of technical features
The ground realities are completely different dominated by human behaviour, action,
values, traditions, and complex technical features make the policy too technocratic in its
orientation and thus it becomes extremely difficult to implement such policy in society.
● Multiple goal objective
As policies are solving complex problems, often these polices are multiple goal oriented.
But this strength can become the obstacle as the multiplicity of goals make the policy
hard to understand and non-achievable.
● Ambiguity and unclear policy design
Similar to above mentioned point, the complex intertwining of problems and their related
goals can make the policy highly ambiguous and direction less.
● Unmatched preferences
The goods and services offered through policy does not match the local preferences.
● Disagreement to policy design and objectives
When the policy is implemented, many a times, it has been seen that implementation is
not going at par with policy objectives.
● Lack of proper infrastructure, wrong data, financial constraints, lack of expertise, time
limitations etc. serve as administrative obstacles to a successful implementation of policy.

24
The success of policy implementation depends on a sound setting of goals, proper allocation
and optimal utilization of the resources and achieving legislative legitimacy and people’s
approval to the policy.
Policy Evaluation
Thomas Dye mentions “Policy Evaluation is conducted for checking the effects of the policy.
The Policy Evaluation provides us direction for the evaluation programs, projects, and
strategies”. (Dye 2008)
As per the CDC guidelines, “Policy evaluation applies evaluation principles and methods
to examine the content, implementation or impact of a policy. It uses a range of research
methods to systematically investigate the effectiveness of policy interventions,
implementation, and processes, so that a sound policy can be achieved by improving the
social and economic conditions of different stakeholders”. (CDC policy briefing)
It is an activity which helps to understand three aspects of policy. These are:
● merit,
● worth, and
● utility.
● According to Brownson et al (2009) “evaluation is an integral part of each step in the
policy process. Internally, evaluation happens at three stages in which each stage focuses
on a different phase of the policy process. Each type of evaluation can provide valuable
information for the planning and interpretation of the other types of evaluation (content,
implementation, and impact)”. These stages are:
● Evaluating Policy Content: focuses on articulation of goals and the framework it designed
for its implementation. Evaluation is done to understand the context of the policy design,
the very basic issues it is dealing with, the relevance, clarity of the content, and
implementation framework.

Image source: Brownson et al 2009

● Evaluating Policy Implementation: focus is on evaluating the policy implementation as it
was designed. This is crucial to understand the strength and weakness of the policy, the
obstacles policy faced and helps to compare policies and different alternatives and their
components.

25
● Evaluating Policy Impact: most important stage where policy as a whole and its impact is
evaluated to see that it has achieved what it is intended or not. It helps to realize the
perception of people and other agencies. It also helps to draw inferences about the
performance of each actor. Policy impact evaluation helps compare the various policy
results and helps the policy maker for future decisions.
Simply, policy evaluation is considered as a whole at the last stage of policy cycle to avoid
complexity. But, it remained the most crucial stage of policy cycle and without the policy
evaluation, the whole policy cycle remains incomplete and ineffective.
Daniel Lerner has summed up the evaluation stage as threefold process.
a.) Process evaluation: policy is implemented on the basis of policy guidelines or not. It
takes into consideration two parameters: the target area and specific target groups.
The outcome of the policy is also analyzed.
b.) Impact evaluation: both positive and negative impacts are evaluated. Changes which
happened after the execution are also considered for investigation.
c.) Comprehensive evaluation: it is a mix of process model and impact evaluation model.
Both are combined to understand the positive points, the drawbacks, and
improvements can be implemented. (Brownson et al 2009)
From an overall public policy point of view, as mentioned above also, policy evaluation is
considered in totality and comprehensive evaluation is considered most for the practice and
thus useful.
Remedies of Policymaking in India
● Need of systematic analysis of data and other relevant information
● People’s participation and more focus of local issues, needs.
● Need of pro society, pro-democratic institutional structure and processes
● Broadening of knowledge base both on societal value and technological terms
● More decentralized and participatory policy making
● Inclusive approach in policy making
Conclusion
In nutshell, for a democratic country like India, development of rational, goal oriented public
policy is extremely important. The whole policy cycle with proper coordination and
communication works to achieve the stated objectives. However, there are numerous
obstacles which it faces on its course. The challenge is to overcome those hindrances and
create effective and positive policy for the betterment of the society. Public policy helps the
government to aim for development and social and economic upliftment of the society. It

26
ensures the equity, effectiveness, and responsiveness of the government toward its own
citizens.
Thus, the study, the relevance and a sound understanding of Public policy is very as it is the
most important and dynamic connection between society and polity.

Check Your Progress

Q.1. Define the Public Policy process in India.
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Q.2. Critically examine the role of various institutions in policy making.
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Q.3. What is Policy Cycle, how to explain Policy formulation in India.
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Q.4. Define the remedies of policy making in India.
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References
Anderson, J.E.(1997). Public Policy-Making: An Introduction 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton
Miffilin Company.
Brownson, R. C., Royer, C., Chriqui, J. F., & Stamatakis, K. A. (2009). Understanding
evidence-based public health policy. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 1576–1583.
Dye, T. R. (2008). Understanding Public Policy, 12th Edition, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.Howlett, M., and Ramesh, M. (1995). Policy Cycles and Policy
Subsystems, Canada: Oxford University Press.Kingdon, J. W. (2003). Agendas, Alternatives,
and Public Policies, 2nd Edition, New York: Longman.Knoepfel, P., Larrue, C., Varone, F.,
and Hill, M. (2007). Public Policy Analysis, Bristol: The Policy Press.

27
 Unit-2

Decentralization
Ms. Revathy V Menon

Structure
1. Introduction
2. Concept of Decentralization
3. Significance of Decentralization
4. Approaches to the study of Decentralization
5. Different types of Decentralization
6. Decentralization in India
7. Local Self Governance: Rural
8. Local Self Governance: Urban
9. Conclusion
10. Check Your Progress
11. References
1. Introduction
India is a democratic nation with republic-parliamentary form of governance at national level
comprising of the Council of Ministers who are collectively accountable to the elected House
of People or the Lok Sabha. Similar structure of governance is replicated at the State level as
well which together constitute to form the Union of India. Further to carry forward the
development plans and programmes of the Union to the ‘soul of India’ which lies in our
villages, the local self-government bodies were constitutionalized at the urban and rural
levels.
To ensure proper growth and development of an emerging economy like India which
possess such vast diversity in culture, traditions and thought-process, a system ushering in
good governance is felt. Even the present era of globalization, urbanization and marketization
have brought us to the juncture where we need to strengthen and integrate the market and
technological innovations in order to adhere to the requirements of the time through a
decentralized form of governance. This in turn can ensure that the needs of all sections of the
society, majorly those of the ‘poorest of the poor’, marginalized sections of the society, are
properly addressed.
Since the early 1990s, India has witnessed major policy imperatives like the economic
reforms, the Panchayati Raj system, etc. Initiatives to ensure democracy at the grass-root
levels were mandated constitutionally through the 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts. The Acts

28
further reinforce the local democracy by empowering the local self-governing institutions and
such decentralization experiments in India are counted under the ‘democratic
decentralization’. Moreover, the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) initiated during the
Prime-Ministership of Shri. (Late) Atal Bihari Vajpayee posited the principle of ‘Cooperative
Federalism’ with major devolution of power and resources between the three tiers of
governance-Centre, State and local and was also seen as one of the major attempt to bring in
people’s active participation in the governance process and for a planned campaign to bring
in development to the grassroots. In spite of the continued efforts, the actual progress of
decentralization is considered to be uneven across the various levels of governance.
2. Concept of Decentralization
The idea of decentralization is seen as a major initiative to support grass root level of
democracy. The basic idea is to transfer part of the powers enjoyed by the central or state
government to the concerned regional or local authorities. Thus, centralization can be seen as
an attempt to enhance the national unity while decentralization depicts the demands of
diversity and the need to attend those. Modern times there are a need to mutual co-existence
of both these forms of administration is required to address the needs of the time. Experiences
from highly centralized and decentralised nations were found to be disastrous and therefore it
is found to be necessary to put in place a system of collaboration and co-ordination between
the national, regional and local levels of decision making and administration is found to be
effective. Such a system can be visualized in developing countries like India, adherence to the
idea of decentralization lies in the fact that the greater the people’s participation at grass root
levels the better and competent the public institutions and administration work. Moreover
Decentralization through the centuries have strengthened democracy in the country and
enhanced the central government’s commitment towards the growth and development of the
grass root levels.
The term decentralisation can be traced back to 1820s and is evident from writings of
Alexis de Tocqueville. He provide a concrete background of the legislative history of
decentralization began with the French revolution as “…in the beginning, invariably a push
towards decentralization,… in the end an extension of centralization…in sum, the last word
always remains with the centralization which to be honest, increases in depth at the same time
it diminishes in appearance…”1 The concept has ‘evolved over centuries taking on diverse
and varied meanings, objectives and forms’.
Traditionally, decentralization was conceptualized with an organizational perspective to
ease off the pressure of over-bureaucratized public organizations. Further, decentralization in
the 1970s and 1980s majorly focused on the deconcentrating hierarchical government
structure and bureaucracies. India, being one of the largest democracies, its efforts in
decentralization has been viewed as an attempt to formulate an antidote of authoritarianism
1
De Tocqueville, A. (1982). Alexis de Tocqueville on Democracy, Revolution, and Society, University of
Chicago Press, p.343

29
and bureaucratization. Probably from the mid-1980s, the foci were ‘broadened to include
power sharing, democratization and market liberalization, expanding the scope for private
sector decision making’2. Analyzing the system in India during 1990s one can easily identify
that during this period, decentralization has opened up ‘governance to wider public
participation through the involvement of civil society organizations’3. Further
decentralization, according to Cheema and Rondinelli (1983 & 2007), was defined as the
transfer of authority, responsibility, and resources - through deconcentration, delegation or
devolution - from the centre to the lower levels of administration.4
Decentralization is often perplexed with similar ideas like deconcentration, delegation
and devolution and privatization. We need to understand and differentiate these similar terms
as they are associated with the sharing or transfer of administrative power or authority from
higher to a lower level, while the nature and degree of such transfers vary from term to term.
 Deconcentration can be defined as the shift of administrative responsibilities from
central ministries and departments to regional and local administrative levels by
establishing field offices of national departments and transferring some authority for
decision making to regional field staff.
 Devolution aimed to strengthen local governments by granting them the authority,
responsibility, and resources to provide services and infrastructure, protect public
health and safety, and formulate and implement local policies.
 Through delegation, national governments
shifted management authority for specific
functions to semiautonomous or parastatal
organizations and state enterprises, regional
planning and area development agencies, and
multi- and single-purpose public authorities.5
But these can be in other terms seen as the various
stages to finally achieving decentralization (figure 1).
Let’s look at various definition of decentralization as given by the administrative thinkers:
 L D White: The transfer of powers of administrative authority from lower to higher
level of government is called centralization and covers decentralization.
 Dwight Waldo: In centralized administration, the co-ordination is at the top with
resulting delays, jealousies and jurisdictional disputes. In decentralised
administration, the aim is to create a whole purpose, personalities and instrumentalists
which are greater than the sum of the various constituent elements.

2
Cheema, G. S., & Rondinelli, D. A. (eds.). (2007). Decentralizing Governance: Emerging Concepts and
Practices. Brookings Institution Press, p.2.
3
ibid, p.3
4
ibid, p.3
5
ibid, p.3-4

30
  Friedman: “Decentralization is also seen as a process of transfer of responsibility,
authority, and functions from a ‘superior’ governmental unit to a ‘lower’
governmental unit.”
 Louis A. Allen: “Decentralization refers to tire systematic effort to delegate to the
lowest levels all authority except that which can only be exercised at central points.”
 Earl. P. Strong: “Decentralization means the division of a group of functions and
activities into relatively autonomous units with overall authority and responsibility for
their operation delegate to time of cacti unit.”
 Government of India in 1957: The study team on community projects and National
Extension Service appointed defined decentralization as a process whereby the
governments diverts itself completely of certain duties and responsibilities and
devolves them on to some other authority.
 Cheema & Rodinelli: Decentralization refers to transfer of planning, decision
making or administrative authority from central government to its field organization,
local administrative units, semi-autonomous and pastoral organizations, local
government or non-governmental organization.
 M P Sharma: The fewer subordinate centers decision on organization has the more
centralization there would be.
To sum up, decentralization encompasses not only the transfer of power, authority and
responsibility within government but also the sharing of authority and resources for shaping
public policy within society. A decentralized local authority, in this sense, would have a
separate legal existence, its own budget and the authority to allocate substantial resources on
a range of different functions, and decisions would be made by the representatives of the
local people, who constitute the body. The degree of decentralisation can be determined by:
nature of the authority delegated, how far down in the organization it is delegated, how
consistently it is delegated.
Characteristics of Decentralization
According to Bidyut Chakrabarty and Prakash Chand, the concept of decentralization has the
following characteristics:
 It is both a philosophy and institutional mechanism, which seeks to de-centre the
power from its traditional centres to far-flung areas with a view to empowering local
communities.
 Autonomy forms the heart of decentralization and yardstick to measure the nature of
decentralization.
 Decentralization has no fixed ideological sanctuary; it is in fact used by both the Left
and the Right for justifying their respective positions.

31
  The recent spate of enthusiasm for decentralization can be attributed to globalization
as the votaries of globalization are actively advocating for localization through
decentralization for development.
 Decentralization facilitates people’s participation by creating new institutional space
beyond the centre and thereby ensures further deepening of democracy.
 Decentralization also instills confidence among local communities to govern their
own affairs thus, creates a sense of responsibility in local decision-making agencies
with more or less independent existence and powers.
 The basic idea of decentralization is, therefore, sharing the decision-making authority
with lower levels in organizations, thereby improving their efficiency, effectiveness,
and responsiveness.
3. Significance of Decentralization
Decentralization ensures the strengthening of democracy through increased people’s
participation and control on governance when the powers of the centre and state governments
are decentralized to the lower levels like districts, blocks and villages. This further makes the
democracy representative, accountable and responsive in true manner and that’s why it is
considered to be the crux of democratic decentralization. In this context, the following
significances of decentralization can be identified:
 In a diverse and heterogeneous society like India, the central and state governments
may find it difficult to address the basic requirements of every particular region and
the centralized policies may not be efficient to address the requirements of all regions
equitably. Decentralization can contribute to identify the crucial and significant issues
pertained to a particular region, further can contribute to overcoming the severe
limitations of centrally controlled public policies. With the participation of citizens in
development planning:
a) Leads to more creative, innovative and flexible administration,
b) Reduced cost of planning,
c) Ensures political stability,
d) Increased number of public goods, etc.
 The decentralization of activities and functions, reassigning of central officials to
local levels, can enhance the knowledge and sensitivity of officials to local problems
further ensures a clos interaction between the government and governed. This can
thus result in the administrative and skill development of the executives and also lead
to rapid decision making and reduced red tapesim.
 One of the major aims of decentralization is to ensure active people’s participation in
decision making process. The greater representation of various political, social, ethnic
and tribal groups in the decision making process can reduce the burden on top

32
 executives/administrators, increase the administrative capacity and capabilities and
promotes motivation of local institutions.
According to Rajni Kothari, decentralization is an alternative system of governance based on
‘people-centered approach’ to sort out the local level problems. He argues that ‘‘the entire
process would be for locating people at the centre of power so that they become the basic
engine of the development process and not, as hitherto, merely its beneficiaries’6.
Decentralization can thus be seen as one of the crucial elements of governance in the present
times even though there may arise problems of co-ordination between various levels of
governance and also that uniform policies cannot be followed as different units need diverse
techniques/policies.
4. Approaches to the Study of Decentralization
James W Fesler in his paper “Approaches to the Understanding of Decentralization” has
categorized the approaches to decentralization into four heads. They are as follows:
1. The doctrinal approach: It regards decentralization as an end in itself rather than
equally considering the means adhered to achieve the institutional efficiency and
effectiveness. The approach focus on the empowerment of grass root or the local
levels through which the decision making and functional authority can gradually be
handed over to the people.
2. The political approach: This approach believes that the idea to create decentralized
units of administration and providing them with functional autonomy is based on a
political decision and thus considers decentralization as a major political commitment
occuring in a political setting.
3. The administrative approach: In this approach the aim is to achieve efficiency and
effectiveness, by creating several administrative units working between the central
and local administration. Through this process the decision making and grievance
redressal mechanisms work better.
4. The dual role approach: The dual role deals with the conflict between tradition and
change in the field administration. The duality happens when the maintenance of law
and order from the traditional administration comes in conflict with the socio-
economic development or the social welfare consideration of the present times. The
social welfare administration requires proper coordination among the units of
governance and also people’s participation which in turn requires a highly
decentralized, innovative and participative administration.
Thus, W. Fesler addresses the various issues and challenges faced in the realization of
decentralization. The doctrinal approach treats decentralization as an end in itself; political
approach highlights political character of decentralization; administrative approach base itself

6
Kothari, Rajni (1988). State against Democracy: In Search of Human Governance. New Delhi: Ajanta, p. 48

33
on the efficiency, effectiveness and rationality principle while the conflict between traditional
and social welfare administration is dealt by the dual role approach.
5. Different Types of Decentralization
Based on different political settings and administrative conditions, decentralization can be
classified into four types: political, administrative, fiscal and functional decentralization.
1. Political Decentralization occurs when the decision making powers are transferred
from a higher level of political authority or the government to a lower level. It also
assures that the institutions assigned for local governance are managed by the local
people, thus bringing in a greater participation of the people in the governance system
which in turn leads to increased legitimacy and more political stability of
governments. For instance, the 73rd and the 74th constitutional amendments for setting
up the rural and urban governance system in India is a form of the political
decentralization.
2. Administrative Decentralization means the delegation of some of the power and
functions of a politically independent unit to its subordinate units within the
organization which may be either territorial or functional.
3. Fiscal Decentralization involves the devolution of financial power to lower levels of
governance. To realize the actual goal of political decentralization, the lower levels
need to be assured with fiscal decentralization or the power to collect and generate
taxes and revenues within their administrative units. Fiscal decentralization also
enables the units to fulfill their basic requirements and few responsibilities with the
income generated rather than completely relying on the state and central governments
for the funds.
4. Functional decentralization refers to the transfer of functions from Central or state
government to local bodies in order to enable them to discharge assigned functions
and responsibilities. For instance, in India, the 73rd constitutional amendment act
assigns 29 functions to Panchayati Raj institutions and 18 functions to the urban local
bodies under the 11th and 12th Schedule respectively of the Constitution of India.
These are few of the major types of decentralization which is favored for the easy access,
participation and responsiveness of the citizens. We may also note that decentralization takes
the form based on the situation it has to act on and thus cannot be an absolute term in itself.
In other words, the above four types of decentralization took different forms in the different
political and administrative settings.
6. Decentralization in India
From the previous sections, we can sum up that when the power, functions or responsibilities
are shared between the central government and local units of governance, we call it the
decentralization. The basic idea behind the decentralization is to locally address the issues
and problems by enhanced people’s participation as there is a saying that every problem has a
solution in its roots. Further, when we deal with decentralization in the Indian context, the

34
term democratic decentralization is most commonly used. The term ‘democratic’ lends the
special characteristic to the concept of decentralization and it cannot be treated as an end in
itself. In fact the democratic prefix makes the decentralization an effective and efficient tool
of development. Democratic decentralization forms two different perspectives—institutional
(it is viewed as an institution of self-government instrumental perspective) and instrumental
(an instrument of ensuring participatory development by empowering the local communities).
Hence, decentralization is the mechanism or avenue through which the nature of local
governance can be ascertained.
One of the major steps towards the decentralization in India happened in 1992 with the
rd
73 amendment act of the Constitution of India. The Constitution was amended to bring in a
three-tier structure of governance at the grass root level popularly known as the Panchayati
Raj or the rural local government. This was followed by the 74th constitutional amendment
act bringing in a similar structure at the urban level called the urban local government. Both
the local governments share similar features like:
 A three-tier governance structure at both rural and urban level
 Constitutionally making it mandatory to hold regular elections to the local
government bodies
 Reservation of at least one-third seats to women and proportional reservations to
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes
 Creation of State Election Commission to conduct the panchayat and municipal
elections
 Provision of State Finance Commission to adhere the fiscal decentralization
 Functional decentralization has been administered by assigning various functions
under the 11th and 12th Schedules of the Constitution of India, etc.
The democratic decentralization in other terms brings out the governmental jurisdictions
below the state level in India which is otherwise called the local government. The local
government administers the locality wherein the officials (like Patwari, District Magistrate,
The Tehsildar, The Deputy Collector, etc.) are appointed by the state. The local self-
government manages the local affairs of the natives of the area through representatives or by
itself. It is considered as a democratic body in the real sense. It consists of Municipal
Councillors, Sarpanch and the Gram Pardhan, etc.
Federal governments generally have two or more tiers of governments but a vast country
like India cannot be run only through these two-tiers as states like Maharashtra is as big as
Germany, Uttar Pradesh is bigger than Russia, many are internally diverse. Thus, there is a
need for power sharing within these states. Federal power sharing in India needs another tier
of government, below that of the state governments and this is the rationale for
decentralization of power which resulted in a third-tier of government, called local
government. While, local self-government implies the transference of the power to rule to the

35
lowest rungs of the political order. It is a form of democratic decentralization where the
participation of even the grass root level of the society is ensured in the process of
administration. Historically, the form of local self-governance finds evidence in the Rig-Veda
(1700 BC) that dealt with self-governing village bodies called ‘sabhas’ existed within the
self-sufficient and self-governing village communities. With the passage of time, these bodies
became panchayats (council of five persons). Later there no serious attempts were undertaken
to revive the huge potentials of the village republics either by the colonial rulers or by the
independent Indian rulers except few visionary thinkers like Tagore and Gandhi.
The introduction of local government in rural areas is assumed to begin through the
Bengal Village Chowkidari Act, 1870, though the underlying objective was solely to serve
the interest of the Empire to fortify British rule in India. The real intention was to strengthen
the economic and the security aspects of the Empire as the law had authorized the village
Panchayats to mop up local taxes for maintaining village Chowkidars and also to set up
reliable intelligence mechanism deep into the countryside to keep a tab on the activities of the
people. As a part of its housekeeping functions, the British colonial state had adopted several
constitutional measures to streamline local self-government in India including the Ripon
Resolution, 1882; the Bengal Local Self-Government Act, 1885; the Bengal Village Self-
Government Act, 1919; among others. Out of the said measures, the Bengal Village Self-
Government Act of 1919 may be regarded as the beginning of local self-government in India,
providing a two-tier structure. However, those self-governing structures were neither self nor
local as those bodies were marked by the perennial resource crunch, over-bureaucratization,
and dominance of local landed gentry.
Moreover, repeated advocacy of Mahatma Gandhi for Gram Swaraj, it remained a far cry
even in Independent India. Inheriting the colonial mindset regarding local governance, the
framers of the Constitution had belied the hope of strong and vibrant local governance by
confining it to a non-enforceable section of the Constitution, that is, the Directive Principles
of the State Policy. The conceptualization of the system of local self-government in India
took place through the formation and effort of four important committees from the year 1957
to 1986.
 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957): The committee was originally appointed by
the Government of India to examine community development initiatives and to
recommend improvement measures; the committee submitted its report in November
1957, in which the term ‘democratic decentralization’ first appears. The major
recommendations related to decentralization were:
 Establishment of a three-tier Panchayati Raj system – gram panchayat at village
level (direct election), panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila Parishad at the
district level (indirect election).
 District Collector to be the chairman of Zila Parishad.
 Transfer of resources and power to these bodies to be ensured.

36
The existent National Development Council accepted the recommendations. However, it did
not insist on a single, definite pattern to be followed in the establishment of these institutions.
Rather, it allowed the states to devise their own patterns, while the broad fundamentals were
to be the same throughout the country. Rajasthan (1959) adopted the system first, followed by
Andhra Pradesh in the same year. Some states even went ahead to create four-tier systems
and Nyaya panchayats, which served as judicial bodies.
 Ashok Mehta Committee (1977-1978): The committee was constituted by the Janata
government of the time to study Panchayati Raj institutions. It identified a
combination of factors undermines PRIs - unsympathetic bureaucracy, absence of
political will, lack of involvement in planning and implementation on a substantial
scale, domination of local institutions by the economic and social rural elite, etc. Out
of a total of 132 recommendations made by it, the most important ones are:
 Three-tier system to be replaced by a two-tier system with district being basic unit
of planning, coordination, and resource allocation
 Demanded constitutional recognition for Panchyats
 Political parties should participate at all levels in the elections.
 Compulsory powers of taxation to be given to these institutions.
 Zila Parishad to be made responsible for planning at the state level.
 A minister for Panchayati Raj to be appointed by the state council of ministers.
 Constitutional recognition to be given to Panchayati Raj institutions.
Even though states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal passed new legislations
based on the Ashok Mehta Committee Report, unfortunately, the Janata government
collapsed before action could be taken on these recommendations.
 G V K Rao Commitee (1985): Appointed by the Planning Commission, the
committee concluded that the developmental procedures were gradually being taken
away from the local self-government institutions, resulting in a system comparable to
‘grass without roots’. The major recommendations were:
 Zila Parishad to be given prime importance and all developmental programs at
that level to be handed to it
 Post of District Development Commissioner to be created, acting as the chief
executive officer of the Zila Parishad
 Regular elections to be held
 L M Singhvi Commitee (1986):Constituted by the Rajiv Gandhi government on
‘Revitalization of Panchayati Raj institutions for Democracy and Development’, its
important recommendations are:
 Constitutional recognition for PRI institutions.
 Nyaya Panchayats to be established for clusters of villages

37
Though the 64th Constitutional Amendment bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha in 1989
itself, Rajya Sabha opposed it. It was only during the Narasimha Rao government’s term that
the idea finally became a reality in the form of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment
acts, 1992. The acts of 1992 added two new parts IX and IX-A to the constitution. It also
added two new schedules – 11th and 12th which contains the lists of functional items of
Panchayats and Municipalities. It provides for a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj in every
state – at the village, intermediate and district levels. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendments in 1992-93 have ushered in the present phase where panchayats are described
as institutions of local self-government, and are expected to prepare plans for economic
development and social justice.
7. Local Self Governance: Rural
Panchayati Raj Institutions are the institutionalized pan-Indian form of rural local governance
that came into existence with the passage of the 73rd Constitution Amendment Act, 1992.
The act has heralded three-tier PRIs across the country. Moreover, the passage of the act has
empowered the local bodies to formulate and implement development plans of their own and
form an efficient delivery mechanism for development.
The 73rd Constitution Amendment Act, 1992 has inserted Part IX with Articles 243 to
243 O in the Constitution. This amendment implements the article 40 of the DPSP which says
that “State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers
and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government”
and have upgraded them from non-justifiable to justifiable part of the constitution and has put
constitutional obligation upon states to enact the Panchayati Raj Acts as per provisions of the
Part IX. However, states have been given enough freedom to take their geographical,
politico-administrative and others conditions into account while adopting the Panchayati Raj
System.
The significant features of the act include:
 Article 243A: Organization of Gram Sabhas,
the body of the electorate of the Gram
Panchayats, which may exercise such powers
and perform such functions at the village level
as the Legislature of a State may, by law,
provide;
 Article 243B: Constitution of Panchayats at the
village, intermediate and district levels in every
state. Also, three-tier PRIs with Zilla Parishad at the top, the Panchayats Samitis at the
intermediate level, and Panchayats at the bottom
 Article 243D: reservation of seats for SCs and STs in all Panchayats at all levels in
proportion to their respective shares in the Panchayat & one-third to be reserved for
the women

38
  Article 243E: duration of the Panchayats or every Panchayat shall continue for five
years from the date appointed for its first meeting and no longer
 Article 243G: devolved power, authority, and responsibilities to rural local bodies to
enable them to function as the institutions of self-government
 Article 243H & Article 243I: fiscal decentralization or powers to impose taxes by, and
funds of, the Panchayats; state government to constitute independent state-level
finance commissions to review financial position respectively
 Article 243J: Audit of the Panchayat accounts
 Article 243K: constitution of a state level Election Commission for a period of five
years to ensure free and fair elections in local bodies
Also, the state legislatures are needed to enact laws to endow powers and authority to the
Panchayats to enable them functions of local government. The 11th schedule enshrines the
distribution of powers between the State legislature and the Panchayats. These 29 subjects are
listed below:
 Agriculture, including agricultural  Health and sanitation, including hospitals,
extension. primary health centers and dispensaries
 Animal husbandry, dairying and  Social forestry and farm forestry
poultry  Social welfare, including welfare of the
 Poverty alleviation programme. handicapped and mentally retarded
 Fisheries  Khadi, village and cottage industries
 Fuel and fodder  Welfare of the weaker sections, and in
 Family welfare particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes.
 Education, including primary and
secondary schools.  Rural housing
 Cultural activities  Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways
and other means of communication
 Adult and non-formal education
 Women and child development
 Minor forest produce
 Land improvement, implementation of land
 Technical training and vocational
reforms, land consolidation and soil
education.
conservation
 Markets and fairs
 Drinking water
 Libraries.
 Rural electrification, including distribution
 Small scale industries, including food of electricity
processing industries
 Public distribution system
 Minor irrigation, water management
 Maintenance of community assets
and watershed development.
 Non-conventional energy sources

39
The positive impact of the 73rd Amendment in rural India is clearly visible as it has changed
power equations significantly. As per the data provided by Election Commission of India,
elections to the Panchayats in most states are being held regularly. Through over 600 District
Panchayats, around 6000 Intermediate Panchayats and 2.3 lakh Gram Panchayats, more than
28 lakh persons now have a formal position in our representative democracy.
Still, this bill lacks the proper definition of the role of the bureaucracy. It does not clearly
define the role of the state government. On practical level, people are illiterate in India and
they are actually not aware of these novel features. The Panchayats are dominated by
effluents in some parts of the country. The 3 tiers of the Panchayati Raj have still very limited
financial powers and their viability is entirely dependent upon the political will of the states.
Critically appraising the role of democratic decentralization in delivering development and
social justice:
 panchayat, as the institution of local self-governance has been suffering from an
identity crisis
 culture of subservience gone against the fullest realization of decentralization in post
independent India
 over-politicization of the panchayats
 strong centralizing tendency with the centrality of development and state has been
implicit in the decentralization initiatives in independent India
 proxy participation of the women candidate – ‘pradhanpati syndrome’ and rigid
patriarchal structure inhibits the participation of backward castes and women in
village governance
 first timers with little or no prior knowledge of functioning of PRIs
 distribution of rural assets and powers is heavily skewed in India - opportunities and
social choice shrink for the really deprived villages at the grass roots level
 inadequate financial resources and inflexibility in spending the allocated budget
 little investment in enabling and strengthening local governments to raise their own
taxes and user charges
 untimely and delayed elections,
 Corruption, etc.
8. Local Self Governance: Urban
The 74th Constitution Amendment Act, 1993 mandated the devolution of powers and thereby
setting up the urban local bodies (ULBs) with city governments as the local unit of
governance at the urban level. Power was mandated to be given to the people via the local
bodies generally referred to as municipalities, via Municipal Corporations, Councils and
Nagar Panchayats, which would have representatives that are elected regularly and have a

40
decisive role in planning, provision and delivery of services. The act has inserted Part IXA
with Articles 243P to 243ZG in the Constitution.
The key provisions of the 74th Constitutional Amendment which pertains to urban local
bodies:
 Article 243Q: Constitution of
Municipalities- a Nagar Panchayat for the
transitional area from a rural area to an urban
area; a Municipal Council for a smaller
urban area; and a Municipal Corporation for
a larger urban area.
 Article 243R: Composition of Municipalities
and seats to be filled by persons chosen
through direct elections.
 Article 243S: Constitution and composition of Wards Committees, etc.
 Article 243T: reservation of seats for SCs and STs in all Municipality at all levels in
proportion to their respective shares in the Panchayat & one-third to be reserved for
the women.
 Article 243U: Duration of Municipalities- Every Municipality shall continue for five
years from the date appointed for its first meeting and no longer.
 Article 243W: Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.
 Article 243X: Power to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Municipalities.
 Article 243Y: he Finance Commission constituted under article 243-I shall also
review the financial position of the Municipalities and make recommendations to the
Governor.
 Article 243Z: Audit of accounts of Municipalities.
 Article 243ZA: Elections to the Municipalities under the superintendence, direction
and control of the State Election Commission referred to in article 243K.
 Article 243ZD: Committee for district planning at the district level to consolidate the
plans prepared by the Panchayats and the Municipalities in the district and to prepare
a draft development plan for the district as a whole.
 Article 243ZE: Committee for metropolitan planning constituted in every
Metropolitan area to prepare a draft development plan for the Metropolitan area as a
whole.
A local self-government at the urban level has addressed several serious issues of
administration and governance so far. Most States have amended their acts to include part or
in some case all of these and only marginal changes that were regarded as mandatory have

41
been carried out. A comparison of the State legislation’ with central Act reveal that few state
governments have availed of the opportunity presented by the 74th Constitutional Amendment
to clarify municipal functions listed as ‘obligatory’ and ‘discretionary’ and avoids
overlapping institutional functional and geographic jurisdictions. Besides these there are
general problems faced by the urban local bodies include:
 acute scarcity of finance
 people’s participation in urban bodies is still negligible
 urban local bodies work within limits of state control
 no clear demarcation of functions between different local units of the urban local
government
9. Conclusion
Devolution, envisioned by the Constitution, is not mere delegation and it has been achieved
through the democratic decentralization which in turn has facilitated greater direct
participation of citizens in governance. India’s efforts in decentralisation represent one of the
largest experiments in deepening democracy. As Gram Panchayat is for rural areas, similarly
we have Municipalities for urban areas. This new system of local government is the largest
experiment in democracy conducted anywhere in the world. Constitutional status for local
government has helped to deepen democracy in our country. It has also increased women’s
representation and voice in our democracy. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts implies –
constitutionalization, deepening of democracy, decentralized planning, administrative
autonomy, financial autonomy, transparency in governance, accountability in governance,
popular participation, gender empowerment, social justice via empowerment of least
advantaged.
On a critical side, there exist an absence of the clear definition of the term ‘self’
government; absence of a clear-cut demarcation of power, functions, and responsibilities
between rural and urban local bodies; lack of clarity with regard to tax assignments and
expenditure responsibilities; existence of an artificial dichotomy between rural and urban
when all previous thinking has stressed a continuum between the two.
As a way forward, since the panchayats have now come to stay as a constitutionally
recognised tier of governance, it is time to strengthen them so that they can discharge the
duties cast on them in the best manner possible. In areas which have been left to the
discretion of the State Governments under the Act, it is possible for the State Governments to
bring in improvements either through administrative orders of the Government or by
amending the State statutes appropriately like it should also be ensured that grants are utilized
in a proper and effective manner with Panchayats and Municipalities being encouraged to
carry out local audits regularly so that Finance Commission grants are not delayed. In a
recent report of the Standing Committee on Rural Development (2018) it was recommended
that state governments should put a quorum in gram sabha meetings for participation of
panchayat representatives, including women and members of SCs, STs etc. Efforts should be

42
made to address the lack of technical and manpower support for the functioning of local
bodies. A need for bottom-up planning at the district levels are felt many-a-times as one of
the rationales behind decentralization was that local problems have a local solution with
efficient management of resources and so on.

Check Your Progress

Q.1. Define the concept of Decentralization in India, after 73th Amendment.
.............................................................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Q.2. What is the approaches to the study of Decentralization in India?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Q.3. Explain the local self governance, urban and rural in India.
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.............................................................................................................................................

10. References
 Chakrabarty, B. (2007). Reinventing Public Administration: The Indian Experience.
Orient Longman.
 Cheema, G. S., & Rondinelli, D. A. (Eds.). (2007). Decentralizing Governance:
Emerging Concepts and Practices. Brookings Institution Press.
 Fesler, J. W. (1965). Approaches to the Understanding of Decentralization. The
Journal of Politics, 27(3), 536-566.
 Chakravarty, Sukhamoy (1987). Development Planning: The Indian Experience.
Oxford University Press, Delhi.
 Human Development Resource Centre, Decentralization in India Challenges &
Opportunities, UNDP New Delhi.

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 Unit-3 : Budget

(a) Concept and Signification of Budget

Vishal Kumar Gupta

Structure

 Introduction
 Meaning and Definition of Budget
 Objectives of Budget
 Characteristics of Budget
 Important Principles of Budgeting
 Socio-Economic implications of the Budget
 Conclusion
 Important Questions
 References
Introduction
The process of adjusting the income-expenditure has been the general trend of human nature.
Not only every human being, but the Government, Business organizations and NGOs also try
to adjust their income and expenses. A single item of public expenditure or revenue cannot be
examined separately. While public expenditure is the goal of public welfare, on the other
hand, the taxes are passed on to the tax payers. The financial arrangements of the
government, utility and inefficiency of the implementation of the activities, welfare and cost
should be balanced. Humans wants to make maximum and efficient use of his limited
resources available to achieve a decent life. To achieve this objective, he prepares an action
plan. He expected to use his available resources to achieve these objectives as planning, with
the least time and effort to achieve these objectives. In this context, the budget is a tool
through which the administration prepares its forward-looking action plan. The basic
parameters determine the objective. After a certain period of time, the actual performance is
compared are determining parameters. Efforts are made to establishing combined effect in the
objectives and activities of various departments of administration. Thus, effective budget
plays an important role in the success of any government and administration. In short, the
future plan of the administration is prepared after analyzing the past results and experiences
and considering the current trends under the budget. Budgets have become very complex and
wide over the last few decades. According to Gladstone, “It is nothing longer only related to
mathematics, but in a thousand of ways goes to the roots of the prosperity of individuals, the
relations of classes and strength of kingdoms.” Therefore, the budget makers are now
concerned not only with financial matters, that is, with the balance of expenditure and

44
revenue, but with the economic, political, social and administrative nature. A budget can
serve many purposes.
Meaning and Definition of Budget
The budget basically deals with future projections of ‘Income and Expenditure’, in which the
future strategy of administration is prepared by taking the work and data executed in the past
as the basis and analyzing the current activities. The word Budget is derived from the French
word Bougette. The first use of the word budget in the modern sense was in 1733, when the
Finance Minister of England presented the documents related to his financial proposals to the
House of Common (Lok Sabha), for the first time it was said as a joke that the Finance
Minister gave his budget (from leather manufactured bag) opened. From the same day, the
word ‘Budget’ started to be used for the Financial Statement of the government’s annual
income expenditure.
The budget system was developed in the post-medieval era. In this period, arbitrary
governance was found in England and Europe. The budget was a statement of revenue and
expenditure, but it was considered to be the king’s personal subject and state secret. The main
reason for this was that the revenue was derived from the king’s own property. But during the
war, it became compulsory to resort to taxes. As a result, at such times, the elite were given
the opportunity to express their views and reactions on revenue resources, especially on war.
The principle of ‘No tax without Representation’ was recognized at the time of the 1688
Glorious revolution. But at that time all administrative expenses were not subjected to the
parliamentary control. Full legislative control over finance has been established in this
century. Thus, the concept of budget as a central tool of financial direction and control is
relatively new.
The budget plan and budget document is a blueprint of the future work to be done by the
government. There is a detailed description of the allocation of budget instruments, proposed
taxes to be levied or the measures to be taken. The budget has been defined by different
scholars in different times and contexts, which are as follows:
President Roosevelt stated in his 1941 budget speech that “The budget is merely a
description of the work done by the government to the public in the form of budget and it is
the only details of the amount provided in the form of tax to the government by citizens.”
According to J. Pois, “Budgeting is the process by which the financial policy of a
government agency can be decided and governed.”
According to G. Jeze, “Budget is a forecast and an estimate of all the public receipts and
expenses and for certain expenses and receipts, an authorization to incur them and to collect
them.”
According to Stourm, “Budget is a document containing a preliminary approved plan of
public revenue and expenditure.”

45
 According to Dimock, “A budget is a financial plan summarizing the financial
experience of the past, stating a current plan and projection it over a specified period of time
in future.”
According to Munro, “Budget is a plan of financing for the incoming fiscal year. This
involves an itemised estimate of all revenues on the one hand and all expenditures on the
other.”
According to Willoughby, “It is…at once a report, an estimate and a proposal. It is….a
document through which the chief executive comes before the fund raising and fund granting
authority and makes full report regarding the manner in which he or his subordinates have
administered affairs during last completed year, in which he exhibits the present condition of
the public treasury, and on the basis of such information, sets forth his programme of work
for the year to come and the manner in which he hopes that such work shall be financed.”
According to Robert S. Harman, “For an economist, the budget is significantly influence
the economy, a politician has to criticize the government’s actions or defend the party’s
programme, the businessman would be shown a vehicle with a budget, a means for a public
servant to demonstrate his or her sufferings, a budget to an administrator is a means of formal
movement and administrative discipline over all footsteps; A citizen’s budget is a form of
government’s programme, activity, government finances and tax burden on it. But the
importance of these most budgets is that it highlighted on various perspectives related to
policy making.”
What does it mean by budget? This can be understood from the Finance Administration
Report of the State of Michigan, “Budget formulation generally refers to the process by
which a government agency’s financial policy is formulated. Enactment is carried out and
implemented.”
According to the Policy Holder Bureau of New York, “The budget system is a systematic
process by which information from past and present has to be collected and based on them
financial plans are prepared for the future. After that it is reported how those plans were
implemented. “
Thus, in the present era, the budget has become the motivator of economic and social
activities. Production can be increased or limited by tax policy in the budget, class disparities
and variations can be eliminated or eradicate, unemployment can be reduced and unequal
distribution of wealth can be reduced. In this way, the budget has a significant impact on the
social and economic life of the nation. The nature of the welfare state can be gauged from the
huge expenditure incurred on social services under the budget. In short, a budget includes the
following information:
 New schemes, programs, projects, measures and activities proposed for the current
and upcoming year.
 Resource position and income from various sources, including taxes and additional
tax revenue.

46
  Actual receipts and expenses of the previous year, and
 Economic, statistical and accounting data related to the financial and physical
performances of various governmental institutions and organs.

Objectives of Budget
The budget seeks to achieve predetermined objectives at the lowest cost. Preparation of work
policy, editing of coordination and controlling functions in an effective manner, setting
standards and doing comparative analysis with actual performance, maximizing the benefits
of administration and making communication strong and effective, etc. can be considered as
the main objectives of the government budget. In other words, the objectives of the budget
are:
 To help in mobilizing financial resources for administration.
 Coordinate and clearly determine the activities of various departments of the
administration.
 By coordinating the activities of the departments related to administration, an attempt
is made to achieve the predetermined goals with minimum cost, time and efforts.
 Measurement of efficiency and strengthening the process of control, etc.

Characteristics of Budget
The important features of the budget have been outlined by various scholars in the following
form.
1. The budget relates to a fixed period of time, which can be of short, medium and long
term.
2. Budget is an important tool for administration, which carries out planning and control
functions in highly effective manners.
3. Budget is a tool to achieve pre-determined objectives and goals.
4. Comparative study of predetermined objectives and actual performance. Thus, the
budget is a measure in which positive deviations are accepted and negative deviations
are neglected.
5. This is a future action plan.
6. Efforts are made to coordinate the activities of all the departments of administration.
7. Under this, forecasts are set to the following period.
Important Principles of Budgeting
1. Publicity: There should be wide publicity of the budget so that the public, newspapers
and public representatives can present their views in the context of various schemes of
different taxes or expenses. Due to the proper publicity and publication of the budget,
the public and journalists can give their opinion about it.
47
 2. Clarity: Every citizen should understand the budget with ease and effortlessly. The
significance of the budget is that it should be so clear that the citizens can understand
it easily and can express their views.
3. Accuracy: All the information which are based on estimate budget should be
submitted sequentially and in detail so that the evaluation can be done easily. There
should not be an attempt to destroy the precision of the budget by hiding the facts,
declaring the revenue low.
4. Unity: For the financial arrangements of all expenses, all the receipts of the
government should be collected in a common fund. Separating revenue is the
hallmark of an ideal budget.
5. Comprehensiveness: The entire fiscal programme of the government should be
concluded in the budget. The budget should be understood by the general public.
Estimates of new taxes and new expenses should be made available to the common
man through the study of the budget. New loans should be clearly mentioned in the
budget.
6. Integrity: The fiscal programme should be shaped in the same way as the legislature
has made. With the spirit on which the budget has been formed, should also be
implemented with the same spirit. The administration should fulfill the objectives set
at the time of budget formation with complete honesty and efficiency.
7. Periodicity: The government should have the right to only spend till the budget
period, that is, after the fixed period, the money should be re-authorized. For this
reason, the legislature should pass the budget in time.

Socio-Economic implications of Budget

In modern times, the budget plays an important role in the perspective of the social and
economic life of a nation. There was a time when the budget was merely a description of the
projected wealth collection and expenditure. It had two objectives: First, that the government
had to determine how much money it had to extract from the taxpayers’ pockets in order to
run its work efficiently. Second, the legislature had to give funding approval. Essentially in
this context, they wanted to know the plan of the outlay. Similarly, in the days of ‘Free-
Trade’, there was a simple assessment of the budget’s income and expenditure.
With the acceleration of the concept of public welfare states in modern times, it has
become necessary to increase the magnitude and type of government functions. Government
activities now cover almost all aspects of life. The government budget is a huge tool by
which public resources are planned and controlled in a such situation. Thus, the budget is a
tool for the conceptualization of governmental functions, which are adjusted with the entire
economy of the country. This affects the development and production, the size and
distribution of income and the achievement of human energy and materials. Through the
budget, citizens understand what benefits they will get from government schemes and

48
programs and how much tax they will have to pay. Through the budget, many of the
demands, aspirations, needs and interests of the citizens to offering them in various programs.
The government’s taxation policy seeks to reduce social inequality and class discrimination
by reflecting in the budget. The budget policy of the government is directed towards the
objectives of eradication of poverty, eradication of unemployment and reducing unequal
distribution of wealth. Thus, if we see, the socio-economic application of the budget in the
context of a public welfare state is too wide.
Conclusion
Thus, we can say that the budget is an action plan for the long term i.e. the budget is the
blueprint of the government’s activities. These estimates are set for a fixed time period. This
period is called the budget period. This budget period can be from one month to more than a
year. But in general: Budget is a one-year financial statement which includes the
government’s forecast of revenue and expenditure for a financial year.
In the early stages it was considered an instrument of legislative control and
accountability. But in modern times, budgets have become management-oriented and they
also act as a means of implementing the development plans of the nation.

Important Questions

1. What do you understand by the Budget?

.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
2. Highlight the main objectives of the Budget?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
3. Comment on the characteristics of the Budget?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
4. Write an essay on Significant Principles of the Budget?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

49
5. Discuss the socio-economic implications of the Budget in detail?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

Reference

 Asian Development Bank. 2009. ‘Macroeconomic Management and Government

Finances’. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
 Cox III, Raymond W., Susan J. Buck, and Betty N. Morgan. 1994. ‘Public
Administration in Theory and Practice’. India: Pearson.
 Premchand A, 1983. ‘Government Budgeting and Expenditure Control: Theory and
Practice’, IMF: Washington DC
 Thavaraj, M.J.K., 1978. ‘Financial Administration of India’. Delhi: Sultan Chand &
Sons.
 Henry Nicholas. 1986. ‘Public Administration and Public Affairs’, Prentice Hall.
 Goel, S.L. 2010. ‘Social Welfare Administration, Part II’. New Delhi: Deep and Deep
Publications.
 Holzer, Marc and Richard W. Schwester. 2011. ‘Public Administration: An Intro-
duction’. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
 Bhattacharya, Mohit.2013. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, New Delhi:
Jawahar Publishers and Distributors.
 Chakrabarty, Bidyut and Chand, Prakash. 2012. ‘Public Administration in a
Globalizing World’, New Delhi: SAGE Publication India Pvt Ltd.
 Kashyap, Subhash C. 1999. ‘A New Parliamentary Initiative: Subject-based Standing
Committees of Parliament’, Economic and Political Weekly, 6 October: 3247.
 Maheshwari, Arasthiand. 2010. ‘Public Administration’. Agra: Lakshmi Narain
Agarwal.
 Prasad, Kamala. 2006. ‘Indian Administration: Politics, Policies and Prospects’. New
Delhi: Pearson Longman.
 Rao, M. Govind. 2009. ‘The Fiscal Situation and a Reform Agenda for the New
Government’, in Economic and Political Weekly, 20 June.
 Singh, Amita. 2002. ‘Public Administration: Roots Are Wings’. New Delhi: Galgotia
Publishing.
 The Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, vols. III and IV.

50
 (b) Budget Cycle in India
Vishal Kumar Gupta

Structure
 Introduction
 History of Budget system in India
Budget system in pre-colonial period
Budget system in colonial period
Budget system in the post-colonial period
 Budget Cycle
Budget Preparation
Enactment of the Budget
Execution of the Budget
 Conclusion
 Important Questions
 References

Introduction
The budget cycle describes the activities and procedures to developing a budget for a
financial year (from 1 April to 31 March). The time period of the financial period varies
depending on the organization and the stated goals of a particular budget.The function of a
budget cycle is to define the stages from the beginning to the end of the process. However,
the budget is actually a continuous process, which is why the term budget cycle is used in this
context. In this chapter we will explain the History of the Budget system of India, Budget
cycle and the Execution of the Budget.
History of Budget System in India
It is often said by some scholars that the budget is a byproduct of modern phenomena, but in
ancient and medieval India, there was a provision of budget and that budget was made in
huge detail. Unquestionably, the modern budget system was launched only after when the
British government directly took over the reins of the country. In India, the study of the
emergence of the budget system and the evolutionary developments can be studied by
dividing it into three periods for convenience, which is as follows:
Budget system in pre-colonial period
It is known from various historical sources that there was an advanced budget system in
ancient India. The systematic confirmation of this fact comes from the Arthashastra written
by Kautilya, which describes the Mauryan administration. This is an example of a good
budget system. It has indetailed and comprehensive rules which related to maintenance,

51
submission and scrutiny of accounts. Every year, the Finance Minister used to keep an
account of the opening balance in the treasury and all the current expenditures including the
projects being run and the projects being completed. Along with this, the details of receipts
coming from all the sources and the possible balance at the end of the year were kept all
receipts and expenditure of revenue capital accounts in full and micro accounts. All proposed
new and investment-oriented expenditure plans were made and included in the budget.
Estimates for the coming year and actual results for the previous year were included in
the accounts. The entire cabinet had a secret meeting in which they were reviewed and their
accuracy, fullness and satisfactory nature were decided upon all subjects. Their task was to
verify the actual data, check the conformity of the expenditure incurred by receipts and
certificates, confirm that the value of every penny spent has been recovered and that clerks,
officers and department heads. Whether or not he has performed his duty with honesty and
efficiency. In order to make the system effective, there was also a system of punishments and
rewards. The punishments and awards were given to clerks, high officials, superintendents
and even the Auditor General alike. The financial system of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate
and the Mughal Empire was also no different from that of the Mauryan system. This fact is
confirmed in the writings of various historians with reference to the reigns of Akbar and
Jahangir.
Budget system in colonial period
After the advent of British rule, the Indian financial system effectively came under the
control of the East India Company. Till 1833, the Presidencies of Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras were independent in financial matters and there was no centralized financial system.
This situation changed with the Charter Act of 1833 as the right to supervise, direction and
control all revenues was transferred to the Governor General of India-in-council through this
Act. The main intention of the East India Company was territorial expansion, so expenditure
was increased due to the war. Huge money was remitted to Britain in the name of interest to
the Indian debt, investment on railways and interest on civil and military expenses incurred
by Britain in the name of India and maintenance of office of East India Company in India.
After the revolution of 1857, there was chaos in financial administration. After that
British Empire took the administration of India under its control, the financial system became
in line with the system prevailing in Britain. Provision of highly centralized financial system
and administrative control was made to cater to the imperialist interests. The first formal
budget in India was presented in 1860 by Sir James Wilson, the finance member of the
Governor-General-in-Council. At that time there was no elected legislature in India. (When
the first modern budget was presented in 1860, the budget adopted by the government came
into the effect from 1 May to 30 April. Subsequently, in the beginning of 1866, the financial
year was changed to April-March. As it was in accordance with the custom prevalent in
Britain.) The budget was not even presented before the British Parliament. However, the
budget made the Governor General of the Viceroy's Council accountable to the Council-in-
State Secretaries in London, which looked after Indian affairs as a member of the British
Cabinet. The Secretary of State became the primary source of complete power.

52
 The Government of India Act,1935 blow to his powers. In addition to the control of
services, the Secretary of State relinquished most of his powers. The Governor General and
the Governors had privileges and authority over reserved subjects which were outside the
purview of legislative financial control with items in charge. They could also relocate any
demands rejected or reduced by the legislature. Additionally, no such expenditure could be
incurred, even if it was passed by the legislature in a lawful manner, unless it was included in
the Governor General's or the Governor's authenticated Expenditure Notification.
In short, the system of financial control was very rigorous, rule-oriented and complex
during the time of budget formation and approval of expenditure. This system naturally
discouraged any important initiative motivation towards change and development. Hence
control over financial administration was only helpful to imperialist interests. This
independence of Indiafrom British government, inherited this financial system, full of
disorders and harshness.
Budget system in the post-colonial period
After the independence, there were major changes in the objectives, policy structures of
financial administration. The conflict between aspirations and policies and procedures
targeting public opinion and financial administration came to an end in a single day.
Unquestionably, the basic features of the Government of India Act 1935 were retained, but
there was no inconsistency between these instruments and national priorities. These tools
could be changed to suit the changed goals and the same was done.
The budget procedure in India follows the provisions given in Articles 112 to 117 of the
Constitution. Accordingly, the annual budget of the Union, which is called the 'Financial
Statement' of the Income-Expenditure Estimates, should be presented to both the Houses of
Parliament in respect of each financial year. The budget shows the receipts and payments of
the government in three parts, under which government accounts are classified:
Consolidated Fund: All the revenue received by the government, such as customs, excise,
income tax, estate duty, other taxes and duties and the money received by the government
from the recovery of loans, are all deposited in the Consolidated Fund. After the approval of
the Parliament, the government bears all its expenses with this fund. That is why it is called
the Consolidated Fund of India.
Contingency Fund: According to Article 267, Parliament has been given the power to set up
a fund. This fund is called the Contingency Fund of India. The fund is periodically deposited
through laws passed by Parliament. This fund is under the control of the President and to
meet the contingent needs of the country, funds are made available by the President to the
government through this fund.
Public Account: Apart from Consolidated funds, there are some such transactions in the
government accounts for general income expenditure by the government in relation to which
the government acts like a banker; In other words, the money which deposited in the account
does not belong to the government and this money has to be returned at a time to the
individuals or officials who deposit it. Therefore, parliamentary approval is not required for
payment from a public account.

53
Charged Expenditure
Some of the items of expenditure under the Constitution such as the President's emoluments,
the salary and allowances of the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, the Deputy Chairman and the
Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the salary and pension of the Judges of the
supreme court and Auditor General, loans and interest received by the Government Payments
etc. are made from Consolidated funds to comply with the payment and order of the court. It
is not voted by the Parliament. The expenditure incurred from the Consolidated fund is
shown separately in the budget.
Budget Cycle
To provide timeliness to executive and legislative processes, the budgeting process is made in
a circular manner. In a responsible government, the process of approval or acceptance is very
important. There are four stages in this cycle.
1. Preparation of income-expenditure estimates for the coming financial year;
2. Receipt by Parliament in the form of Revenue Acts and Appropriation Acts;
3. Implementation of Revenue Acts and Appropriation Acts; And
4. Review and control of financial activities by audit on behalf of the Parliament.
At a particular point of time, several cycles are in operation and they are overlapping.
Different segments of the budget cycle have different operating periods.
Budget Preparation
The budget formulation process in India begins formally during September / October, six
months before the presentation of the budget, on the receipt of a circular from the Ministry of
Finance. In the different circulars of the plan and non-plan miscellaneous items, the list of the
time of sending final estimates and the guidelines for testing the budget estimates made by
the concerned department are also given. According to the budget and accounting
classification, the budget estimates prepared by the Ministries and Departments are analyzed
by the Financial Advisors concerned. The plan items of the Union Budget are finalized in
consultation with the NITI Aayog and are based on the Annual Plan.
Enactment of the Budget
The budget in Parliament passes through five stages:
1. Presentation of Budget,
2. General Discussion,
3. Voting on Demands for Grants
4. Passing of Appropriation Bill,
5. Passing of Finance Bill.
1. Presentation of Budget: The budget session of the Indian Parliament starts in the mid-
February. The budget is presented in Parliament into two parts, the Railway Budget and
the General Budget. The Railway Budget contains the details of Railways' income and
their expenditure and is presented by the Railway Minister. The general budget is

54
 related to the demands of all other departments except the Railways. It is presented by
the Finance Minister in the Parliament.
Integration of Railway and General Budget: Since 1924, the tradition of presenting the
Railway Budget separately from the General Budget started. In the beginning of 2016,
the NITI Aayog also suggested to merge these two budgets again. That is, the railway
budget should be presented in conjunction with the general budget. From the financial
year 2017-18, the same budget has now started to be presented.
2. General Discussion: General discussion on the budget starts a few days after its
presentation. Normally, this discussion of three to four days goes on in both the houses
of Parliament. It is a British tradition and heritage. At this stage, the Lok Sabha can
discuss the entire budget or any theoretical aspect of it, but during this time neither a
motion can be introduced nor the budget can be put up for voting in the House. At the
end of the discussion, the Finance Minister is authorized to give a general answer.
3. Voting on Demands for Grants: At the end of the general discussion, the Lok Sabha
begins the process of voting on the Demands for Grants which is not a weighted
expenditure on the Consolidated Fund of India. Separate voting cantake place for every
demand. At this stage, MPs can discuss the details of the budget. They can also propose
to reduce or decrease the demand for a particular grant. These proposals are also called
'Cut Motions'. These are of three types:
Policy Cut Motion: It refers to the rejection of the policy on demand. Accordingly, the
amount of demand can be reduced to a certain amount (which may be a one-time
reduction in demand or non-inclusion or reduction of any one item in the demand).
Economic Cut Motion: This proposal is introduced to reduce the amount of money in a
fixed budget from the point of view of economy due to out of demand. If an MP feels
that unnecessary expenditure is being incurred in a demand, then he can present it.
Token Cut Motion: It brings forth the complaint/problem which is under the
jurisdiction of the Government of India. Under this, 100 rupees can be deducted from
the total amount of demand.
Voting on demands is entirely the prerogative of the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha does
not participate in it. Twenty-six days have been set for voting in India like Britain. It is
clear from this limited time system that many demands are passed without any
discussion. The Speaker, in consultation with the Leader of the House, determines the
time for which demand or demand group and for the entire expenditure part of the
budget. As soon as the deadline is over, the demand is immediately put up for voting,
whether it has been discussed or not. This is called ‘Guillotine’.
4. Passage of Appropriation Bill: The next step is to pass the annual Appropriation Bill.
According to Article 114 of the Constitution, "No money shall be withdrawn from the
Consolidated Fund of India without appropriation by the law." In other words, all the
expenses and investments made in the context of public welfare of the Government of
India are mentioned in the Appropriation Bill. Hence, the Appropriation Bill has

55
 introduced, so that funds can be withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund of India for the
grant and charged expenditure sanctioned by the Lok Sabha.
No amendment can be introduced in either House of Parliament on the
Appropriation Bill which changes the amount of grant sanctioned or changes its
destination, or reduces the amount of any expenditure charged from the Consolidated
Fund of India or You do more. The Appropriation Bill, after the assent of the President,
becomes an Appropriation Act. The Act legalizes the payments to the Consolidated
Fund of India. This means that until the Appropriation Bill becomes an Act, the
Government cannot withdraw any kind of money from the Consolidated Fund of India.
It takes time and usually runs till the end of April, but after 31 March, the government
needs money for its normal functioning. To overcome this functional difficulty, the Lok
Sabha has been empowered by the Constitution to grant any advance grant for the
estimated expenditure for a part of the financial year till the completion of the voting
process on the Demands for Grants and the passing of the Appropriation Bill. This
arrangement is called Vote on Account. It is passed after the completion of the general
discussion on the budget. Typically, this occurs for two months.
5. Passing of Finance Bill: The Appropriation Act empowers the government to withdraw
funds from the Consolidated Fund, but it has not yet been arranged where the money
will come from. Hence, there is a system of collecting money by taxation. A Finance
Bill is introduced in the House for this purpose. The bill contains financial proposals of
the government for the next year. The details of various taxes, fees etc. levied by the
Government of India are given in the Finance Bill. 'Finance Bill', under Rule 219 of the
Lok Sabha, means a Bill which is introduced for the purpose of implementing the
financial proposals by Government of India for the coming financial year and a bill to
implement the supplementary financial proposals of any period is included.
Amendments may be made to the rejection or reduction of any tax in respect of the
reversal of the appropriation bill. According to the Tax Collection Act, 1931, a financial
bill should be enacted or passed in Parliament within 75 days and approved by the
President.
Execution of the Budget
Implementation of the budget is the responsibility of the executive government. The process
of implementation of the budget depends on the distribution and delegation of powers at
various operating levels. As soon as the Appropriation Act is passed, the Ministry of Finance
advises the spending ministries and departments about their allocated funds. Then the
controlling officers of each ministry and department provide allocation and advice to
different disbursing officers. The expenditure is organized in such a way that the amount
given in the hands of the spending authority is not spent before the additional amount is
received. In short, the financial system is made up of the adjustment of the following
elements:
A. The Controlling Officer, generally the head of the Ministry and Department, acts as
the Controlling Officer,
B. A system of capable officers that grants financial approval,

56
 C. Arrangement of imperatives and disbursing officers, and
D. Arrangement of payments, receipts and accounts.
The Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance controls and supervises the system of
collection of direct and indirect taxes. This control is maintained by the Central Board of
Direct Taxes and Central Board of Indirect Taxes. The board is the central bank which is
implementing various tax laws. Nationalized banks and treasury agencies are also executing
finance collection and distribution services.
Audit
The executive spends public funds which are authorized by the legislature. The Government
conducts an audit of public expenditure by an independent agency to determine its liability to
the Parliament. For this work, the Constitution provides the post of Comptroller and Auditor
General of India. It is his duty to ensure that the allocation of funds to various agencies of the
government is done by the law, the rules, orders and procedures to governing such
expenditure have been followed, the value of the money spent has been received and such
transactions. The documents of the loan have been kept, compiled and submitted to the
competent authority. This is the last phase of the budget cycle.
Conclusion
Thus, we can say that there is a long procedure of budget formulation and enactment in India.
Many reforms were brought by the colonial rule, especially in 1919 and thereafter in 1935.
The system of finance controls the inherited by India in 1947 was highly rigid, rule-oriented
and complex. Essentially it was for the achievement of fundamental colonial objectives and
not for the solution of national problems. Undoubtedly, public welfare is the main objective
of the budget. Therefore, according to their expectations and requirements for the
development of Indian people, the budget is presented every year by the government. In this
context, the efficiency and transparency of the budget cycle plays a useful and decisive role.

Important Questions

1. Write an analyticalnote on the history of Budget in India?

...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. What do you understand by 'Cut Motions'?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................

57
 3. Highlight the provisions related to the Budget in the Indian Constitution?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Write an essay on various stages of the Budget Cycle?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
5. What do you understand by the Execution of the Budget?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................

References
 Thavaraj, M.J.K., 1978. ‘Financial Administration of India’. Delhi: Sultan Chand &
Sons.
 Cox III, Raymond W., Susan J. Buck, and Betty N. Morgan. 1994. ‘Public
Administration in Theory and Practice’. India: Pearson.
 Premchand A, 1983. ‘Government Budgeting and Expenditure Control: Theory and
Practice’, IMF: Washington DC.
 Burkhead, Jesse, 1956. ‘Government Budgeting’. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
 Henry Nicholas. 1986. ‘Public Administration and Public Affairs’, Prentice Hall.
 Goel, S.L. 2010. ‘Social Welfare Administration, Part II’. New Delhi: Deep and Deep
Publications.
 Holzer, Marc and Richard W. Schwester. 2011. ‘Public Administration: An Intro-
duction’. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
 Bhattacharya, Mohit.2013. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, New Delhi:
Jawahar Publishers and Distributors.
 Chakrabarty, Bidyut and Chand, Prakash. 2012. ‘Public Administration in a Globalizing
World’, New Delhi: SAGE Publication India Pvt Ltd.
 Kashyap, Subhash C. 1999. ‘A New Parliamentary Initiative: Subject-based Standing
Committees of Parliament’, Economic and Political Weekly, 6 October: 3247.

58
 Maheshwari, Arasthiand. 2010. ‘Public Administration’. Agra: Lakshmi Narain
Agarwal.
 Prasad, Kamala. 2006. ‘Indian Administration: Politics, Policies and Prospects’. New
Delhi: Pearson Longman.
 Rao, M. Govind. 2009. ‘The Fiscal Situation and a Reform Agenda for the New
Government’, in Economic and Political Weekly, 20 June.
 Singh, Amita. 2002. ‘Public Administration: Roots Are Wings’. New Delhi: Galgotia
Publishing.
 The Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, vols. III and IV.

59
 (c) Various Approach and Types of Budgeting
Kumari Sushma

Structure
 What is Budget?
 What is Budgeting?
 What are the Various Approaches of Budgeting?
 What are the Types of Budget?
 Importance of Budgeting
 Conclusion
 Check Your Progress

What is Budget?
As we are a social person and try to live a stable life, budget or budgeting can be understood
as an inseparable part of our life. Budgeting is a common activity, in some extent everyone
use it. So as a common phenomena Budget is a quantitative/ numerical plan to achieve
required goals. Budgeting is an important activity for planned economy. There are three
aspects of budget: accountability, management and economic determination. In the aspect of
accountability and economic determination it gives the direction of economy and expenses,
as it leads the uses of resources in more beneficial way. And the same way as a economic
determinant it promotes the economic balance between taxes and expenses.
It can be seen as a tool of management for economic planning and programming. When
we see it in the scope of governmental budget, it is a part of economic planning in the form of
statement. This statement contains a forecast of revenues and expenditures for a period of
time. So in this sense we can see that Budget has some important components and features
like its’ quantitative nature, economic plan for future expenditure and its’ time components,
that means it is made for a fixed time period. In the context of governmental budget, budget
can be seen as a medium for achieving the policy objectives (schemes, welfare programmes,
projects etc.), set by a government. In the one hand Budget is a reflection of future goals,
expenditure and in the other hand it is detail allocation of proposed taxation and resources.
We can say that budget is the vindication of accountability of government to their citizens
and as well as it is the future financial allocation of resources.
What is Budgeting?
It is the instrument of economic management. It is a type of financial policy of respective
organization. It can also understand as a tool of political management as it works for
operational documentation of expense, time and dimensions and aspects of expected results.
In the sense of common phenomena Budgeting is the process or act of preparing a budget. It

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is a process of selection of medium and ends. In one part it is an informative documentation
for resource allocation and in the second part it is a process of gathering right and relevant
information. This is the informative documentation as it gives the information for
consumption, investment and transfer with the identification of sectors. This information
helps to allocate the resources. On the other side it gathered the data for the same. In the
context of public/ governmental budgeting it involves in
- Political exercise as it analyse the government expenses
- The distribution of financial or economic resources between private and public
sectors.
- Budgeting examines how the organization’s resources have been used in the past
- Analyzing what has been used in the past
- Analyzing what has been accomplished and at what cost, and a charting a course for
the future by allocating resources for the coming budget period.7
- Assigning responsibility to units for achieving the determined results.
- Regulating and controlling expenditure and accountability.
- Basically Budgeting is related to- accountability control: work description of
administrative agencies, political process (determining the social objectives for certain
time period) and adaptation of some commercial principle intended goals; efficiency
control: production efficiency, distribution of functions, centralization and
decentralization and distribution of responsibility between public and private sector;
economic control: annual budget framework distribution of taxes and decision over
expenditures.8
What are the Various Approaches of Budgeting?
Leading the balance between income and expenses are difficult task and if it is about the all
three aspects (accountability, management and economic determination) the level of
responsibility towards the right decision makes it think and employed work. On the other
hand to the achievement of final goal, a big goal takes time, reaching to the final goal
regularity is prerequisite. This difficult task has get importance to analyse, as it identified the
central point of development goal. But the early writing and scholarly analysis was not
operational or empirical. It was based on the normative study. Those studies were about the
assumptions of income and its distribution towards the expenditure. Early time the dominant
trend in the context of budget studies or financial expenditures was influences by the day to
day study of budgeting administration. It was useful to understand the art of budgeting. In the
Eighteenth century budget got separate attention as a fiscal department from the just
administrative work. By this process, gradually, pattern of analysis and the study of budget

7
Public budgeting system by Robert De Ley Pp-2
8
Premchand A, 1983. Ciovernrnerit Budgeting and Expenditure Control: Theory and
Practice, JMF: Washington DC

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also had changed. In the Nineteenth century James Mill and J S Mill had introduced fiscal
matters as a central force of administrative and political activities. And gradually study of
budget got empirical form, as it focuses on the study of not only the expenses but the
relationship of these expenses with demands. New aspect of these study represent the
approaches where the demand of services, expenditure of finance and allocation of resources
are interlinked.
Marginal Utility Approach
Marginal utility is a part of economic aspect of budgeting. It is a school of thought that
focuses on the rational or normative aspects of budget. It determines the formation of
organizational expenditure and budgeting. This school of thought was developed in 1920s for
fiscal control. According to this school an individual will spend to satisfy his/her wants in a
manner that will achieve a certain balance among various types of expenditure and ensure
that the marginal return of satisfaction is the same for all of them.9 As pigou10 explained,
Marginal utility is all about the balance between resources and different expenditures.
Balance between them indicates that resources should be distributed to various uses and try to
satisfy everyone with marginal rates. As every human being try to balance between their
satisfaction of need and their income just like government should do the same. By budgeting
government should provide marginal utility of resources to all class of society. Under the
marginal utility budgeting is an activity in which organisers do comparison among relative
results obtained from various types of uses of funds.
This approach is a debatable, because of their normative nature it is difficult to transfer
in practical and empirical level. On the other side measurement of utility is as difficult as its
normative conceptual understanding to empirical explanation.
Public Goods Approach
Public Goods approach is related to neoclassical fiscal theory (in 1950s). It is all about the
public goods and process of their selection in budget. Selection and needs of Public goods
directs the Budget expenditure. Objective of this approach are to determinant the expenditure
and implement the objectives of policies. Within it planner set preferences for private and
public goods to maximize the utility of resources. The target of this approach is to promote
the utility of goods. There are two models of this approach first operational (Samuelson) and
second mechanical (Musgrave). Operational model focuses on determining and process of
identifying the objectives of budgeting. According to this model planner focuses on both the
factors for framing the budget- demands of individuals and collective needs. Public goods
means the amount of uses are similar and equal for all. In the context of public goods there
are two aspects to understand, first there is not private mechanism to precede it and second
goods are equally consumed by all, which means who have not capable to pay or paid for
those goods, cannot be excluded to use. In simple understanding we can say that public goods
mean all goods and services provided by government.

9
Premchand A, 1983. Ciovernrnerit Budgeting and Expenditure Control: Theory and
Practice, JMF: Washington DC P. No.-44
10
A. C. Pigou ( 1956), p. 31.

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 With the understanding of Musgrave11 we can say governmental budgeting is framed by
three functions of government- allocation, distribution and stabilization. Allocation means to
allocate the preferences of uses and distribution means specified the needs and demands and
the other hand stabilization ensures the relevant utilization of resources. Basically this model
focuses on mechanical aspects of budgeting. It relate budget to political sphere. But as it is
explained by different theorist with different point of view, it considered as an unclear and
incomplete theory which has two aspects of understanding but with the different perspectives.
Public Choice Approach
Public choice approach focuses on the importance of public preferences in the context of
political process. It emphasises on the political process which involves in identifying the
public choices and non-market issues in democratic society. According to Anthony Downs
government plans expenditure and revenues to maximizes their own chances of winning.12
According to this approach allocation of funds and resources are a political process. The
analysis of budget proposals is based on ‘what voters want’ not on the calculation of gain and
loss. Budgeting is the process in which adaptation of objective are actually about the public
needs but with the specifying nature of selection public group. As Downs explains Budgeting
is the process where we can find various force to direct the objectives of budget as
government (especially in democratic states) believes in satisfying the voters to win.
Taxpayers evaluate the projects and budget objectives according to their benefits, and they
are effective to change it. So budget is all about the voters choice not for the welfare.
Downs theory of Public choice has more limitation. As he has presented a mechanical
aspect of budget and he ignores the role of state in the process of tax distribution and
collective project fund allocation. Voters choice cannot be consider only as a direct benefit
but it is also related with externalities.
Wicksell’s theory of government can be seen as an extended version of public choice
approach. This view adds the process of mechanization rather than its mechanical function.
Government determines the relevant mechanism to maximize the utility according to market
behaviour. This determinant behaviour has affected by the elected representative, interest
groups and government agencies.
This approach neglect the process of equilibrium in allocation of resource and in the
decision making process. It also neglects the balanced behaviour among policies, objectives
and demands.
Positive Approach
Positivism approach deals with empirical aspect of expenditures. It is also about the
formulation of policies and verification of its objectives. This approach developed in 1960s.
It works for the financial hypothesis, where it tests the growth of public expenditures. It

11
See R. A. Musgrave 0959), pp. 3-27.
12
See Anthony Downs ( 1960). Reprinted in E. S. Phelps, ed., Private Wanes and Public Needs (New Haven:Yale
Universiry Press, 1965).

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depends on the empirical laws as it does the empirical study of formulated programmes and
finds the reasons behind the difficulties.
So there is different kind of approaches to the process of budgeting. Approaches are
depending on the features of organization. To understand the private organization’s budget
process we can follow the other approaches as well. Top- down and bottom- up approaches
can be following to understand the private or hierarchical organization. Top- down budget
approach is about the managerial process, as in this system senior manager of the department
has responsibility to make the budget and other managers of different department (as every
organisation has different department to manage various work) do work to successful
implementation of that budget. They can make budget to their specific department but that
should be pursuance of major budget of that organization. On the other hand bottom to top
budget approach is used to prepare a budget from the department. Every department makes
plan for organization’s proposed goals, their work reflect the idea of organization but the
completing process get started by the down to top route.
What are the Types of Budget?
As we know that Budget is the part of governments’ administrative process, it is made for the
better and efficient use of resources, so according to administrative features and preferences
we can see there are different kind of Budgeting. In these, difference can be seen about the
structural aspects, preferential factors and manner of implementation.
Performance Budgeting
It is the traditional budget system. It is about activities, functions and programmes and
projects of government. Basically it is outcome oriented. It focuses on the outcome of
services and specific use of resources under the fixed time period. But it is also about the
allocation as it has some features of programme budgeting. So it is about evaluation and
allocation of the resources and services.
Performance budgeting was brought up in response to two questions: A). what should be
the desirable quantity of expenditure for a government? And what should be the proportion of
expenditure and government resources or gross national products? B). How efficiently and
effectively programmes can be executed within limited time period? And what kind of
alternate arrangements can find to complete the programme with less cost but in satisfactory
manner? American administrative reform commission Hoover Commission13 (1947) was
dealing with these questions. It was exploring the alternative of contemporary federal system
of governance. This commission recommended the performance budgeting as an alternative.
With the recommendation they suggest three features for that: 1. Classification of
government’s expenditures, 2. Measurement of performances and 3 Reporting of outcomes or
performance of services. These recommendations can be seen as features of Performance
Budgeting.

13
Hoover Commission was the organization of executive Branch of the US Government. Main concern of this
commission was to suggest the changes in the federal administrative system of United State.

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 Scientific management is the main factor of Performance budgeting as it is based on the
factual analysis of outcomes. This budget system is more structured than any other. It
describes programme in separate way. It requires classification of expenditures and work. It
depends on the very advanced programming. It relates the programme to purpose of doing.
By this budget system we try to shift the focus on review of input to review of performance-
oriented programme. It also focuses on the cost analysis of work.
This budget system is difficult to execute as it requires high and many level of
programming. Its’ focuses on Cost orientation and separate analysis leads the difficulties of
measurement of work and its productivity. So this budget system’s ideal form is difficult to
achieve but it is in activity with desirable form and it programme budgeting.
Programme Budgeting
Programme budget is the desirable form of structured performance budgeting. It has all the
features of Performance budgeting, but in the feasible manner. It introduced by the same
committee (Hoover Commission) in 1955. Budget focuses on the classification of
expenditure, governments work and analysis of costs. Basically this budget can be consider
as a primary and essential step of Performance budgeting.
There are basically two differences can be find between Performance and Programme
budgeting. First performance budgeting is about management and controlling, as it focuses on
the analysis of the previous services and allocation. On the other hand Programme budgeting
focuses on the planning and its analysis is about the forward oriented. It emphasised to
competing the claim. Second, Performance budgeting is allocate the past outcomes for the
future plans, its’ main concern is past allocation, as it is justified the reasons of failure and
success of planning. On the other hand Programme budgeting also focuses on the past
allocation for planning but its’ main concern is about classification of work and planning
according to their respective issues. It works for programme objectives.
This budget system did not get full attention as it got failed in the context of long term
planning.
Planning Programming Budget (PPB)
Planning Programming Budget (1965) has introduced with this claim that it is able to do
programming for better life at lowest cost. It involves in specification of goals, plans and
their formulation. It was similar with the old system in some extend, as it was also focuses on
the analysis of past plans. But it was different in the context of approach. That is the
Pragmatic approach, which was the base of this system. By this approach finding of
alternatives according to specific works was the centre point of analysis. Within this
American government has introduced three levels:
Policy Management: it was about the identification of requirements, alternatives of
programmes and the allocation of present resources and services.
Resource Management: on this level management of resources with the reference of old
budget system. It establishes the strong structure for the budget and allocates the financial
management.

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Programme management: on this level analysis, reporting and evaluation of plan are the
main concern.
These levels can be seen as features of Planning Programming Budgeting system. These are
very similar to the traditional budget system, but the identification of needs and formulation
of plan for objectives make it different. This budget has also complex issues as others have.
The orientation about the specification of objectives becomes a difficult task when the
programme is to be made for long term.
Line- Item Budgeting
Line- Item Budget is the simplest kind of budget. It is used for the small and short term
budget. It advocates that there are different kind of income sources and different type of
expenses. Basically it allocates the cost. It focuses on the reduction of cost to make planning
more practical. With the reduction of cost it works to control the expenditure on the one item
to save the budget for other necessary items. In this budget system top authority has
responsibility to control the all expenditures. This budget system is used by the government’s
branches as it cannot be useful for whole government’s expenditure.
Zero Base Budgeting
Zero- Base budgeting is useful for the agriculture budgeting and was, first, introduced in the
context of agriculture itself. Continuation of programmes and plans are not allowed in this
budget system as it focuses on the start with ground-up programming. It finds the new
satisfactory plans for contemporary and new issues as it never prefers to make changes or
search alternates of existing plans. It focuses on the base of formulation plans. Base is equally
important for this budget system and by this increment of the base become possible as it is
difficult to the other budget systems.
In this budget system administration consider as a more responsible institution as it is
present everywhere in the budget making process, implementation to execution. Medium
term budget and sunset budgeting are made by that budget system. Implementation of zero
base budgeting is less difficult in compare to the other budget systems. This is not about the
conceptual valediction of the old budget systems and nor it required new instruments or
applications for the making of budget but it is the similar one with the controlled expenditure.
Critique says that it is the type of institutionalization of budget system as it does not give
attention to the process of programme or policy analysis. Attention towards base of budgeting
give it managerial feature (rigid behaviour towards budget decisions) so according to the
critics it is more administrative budget system and it can be used by government and for the
other institutions it is less- developing. On the other hand it is believed that finding the
essential and unnecessary expenditure is difficult task which is a primary need of Zero base
budgeting.
Conclusion
According to the above explanation budget can be understand as a future stability and growth
plan. As at starting it reflected the accountability of legislature towards the people. After the
development of understanding the concept now it must be understand by the broader manner
as now it reflects the future growth possibility and limitations or management of expenses for

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that growth. Every nation has its own pattern of budget implementation. Actually the features
and structure of budget depends on the nation’s financial status, as developing countries have
their own list of expenditure and different goal from the developed countries. On the other
hand developed countries expenditures can be trace by their next achievement goals.
Various parts of budget are also can be seen as there are gender budgeting, environment,
rail etc budget pattern are in trend, which are only the part of main budget, just because of the
extension of budget process it got separated to the main budget. But they all are made by the
pursuance of the main budget.
So it can be considered as a pure financial activities and it is part and partial part of every
management. With the goal of masterly utilization of available resources it reflects the
national growth orientation.
Check Your Progress
Q.1. What the meaning of Budget? Explain the objectives of Budget in India?
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Q.2. Define the Budget and explain the characteristics and types of Budget.
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Q.3. Examine the various approaches of Budgeting in India.
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Q.4. Critically examine the Socio-Economic implications of the Budget.
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 Unit-4 : Citizen and Administration Interface

(a) Public Services Delivery in India

Ms. Revathy V Menon

Structure
1. Introduction
2. Meaning of Public Service
3. Concept of Public Service Delivery
4. Characteristics of Public Services
5. Public Service Delivery in India
6. Accountability in Delivery of Public Services
7. Barriers of Public Service Delivery
8. Reforming Delivery of Public Service
9. Conclusion
10. Practice Questions
11. References
1. Introduction
In a democracy, citizen-administration interface are important because the support and
consent of the governed is an essential element for maintaining a representative government.
The major responsibilities like education, health, employment opportunities, improved
transportation and infrastructure, etc. and various other services to the citizens therefore form
the crucial responsibilities of the administration. All this affects the individual and collective
life of a very large number of people concerned. In the contemporary times, we have
witnessed the development of public administration in two different ways: firstly, there has
been an outsized growth within the size of governmental administration in addition as huge
enlargement in its powers and activities and secondly, with increased educational, political
and social awakening, there has been an increase in the expectations of individuals from
administration. Further the main focus of relationship between state and society has shifted
from that of freedom to economic prosperity and social justice. The state has broadened its
political base through universal adult franchise. The administration therefore necessarily
penetrated all aspects of citizens’ life. Citizens as voters and recipients of state services are
eager to get services provided rather than learning the subtle aspects of how they get them.
The position of citizens from mere beneficiaries of aid and administrative services has now
shifted to become the main actor in government affairs.
2. Meaning of Public Service
In the public sector, service delivery is more complicated since it involves not just satisfying
declared requirements, but also determining unspoken needs, establishing priorities,

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allocating resources, and publicly defending and accounting for what has been done. In most
developing nations, such as India, the public sector plays an important role in service
provision since it controls a large portion of the economic resources. In today's globalizing
and competitive world, providing high-quality, efficient service is critical to success and
survival (Reichheld, et al., 1990). In light of this, public agencies have come under scrutiny
and controversy in recent years for their efficiency and efficacy in meeting people' needs and
rights in terms of service delivery.
According to Carvalho et al. (2010), this is consistent with the ideas of New Public
Management (NPM), which seeks to satisfy the demands of citizens rather than those of
bureaucracy. Budget cuts, disintegrating traditional bureaucratic organisations into separate
agencies, decentralisation within the agencies, separating the function of public service
delivery from purchasing, introducing market mechanisms, working to performance targets,
indices, and output objectives, flexibility in public employment, and laying restrictions are all
essential elements of NPM, according to Pollitt (1995). As a result, it has become necessary
to reconsider public service delivery in order to enhance their quality in order to meet public
needs, gratify people and industries as much as possible, and promote good governance and
national economic competitiveness (Carvalho et al., 2010).
Good and effective governance supports public service delivery in the public sector by
encouraging improved decision making and the efficient use of resources, as well as
strengthening accountability for resource stewardship. Robust scrutiny characterizes effective
governance, providing key incentives for improving public sector performance and
combating corruption. Effective governance may enhance management, resulting in more
effective intervention implementation, better service delivery, ultimately better outcomes. As
a result, life of the people gets enhanced. Consequently, the government is primarily
responsible for providing public services in the country, which is supplemented by the private
sector. Projects for the provision of essential services, such as education, health, agriculture,
water and sanitation, power, housing and urban development, justice, defence, and security,
are often funded by yearly government budgetary appropriations. The public sector's role is
thus confined to provide services that the private sector may not provide at all, or to provide
services to people who cannot afford the market price of the product.
Over the years an increasing number of developing democracies has augmented the
dependence of its citizens on the state for provisions of basic services like education, health,
infrastructure, etc., either due to the absence of an essential market or poverty. This has
further instantiated the role of state, elected representatives and public officials apparently to
dispense governance and delivery of public services. Furthermore the quality of public
services can impact the country’s economic growth in several ways, such as free or
subsidized services in low income countries helps to deliver social protection to the poor and
vulnerable and to alleviate poverty; social welfare programs provision basic food supplies to
combat undernourishment, unemployment, etc. (Dasgupta and Ray 1986). Furthermore, we

69
can say that an effective delivery of public services will ensure critical reduction in poverty
rates of any developing or under-developed country.
According to Deaton and Dreze (2002), the goal of public service provision is frequently
to minimize inequitable resource distribution and redress past injustices, such as caste-based
discrimination and gender disparities. Thus, targeted distribution of public services has the
potential to alleviate economic disparities that have been increasing in quickly developing
nations such as India in recent decades. Inequalities have increased in many nations, in
particular, as market forces have been unleashed following economic liberalization. Also
substantial levels of inequality may have a negative impact on labour productivity in turn,
may have a negative impact on economic growth of the country. As a result, public services
play a vital role in addressing increasing disparities in such countries.
The evident channel via which public services influence growth is through rise in human
capital. Human capital growth is both a condition and a result of economic growth. Health is
another important component of human capital. While classic growth models have interpreted
human capital only in terms of education, research indicates that population health can
contribute to economic growth collectively and independently of the influence of education.
Finally, in low-income economies, governance deficits are frequently caused by high levels
of corruption in the delivery of public services. Corruption in the delivery of public
programmes, manifested as leakages, embezzlement, and graft, can have serious
consequences on progress of the economy.
In a nutshell, the term ‘public service’ refers to the necessary service, facility or
commodity that serves as a link between the government and the general public. The
government provides such services through its administrative channels like security, defence,
the rule of law, community service, other vital services, employment, communication and
technology services, and various other services. The activities done by the state as a whole, as
well as the commodities and services given to meet the needs and desires of the public, are all
examples of public services. Adam Smith's views on public service seem relevant here as he
relates public institutions, public services and public works to the fact that their earnings can
never be returned via investment or it is a public function that cannot be reimbursed by
investment and as a result, individuals or groups of persons cannot construct or sustain it. We
may alternatively define public service as a service supplied by the service provider, i.e. the
government or state, to the service receiver, i.e. the general public.
3. Concept of Public Service Delivery
The flow of public service is the process through which the government or state distributes
services to the citizens in a timely, cost-effective, and efficient way that the common man can
guarantee. The provision of public services is the responsibility of government. The
technology / technique / system used to provide services, resources, and commodities to the
general public are referred to as a delivery system. Thus the delivery system is the method for
disseminating the essential goods, services, and facilities acquired from any organization.

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 All necessary, basic, infrastructure-based, commercial, and other services in India are
supplied by the public or government sector. To make basic service delivery methodical and
successful, different policy, legal, institutional, and procedural frameworks have been put in
place. However, there is a lack of efficiency in service delivery. For a long time, the
government has made significant efforts in administrative reform to improve the flow of
services to the general population. Despite efforts to simplify and streamline government
work, decentralize services, provide enough and capable staff in service centres, and
streamline service delivery, implementation has been poor, and even the fundamental
foundations for providing public services have not been reinforced. Public service has not
been effective due to traditional thinking and a lack of positive perceptions in administration;
limited means and resources; a lack of transparency, accountability, and responsibility; a lack
of highest utilization of information technology; a lack of client awareness; a lack of pressure
groups; a lack of simple and clear procedures, and so on.
Public service delivery is the most important component of governance since the success
of every programme or project is dependent on its effective implementation. Service Delivery
is the primary point of contact between the government and the general population. As a
result, poor service delivery is the primary source of people's distrust and discontent. A
strong public service delivery system is distinguished by citizen centricity, openness,
efficiency, and accountability.
Public services are described as services given by a government to its citizens, either
directly or through private funding. The provision of diverse public goods and services is the
primary responsibility of the government. The state plays a critical role in delivering vital
public goods and services that ensure a certain minimum degree of well-being for everyone
who require it. These services would often be in high demand, but financial and other
resources are constantly limited. At the same time, ineffective management is the primary
constraint on service quality. Governments use continuous improvement to enhance the
quality and quantity of services provided to residents. As a result, there is a need to deliver
services in an efficient and effective manner in order to achieve the required degree of well-
being for all those involved in the shortest amount of time. Special consideration should be
given to the provision of services to the poor, as they rely on public services to survive.
In order to provide more customized service, the private sector separates its customers
depending on a number of characteristics such as demography, age, and economic position.
Competitiveness in the market ensures the efficiency of private service providing. In contrast,
the public sector often has a monopoly on the service delivery method. When there isn't much
competition, service becomes shoddy. Furthermore, unlike in the private sector,
understanding the nature of the needed policy results - as well as the outcomes for customers
- is critical in the public sector.
In contrast to the private sector, where organizations are allowed to create their own
customer segments, the public sector is obligated to service a variety of diversified customer
segments. As a result, it is critical to create clear policies to satisfy the demands of each

71
sector. When it comes to analyzing the notion of quality in public administration, the
concepts of justice and equality are most essential. The public and private sectors also have
quite different service relationships with external clients. In the private sector, the interaction
between the service provider and the client is generally direct and straightforward, but in the
public sector, the relationship between the provider and the consumer is frequently more
complex and indirect.
4. Characteristics of Public Services
 Good governance is reflected in good public service making the government both
accountable and forward-thinking.
 Government and governmental bodies provide public services as the state's primary
obligation forming the primary foundation for strengthening public trust in
government and enhance the government's legitimacy in state authority.
 While delivering public services, the government never seeks profit. Investment in
public services cannot be repaid as profit. It is a civil right to receive state-provided
services. It also has something to do with human rights. Consumers either do not pay
for all free public goods (e.g., free education, healthcare, birth registration, obtaining a
voter identification card, Mid-Day Meal, etc.) or pay at a significantly reduced rate
(e.g. PDS, fees in govt. colleges, receiving other subsidized products from public
sector etc.). The services provided to residents may be free, but not to the government
(in fact cost of production & delivery of services in govt. is generally costlier &
general trend for going for private partnership in reducing cost of delivery).
Consumers are unable to judge if the service they are receiving is worth the
government's expenditure because they do not pay directly (out of tax paid by them).
 Theoretically, public services are equitable. Public services are provided in
conformity with the law and established procedures. The flow of growth includes
essential characteristics such as appropriateness, fairness, equity, equality, quality,
affordability, efficiency, relevancy, and so on in the public service delivery.
 •A citizen's life is intertwined with public duty. A service recipient/consumer can also
take part in the delivery of public services.
 The efficient delivery of private services is ensured by market competition. In most
situations, the relationship between the private service provider and the service
recipient is also simple, with only two participants. The client receives the service,
assesses its quality, and concludes if the payment is reasonable. The customer has the
option of cancelling the transaction if the same is not acceptable. Such direct
responsibility and straightforward enforcement in the event that service quality does
not meet the client's expectations is unthinkable in public services.
 Because of the nature of some services, they may be prone to corruption, and such
services may have an unofficial presence of intermediaries who are not involved in
any government procedures but have a major impact on the quality of delivery. One
method to reduce the threat of corruption is to improve openness of the different

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 phases involved in the delivery process. Better civil society participation in
monitoring related government procedures improves the situation.

5. Public Service Delivery in India

In India, public services are evolving to satisfy citizens' rising demands, create experiences,
and make better use of limited public resources. Public services, such as the issuance of
ration cards, domicile or caste certificates, water or electricity connections, and so on, serve
as the most unified platform between citizens and government; thus, the quality of services
provided by government is critical in influencing citizens' sense of confidence and
aspirations. Steps are being taken to ensure human rights respect, to deepen democracy, to
enhance transparency in public administration through public participation, to establish an
equitable legal framework, to ensure people involvement, efficiency, transparency, integrity,
and responsiveness.
The Indian government is currently making advances to change public services and
achieve good governance. Adoption of initiatives as like Right to Information (RTI), the
National e-Governance Plan (NeGP), Digital India, Common Services Centers (CSC), and
the Sevottam Framework of Service Delivery testifies to this. Endeavors have been
undertaken throughout the years to improve the delivery of public services and expedite the
process of obtaining them. Public services such as ration card issuance, domicile or caste
certifications, water or electricity connections, and so on are among the most prevalent needs
of a citizen.
To usher in an era of e-government, public bodies and central ministries have pioneered
a plethora of governance projects. In India, e-governance has evolved from crude digitization
of government agencies to innovations that combine governance with citizen centric
approach, customer focus, and accountability. The Indian government has pioneered
administrative restructuring through initiatives such as Right to Information, National e-
Governance Plan (NeGP), Digital India, Common Service Centers (CSCs), Sevottam
Framework of Service Delivery, and others to facilitate responsible, responsive, and citizen-
centric governance. These efforts are aimed at decentralizing government operations,
reengineering government procedures, implementing technology, and enabling the rule of
law.
i. Right to Information Act, 2005
The Right to Information (RTI) Act has been one of the strategic initiatives taken by the
Indian government to ensure access, improve transparency, promote accountability, combat
corruption, and guarantee democracy by providing legal access to government information
within specified timelines. The legislation requires the digitization of certain types of public-
sector data in order to provide quick and easy access and limit the need for formal requests.
The following information can be requested from the government institutions:
 Work assessment reports and documents

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  Annotations, excerpts, and verified copies and records
 Approved samples of material in the possession and control of a government authority
ii. National e-Governance Plan (NeGP)
The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) aims to make all government services available to
the common man in his neighbourhood through common service delivery outlets, while also
ensuring efficiency, transparency, and reliability of such services at reasonable prices in order
to meet the basic needs of the public. With the above-mentioned aim, a national infrastructure
including even the most isolated communities, as well as large-scale digitization of
documents, is taking shape. This will allow you simple and dependable internet connection.
The ultimate goal is to bring government services closer to citizens, therefore promoting
effective governance.
iii. Digital India
Through the profound entangling of Indian intellect with information technology, the Digital
India initiative seeks to transform India into a digitally transformed society and knowledge -
based economy. Various government ministries and agencies are involved in this effort,
which aims to restructure and streamline current programmes in a cohesive way. The
program's goal is to improve and make the most of the NeGP framework's best capabilities.
Three strategic aspects seem to be the focus of the programme:
 Digital technology as a basic service for all people
 On-demand governance and delivery of products and services
 Citizen digital empowerment
iv. SEVOTTAM Model of service delivery
The word SEVOTTAM originates from the Hindi words seva and uttam, which together
represent "excellent service." The Sevottam framework, which had been introduced by the
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances, is a quality management
system (QMS) that measures the quality of the public service delivery in the country. The
concept includes a self-assessment method for assessing the gap in service quality, a
preferable benchmark level for service quality, and a rating mechanism for rewarding entities
that perform better. The framework consists of three major components that help to identify
gaps in Service Delivery:
 a citizen charter and service standards for key services, as well as timelines to keep
citizens informed;
 public grievance services to receive, resolve, and prevent complaints; and
 service delivery enablers such as customer feedback to provide services that meet the
desired standards

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v. Citizen’s Charter
Citizen’s Charter specifies and publishes the standards of service delivery. It is an explicit
statement of a public agency’s list of services provided, the rights and entitlements of the
people with reference to these services and also remedies available to them while problems
and disputes arise in the transactions. It is a mechanism for augmenting the accountability
and transparency of the public agencies interfacing with the people.
vi. Public Grievance Redress Mechanism
The Public Grievance Redress Mechanism that process complaints from citizens when
standards in Citizen’s Charter are not met in the service delivery. Once the grievance has
been recorded and classified as to who is responsible for redressing the same all concerned
have to act within the promised timeframe. It is equally important that preventive measures
are taken to reduce the grievances so that there is less requirement of taking corrective steps.
vii. Common Service Centers (CSCs)
CSCs, which were conceived as part of NeGP, provide a unified, integrated, and
collaborative framework for delivering electronic services to India's most distant
communities, resulting in a digitally and financially inclusive society. CSCs, which are aimed
at rural residents, are utilized as tools to promote rural economy and enhance people'
livelihoods by facilitating access to a variety of services and programmes.
6. Accountability in Delivery of Public Services
The motivation, skill, responsiveness, and understanding of what needs to be delivered by
service providers, as well as the availability of all resources required for service delivery,
influence the quality of service offered. Offering all of these, however, will not guarantee
high service quality unless the accountability system is robust and effective. To put it another
way, even if each of the aforementioned actors satisfies all of the required criteria for
improved service delivery, there is no guarantee that services will be provided until the
accountability system is in excellent functioning condition. The accountability in public
services can be understood under the below mentioned 4 relationships:
 Citizens elect their representatives to form government, and they evaluate the
performance of the government while using government services. Citizens, who are
also consumers when they get a service, exercise their authority by voting for or
against a certain representative. They also express their dissatisfaction by employing a
range of tactics to exert influence over the ruling function in order to advance their
interests in obtaining the services they desire. The citizen/power client's to influence
government functioning is referred to as the voice mechanism, and it must be strong
enough to make public services operate for their benefit.
 Through the legislative bodies and executive functions of government, elected
political authorities exercise authority to raise and use public resources, and they ask
the organization provider in governance, i.e., senior level permanent bureaucrats, to
deliver public services as they see fit to meet the needs of the citizens. They regularly

75
 engage with one another to establish how government duties should be carried out,
and their consistency of thinking and behaviour patterns assists in the delivery of
better public service.
 Frontline service providers have authority over the organization and are responsible
for providing all resources for delivering services, clearly defining who will do what
in delivering services, and establishing standards for the services to be delivered
against which enforceability will be judged. Frontline staffs are responsible to
management for following orders and following established standards, as well as
giving critical information on how services were delivered so that management can
validate it.
 The citizen is pleased with the consumption services provided by service personnel.
Only they, as the customer, can judge whether or not the service met their
expectations. They must offer service providers with feedback and negotiate with
them in order to enhance services. They have the power to ensure that services are
delivered in a professional way since they have customer power.
7. Barriers of Public Service Delivery
Even a free public service is more difficult to obtain for the disadvantaged. These
impediments could be:
 Due to poverty, people have a hard time getting services, including failing to pay the
implied fee, even while receiving free services.
 Since many of the rural poor live in distant and challenging regions, there is a lack of
infrastructure, e.g.: Banking, Medical, educational, etc.
 If the public services fail, there are entrenched interests that result in private benefits
e.g. hoarding of rice, kerosene, sugar, etc. by PDS shop owners for selling in black-
market.
 Service providers come from a superior socio-economic background and earn far
more than the individuals they assist, creating a psychological barrier. Also, the lack
of accountability and responsiveness results in less efficiency and corruption is more
likely to take place.
 Mismatch between time when the citizen require the service and when it is delivered
can also lead to lack of effectiveness of the public service.
 Another reason for not being able to reach the poor might be a language barrier,
particularly in places populated by linguistic minorities.
 Policy paralysis: One of the primary reasons of service delivery delays is the
government or its different departments' and agencies' delays, inactivity, and
incapacity to make policy choices.

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  Bureaucratic attitude: The dictatorial and obstructionist attitude of officials,
particularly those in top echelons of the bureaucracy, can be an impediment to
carrying out public service successfully.
 Inadequate political will: The Members of Parliament Local Area Development
Scheme (MPLADS) has just been stopped for two fiscal years owing to inefficiency
and underutilization of funding.
 Red tapesim: Overregulation and the practice of demanding extensive paperwork and
time-consuming procedures prior to official action impedes the execution of schemes
and initiatives, therefore affecting the process of effective public money utilization.
 Lack of public participation: Due to a high level of illiteracy and ignorance regarding
government policies and plans, many citizens were unable to demand the
government's legitimate services.
Discrimination and deprivations exist in society, which should be eliminated, and
resources should be distributed in such a way that all public services are delivered with
fairness and equity. It's much more critical to make sure services are supplied properly and
efficiently in order to achieve the intended result. As a result, it is important to comprehend
numerous facets of public service delivery. Post-independence bureaucracy in India grew
significantly, with the implementation of several social programmes aimed at improving the
citizen's socio-economic position. The bureaucracy, on the other hand, has failed to reform
itself by establishing a positive attitude and responsiveness toward citizens, as well as
recognizing that they have a duty to provide various public services to citizens as a right.
Providing services necessitates interaction between the service provider and the
customer, and the service provider must be sensitive to people's needs. Commitment to
changing institutional arrangements in order to reform the delivery system is a critical
requirement for improving services to the poor. When the service delivery system stays
people-centric and the poor have options, service delivery to the poor can be enhanced.
Making services function involves altering the institutional relationships and motivating
important individuals. Too often, underprivileged people are deprived of services in terms of
access, quantity, and quality.
8. Reforming Delivery of Public Service
Despite over two decades of progressive economic expansion, India's public service delivery
remains inadequate in comparison to other emerging countries. Corruption, combined with
impermeable laws and processes, produces a protracted delay in the resolution of public
problems. It not only contributes to the benefits of globalisation, but it also prevents
transparency, accessibility, and accountability. It multiplies bad commitments by enforcing
ambiguous laws and processes. The Indian government is using technology to reduce
corruption and make public services more open, accessible, and accountable. Suitable
capacity-building programmes have been launched in order to establish a participatory

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governance system in which people performing public services are motivated by the
satisfaction that comes from doing well for others.
The effectiveness of public service delivery is determined by more than just the
accountability connection. A wide range of institutional adjustments are required to make
services function for individuals, particularly the poor. Some of them are:
 The power dynamic inside the system has an impact on public service. Service
providers require clear task assignment, delegation of appropriate authority, enough
infrastructures, and the flexibility to make decisions on topics for which they are
qualified.
 Another flaw that has to be addressed is the lack of an effective mechanism for
monitoring outputs and assessing outcomes. In reality, there is a significant disparity
between what the customer expects to get, what is promised to be provided, and what
is actually given. There is also a discrepancy in perspective between the client and the
service provider regarding all three aspects.
 The difficulty also stems from a failure to define the standards of services to be
provided. Developing a Citizen's Charter and educating all parties involved about the
services supplied and the level of performance is critical for monitoring service
quality. The Citizen's Charter will then be developed based on what the citizen
expects to be provided.
 The citizen, not the providers or suppliers, should be the emphasis of the delivery
system. The needs of the people must be met.
 When delivering products, services, and facilities, the focus should be on the citizens'
satisfaction. As far as feasible, there should be widespread public participation.
 Reduced fiduciary risks and improved financial management also aid in the reduction
of corruption. Adoption of different information and communication technology
technologies is quite beneficial in reducing both effort gaps and corruption. Indeed,
technology will play a larger role in enhancing governance in the next years, and e-
Governance initiatives should be implemented more vigorously.
 Instead of responding to minor issues, government officials should focus on the
outcomes that will benefit the public.
 People's wants, demands, and concerns should be properly considered, and such needs
and demands should be accommodated in the system.
 A system for resolving citizen grievances should be developed, and the system should
be simple and easy to use when there is no requirement for results or achievement.
 Other prospective participants should be included as much as possible so that diverse
requirements and demands may be satisfied and efficiency can be attained.
 Public agencies that provide services should be held completely accountable in terms
of resources and rights.

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  Adopting a holistic or integrated approach to get the maximum opportunities to serve
the poor need to be administered. Understanding the geographical environment and
the atmosphere in which services are offered is critical for recognizing and managing
customer expectations.
 There should always be a sense of excitement or spirit in the pursuit of continual
development. The government should give legal rights relating service delivery
standards, and a few states (Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir,
and Delhi) have previously approved Acts connected to public service delivery, which
set the standard and related rights. This is a new and welcome initiative that
demonstrates the government's commitment to improve services.
9. Conclusion
Good governance necessitates the provision of high-quality services. It necessitates a variety
of changes, including effective use of public finances, decentralisation of authority, closing
legislative gaps, strengthening public institutions such as the Central Vigilance Commission
and Right to Information, increasing administrative accountability, and making society more
democratic. In the long run, these measures may enhance the efficiency with which public
services are delivered. Recognizing the significance of grassroots delivery mechanisms;
considering people to be at the centre of all policymaking and viewing people as participants
rather than beneficiaries or liabilities; NGOs and SHGs should be included in the planning,
monitoring, evaluation, and feedback phases; improved means of accountability through
social audits, RTI, E-governance, developing an independent regulatory framework and solid
legal system for consumer protection, and so on can control the perishing of public service
delivery in India to some extent.
10. Practice Questions
1. Multiple Choice Questions
a. Sevottam model was proposed by the ………………….
i. 1st ARC (Administrative Reforms Commission)
ii. 2nd ARC (Administrative Reforms Commission)
iii. Planning Commission of India
b. ……………….. is a document that represents a systematic effort to commitment of
the Organization towards its Citizens in respects of Standard of Services.
i. Sevotttam Model ii.  Citizen's Charter iii.  Good Governance Index
2. Briefly explain the significance of public service delivery in developing nations.
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3. Discuss the importance of public service delivery reforms in ensuring good governance
in India.
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4. What are the major initiatives in improving the public service delivery in India?
..............................................................................................................................................
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5. What are the major barriers in improving the quality of public services in India?
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11. References
 Afridi, F. (2017). Governance and public service delivery in India.
 Blair, H. (2018). Citizen participation and political accountability for public service
delivery in India: remapping the World Bank’s routes. Journal of South Asian
Development, 13(1), 54-81.Chand, V. (2010). Public service delivery in India:
Understanding the reform process. Oxford University Press.
 Government Of India, Second Administrative Reforms Commission-Twelfth Report)
Citizen Centric Administration: The Heart Of Governance)
 Jenkins, R. and Goetz, A.M. (1999) ‘Accounts and Accountability: Theoretical
Implications of the Right to Information Movement in India’, in Third World
Quarterly. June
 Putnam, R. D., Leonardi, R., & Nanetti, R. Y. (1994). Making democracy work.
Princeton university press.

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 (b) Redressal of Public Grievances: RTI, Lokpal, Citizen’s
Charter and E-Governance
Dr. Neelam Jain and Dr. Shradhanvita Singh

Structure
A. Right to Information (RTI)
i. History of Right to Information
ii. Right to Information Act 2005
a) Exemptions
b) Public Authorities - Obligations
c) Concerned authorities
I. The Central Information Commission
II. The State Information Commission
III. Public Information Officers (PIOs)
d) Procedure for Applying for Information
e) Amendment of Right to Information Act 2005
iii. Implementation
B. Lokpal
i. History of Lokpal in India
ii. The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013
a) Establishment of Lokpal
b) Jurisdictions and Functions
c) Organizational structure
d) Procedure of complaints
e) Working procedure
f) Conclusion
C. Citizen’s Charter
i. Historical background
ii. Citizen’s Charter – Indian Context
iii. Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) and its role
D. E-Governance
i. Concept
ii. Objective
iii. E-Governance in India
iv. Limitations and Challenges
E. Check Your Progress
F. References

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 Redressal of Public Grievances: RTI, Lokpal, Citizen’s
Charter and E-Governance
The Chapter discusses four important mechanisms of redressal of public grievances that
ensure efficient and citizen centric administration.
A. Right to Information (RTI)
Informed citizens with the right to public scrutiny can make government authorities
accountable to the public. Dissemination of information about the working procedure of
government agencies and institutions is an important vehicle for decentralization of power.
The enactment of Right to Information Act, 2005 is one of the vital steps towards good and
responsive governance.
i. History of Right to Information
The Indian Constitution does not explicitly provide for Right to Freedom of Information. On
the other hand, the Official Secrets Act of 1923 (repealed in 2001) gave the powers to the
government to declare any document as confidential. In regards of Right to Information, the
Supreme Court judgment in the State of UP vs. Raj Narain (1975) case is considered as a
milestone. The judgement says,
“The people of this country have a right to know every public act; everything that is
done is a public way by their public functionaries. They are entitled to know the
particulars of every public transaction in all its bearing. Their right to know is
derived from the concept of freedom of speech and expression guaranteed under
article 19 (1) of the Constitution of India.”
Right to Information is outcome of public outrage against suppression of information and
press censorship during the emergency of 1975-77. In the Lok Sabha elections in 1977,
Janata Party assured of constituting a working group to suggest modification in the Official
Secret Act.
In various court cases, the Supreme Court opined that the right to information is implicit
in right to free speech and expression. This right is provided under the article 19 (1) of the
constitution.
When V P Singh became the Prime Minister of India, this concept received the new lease
of life. The 20th Conference of Ministers of Information held in 1994 opined that an open
system of governance will go a long way strengthening democracy. The process of
introduction of the Freedom of Information Act was initiated in 1997. Freedom of
Information Act passed in 2002. It was replaced by a more comprehensive Right to
Information Act in 2005.
ii. Right to Information Act 2005
This Act makes it mandatory for public administrators to maintain records to facilitate
smooth dissemination of information to the citizens. It also outlines the procedure for availing

82
information by the citizens. For this, it provides for the establishment of Central and state
Information Commissions and appointment of public information officers.
It is declared in the Preamble of the RTI Act that it is meant to “provide for setting out
the practical regime of right to information for citizens to secure access to information under
the control of public authorities.” It also recognizes that furnishing information to citizens is
an important step to contain corruption and ensure accountability and transparency.
The Right to Information under the Act means access to information that is held by and
under the control of any public authority. The rights include:
● One can inspect documents and records;
● Certified copies of relevant documents;
● Obtaining certified samples of material;
● Obtaining information in any electronic mode or through printouts of information
stored in electronic devices.
The Act aims to bring the widest database of government information under public access. It
endeavours to establish political equality by facilitating access to all information to a person
that a legislator can access.
a) Exemptions
Section 8 of the Act lays down certain limits to the disclosure of information. The exceptions
include among other things information related to security and sovereignty of India,
commercial confidence, confidential information of foreign government etc.
b) Public Authorities–Obligations
The Right to Information Act makes it compulsory for all public authorities to publish
information about the structure, procedures and finances of the concerned authority. Chapter
II of RTI Act includes the following:
● the details of its organisation and functions;
● functions of officers and employees;
● the decision making procedures;
● the functional norms;
● categories of documents;
● the particulars of any arrangement where members of public are either represented or
consulted in relation to either formulation or implementation of its policy;
● a directory of its officers and employees and their monthly remuneration;
● the details of various aspects of budget allocated to each of its agency;
● the manner of execution of subsidy programmes including its beneficiaries;

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 ● The particulars of facilities available to citizens for obtaining information including
details of the Public Information Officers etc.
c) Concerned Authorities
I. The Central Information Commission
There is provision in this Act that a Central Information Commission should be set up. It
would constitute one Chief Information Commissioner and ten Information
Commissioners. The President of India appoints the Chief Information Commissioner
(CIC) and Information Commissioners (ICs) nominated by the committee constituted as
follows:
i. The Prime Minister of India - Chairman
ii. The Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and
iii. A Union Minister recommended by the Prime Minister
The Chief Information Commissioner and the Information Commissioners should be
“persons of eminence in public life with wide knowledge and experience in law, science
and technology, social service, management, journalism, mass media or administration
and governance.” The salary and allowances of the CIC and ICs and equal to those of the
Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioners respectively.
II. The State Information Commission
The Act provides for setting up of a State Information Commission at the state level.
There is similarity in the process of appointment of State Chief Information
Commissioner and other Information Commissioners (Up to ten) and that of the Central
Information Commission.
The purpose of the Central and State Information Commission is to look at
complaints against Central and State Public Information officers and thus act as
custodians of the Right to Information. They have been empowered to initiate inquiries
regarding complaints they receive from the public. These complaints may relate to non-
appointment of Information Officers, non-receipt of requested information, delay, refusal
to give information, receipt of false information etc. The Commission is bestowed with
same powers as that of the Civil Courts in regards of enquiry.
III. Public Information Officers (PIOs)
The RTI Act makes it mandatory for every public authority to appoint Central
Information Officers or State Information Officers in all its administrative wings. These
officers are bound to provide information to a demanding person under RTI Act. The Act
calls for appointment of Central Assistant Public Information Officers and State Assistant
Public Information Officers at sub divisional and sub district levels.

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d) Procedure for Applying for Information
Right to Information Act lays down that any person should make a request for information in
writing or through electronic means in Hindi, English or in the official language of the
concerned area. The application is then forwarded to the Central Public Information Officer
or State Public Information Officer or Central Assistant Public Information Officer or State
Assistant Officer of the concerned authority. There should be explicit reference to the
particulars of information sought by the applicant. The concerned authority must either
provide the desired information within 30 days or reject the application for reasons stated in
the Act. The Act also provides that if any information affect the life and liberty of a person, it
must be disclosed within the forty eight hours of receipt of request.
Besides, there are provisions of appeal against the decision of Central or State Public
Information Officer.
e) Amendment of Right to Information Act 2005
The Amendment of Right to Information Act was made in 2019 and it amended the Section
13, 16 and 27 of the original Act of 2005.
In the original Act the terms was
● Chief Information Commissioner – five years (or until the age of sixty five ,
whichever is earlier)
● Information Commissioners – five years (or until the age of sixty five, whichever is
earlier)
Which was changed now with “for such term as may be prescribed by the Central
government”.
Again, through amendment, the salaries, allowances and other terms of service of the
Chief Elections Commissioner and Information Commissioners are being changed from
earlier being “equal to the Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioner” to “the
decision of the Central Government”.
The amendment of the Section 16 of the Act empowers the Central Government for the
appointment of State Chief Election Commissioner and Information Commissions. Again, the
Centre is empowered to prescribe salaries, allowances and other terms of services from time
to time.
It is noteworthy that the character of the Information Commissions are radically changed
by this amendment since government can now regulate the tenure and fix the salaries,
allowances and other terms of their services.
iii. Implementation
Right to Information Act is a milestone towards strong and responsive democracy. However,
appropriate implementation of the Act is not possible without the awareness of the citizens.

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Article 26 of the Act says, “Public authorities should develop educational programmes to
advance the understanding of the public, especially disadvantaged communities regarding
how to make use of this Act.” Various studies indicate that awareness level is very low
among the rural population and marginalised sections. The current efforts of the government
authorities are not sufficient in creating a mass awareness about right to information.
Section VI of the RTI Act states that PIOs should assist the applicant in drafting and
submission of the application. Besides, it is mandatory to publish and distribute user guides
for information seekers. It is observed that in the absence of User guide, the information
seeker has to put enormous effort in acquiring knowledge about the submission process. In
2007, the Central Government has published Guides for Information Seekers.
Various surveys reveal that a large number of persons are not satisfied with the
information being provided. They consider it incomplete and inaccurate.
Further, due to various reasons, it is seen that information is not being provided in
stipulated time as necessitated by RTI Act. Inadequate record management procedures, lack
of trained PIOs and the necessary infrastructure can be cited as main reasons for failure of
public authorities to disseminate information in stipulated time.
Due to the large number of untrained PIOs and frequent transfer of PIOs to other posts
training of PIOs is a big challenge. Additionally, no excitation is commonly found in the
responsibility of PIOs and implementation of RTI Act.
Under the Act, the Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions
are required to submit Annual report on the implementation of RTI. This necessitates the
availability of centralised database of all RTI applicants. For publication of accurate data in
their annual reports, the records of information requests and subsequent responses of the
information provider should be maintained.
One of the most important roles of the Information Commission is to monitor and review
the Public authorities. These commissions should initiate actions for observance of the Act in
its letter and spirit. However, it is mostly seen that Information Commissions are engaged in
hearings and disposing of appeals and subside their monitoring role. Such lapses on the part
of Information Commissions have adverse effect in the execution of the Act.
B. Lokpal
The institution of Lokpal in an instrument for checking corruption and ensuring good and
responsive governance in India. The Sanskrit meaning of the term Lokpal is ‘caretaker of
people’ or ‘people’s friend’. This institution works as a watchdog of the integrity of public
functionaries including the ministers by inquiring corruption charges against them.
The Lokpal enquires corruption charges at the national level and Lokayukta enquires at
the state level.

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i. History of Lokpal in India
In the history of the Lokpal in India, first major development was the report of the first
Administrative Reforms Commission. While suggesting corrective measures for curbing the
degradation of administration, it recommended for the appointment of Lokpal at the Centre
and Lokayukta at the state.
In a similar vein, the Second Administrative Reforms Commission stressed on the
strengthening of Lokpal and Lokayukta for eradication of corruption in the administration.
Besides, India is a party to the “United Nations Convention against Corruption 2003”.
This Convention highlights among other things that “corruption violates the socio-economic
and human rights of the people especially in developing countries where there is extensive
need of public welfare services.”
On several occasions, The Lokpal bill was introduced in the Parliament. Eventually, the
Lokpal and Lokayukta Act was passed in 2013 followed by the popular Jan Lokpal movement
under the leadership of Anna Hazare and his followers. The main features of this Act are
discussed in the following
ii. The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013
a. Establishment of Lokpal
Under the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013, ‘Lokpal’ consists of a Chairman and members,
not more than eight. The Chairperson must be either Chief Justice or ex- Chief Justice or a
Judge or ex-Judge of Supreme Court of India or an eminent person.
The Act also lays down that “not less than fifty percent of the members of the Lokpal
should be from amongst the persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled
Tribes, Other Backward Classes, minorities and women.”
The eligibility for a judicial member is that he or she either must be a Judge of the
Supreme Court or has been a Chief Justice of a High Court. Members other than a judicial
member must be person of impeccable integrity and outstanding ability. He or she must have
“special knowledge and expertise of not less than twenty-five years in the matters relating to
anti-corruption policy, public administration, vigilance, finance including insurance and
banking, law and management.”
b. Jurisdictions and Functions
The Lokpal has jurisdiction to inquire into the corruption charges against the following:
● “Present or past Prime-minister
● Present or past ministers in the Union government
● Members of Parliament
● Officials of the union government under groups A, B, C and D”

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Besides, the Act also incorporates within its ambit “chairpersons, members, officers and
directors of any board, corporation, society, trust or autonomous body either established by
an act of parliament or wholly or partly funded by the union or state government.”
c. Organizational Structure
I. The Chairperson and the other members are appointed by the President of India on the
basis of recommendations of a selection committee that consists of the following
persons:
● “The Prime Minister—Chairperson;
● The Speaker of the Loksabha—member;
● The leader of opposition in the house of the people—member;
● The Chief Justice of India or a Judge of the Supreme Court nominated by the
President—member;
● One eminent jurist, as recommended by the Chairperson and members referred to in
clauses (a) to (d) above and nominated by the President—member.”
The Act also provides that “mere vacancy in the selection committee cannot invalidate the
appointment of a Chairperson or a member.” It also necessitates transparency in the selection
procedure of the Chairperson and members of the Lokpal.
II. The institution of Lokpal has two main branches: judicial branch and administrative
branch.
The Judicial officer heads the judicial branch that perform judicial functions.
The administrative branch is headed by an “officer of the rank of secretary to government of
India”. It consists of
● “Inquiry/investigation branch that is headed by an officer not below the rank of
additional secretary to govt. of India.
● Prosecution wing that is headed by an officer not below the rank additional
secretary to govt. of India.
● Central registry
● Scrutiny wing
● Establishment, coordination, media and publication
● Budget, finances and accounts.”
d) Procedure of Complaints
● The complaint should refer to an offence under the “Prevention of Corruption Act,
1988.” It should be in prescribed form.

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 ● The Act does not prohibit anyone to make a complaint. After receiving a complaint,
the Lokpal may order a preliminary inquiry by its Inquiry Wing or any other
agency, or refer it for investigation by any agency, including the CBI if there exists
prima facie case.
● For determining if there exists a prima facie case or there is need of investigation,
the Lokpal calls for an explanation from the public servant.
● The Act lays down that “the complaints with respect to the central government
servants should be referred to the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC). The CVC
will send a report to the Lokpal regarding officials falling under groups A and B;
and proceed as per the CVC Act against those in groups C and D.”
e) Working Procedure
The Act prescribes time limit of sixty days for completion of initial inquiry and submission of
the report to the Lokpal. “After considering the preliminary inquiry report and giving an
opportunity to the public servant accused of corruption for his/her defence, the Lokpal bench
decide whether it should proceed with the investigation.”
It can order a full investigation, or direct to start departmental proceedings or close the
proceedings. In the case of false allegations, the Lokpal may also proceed against the
complainant/s.
After the investigation, the probing agency has to file its investigation report in the court
of appropriate jurisdiction, and a copy of the report is sent to the Lokpal. The report is being
considered by Lokpal bench consists of minimum three members. Based on the charge-sheet,
it may authorise the Prosecution Wing to proceed against the public servant.
It may also ask the competent authority to take departmental action or order the closure
of the report.
For eradication of corruption, the Lokpal is vested with the power of search and seizure
and powers of preliminary inquiry & investigation under the Civil Procedure Code.
f) Conclusion
The institution of Lokpal creates a hope for eradication of corruption, which is one of the
biggest obstacles to the good governance in our country. However, the institution has also
several limitations.
The political influence to the Lokpal is instituted by the fact that the appointing
committee itself consist of members from political parties. The vague criteria of “eminent
jurist” or “a person of integrity” has provided scope for further manipulation. Further, the Act
itself discourage the people to make complaint by containing scope for proceedings against
the complainant in the case of proved innocence of accused. Additionally, the judiciary is
excluded from the ambit of Lokpal. The states are given autonomy in deciding the detailed

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procedure of appointment of Lokayukta, and in most of the cases, the states are seen abstain
from doing anything in this regard.
Despite these limitations, this institution may work as powerful institution. The financial,
legal and administrative independence of Lokpal and Lokayuktas is the important step
towards strengthening these institutions. Appointments of Lokpal and Lokayuktas should be
as much transparent as possible to ensure an impartial and efficient scrutiny against
corruption. The citizens have to empower itself through different civil society organizations
and need to keep vigilance against the malpractices of administration.
C. Citizen’s Charter
Citizen’s Charter is an important instrument for ensuring accountability, transparency and
responsiveness of organizations that provide public services. Citizen’s Charter is a written
and voluntary document that summarises the work commitment of organizations. It assist in
enhancing confidence between the service provider and citizens/users. This document
includes what the user can expect from the organization as well as mechanisms for redressal
of grievances. As such, Citizens are empowered to deal with the organization in an informed
and effective manner.
i. Historical background
The former British Prime Minister John Major first articulated and implemented the concept
of Citizen’s Charter in United Kingdom in 1991. The objective was to improve the quality of
public services in a constant manner. This national programme was improved and renamed as
‘Services First’ by Tony Blair’s Labour Government in 1998.
The basic objective of the Citizen Charter is to male public services citizen centric and
ensure the standards of public service delivery. The originally framed six principles were:
a) “Quality: Improving the quality of services;
b) Choice: Providing choice wherever possible;
c) Standards: Specify what to expect and how to act if standards are not met;
d) Value: Add value for the taxpayers' money;
e) Accountability: of the service provider; individual as well as organization
f) Transparency: Ensure transparency in rules, procedures, schemes and grievance
redressal.”
The Citizen Charter of the UK was just a beginning, which was followed by different
countries with much enthusiasm. Similar programmes were implemented across the world
including India.
ii. Citizen’s Charter – Indian Context
In May 1997, the concept of Citizen Charter was first adopted in India at a “New Delhi
conference of Chief Ministers of States and Union Territories.” In this conference, it was

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decided that the Central and State Governments would first start working out Citizen’s
Charters for the large sectors.
The “Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances in Government of
India” (DARPG) undertakes the work of coordinating, framing and operationalising Citizen's
Charters. Time limit of service delivery, provision for impartial scrutiny by consumer/ citizen
group, mechanisms for redressing grievances are important components of a citizen charter.
From time to time, the Department has guided the government agencies for efficient
formulation of Citizen Charter. It has also outlined the following elements to be incorporated
in Charters.
a. “Vision and Mission Statement
b. Details of business transacted by the organization
c. Details of Clients
d. Details of services provided to each client group
e. Details of grievance redress mechanism and how to access it
f. Expectations from the clients.”
In the Indian context, all stakeholders such as “customers, clients, beneficiaries,
ministries/departments/organisations, state/UT governments etc.” are included in the concept
of ‘citizen’ in Citizen’s Charters. For meeting the needs of the citizens, the participation of
consumer organizations and other stakeholders is emphasized. The Citizen Charters include
measurable, time bound and specific standards of services. Besides, for making Charters
more effective, internal and external monitoring and review is made necessary. It is
noteworthy that Citizen Charters are just roadmap to enhance the quality of services, they are
not legally enforceable documents.
There are various steps in formulation of a Citizen’s Charter as follows:
a) Creation of Task force
b) Identification of major services provided as well as all the stakeholders.
c) Deliberation with stakeholders and their representative organizations.
d) Preparation of draft charters and its circulation for feedback.
e) Amendment of the charters based on suggestions received and approved by Minister-
in-charge.
f) Submission of a copy of the Charter to DARPG
g) Formal release of Charter
h) Appointment of a Nodal Officer for proper implementation.
Currently, Ninety nine Central government’s ministries & departments, and 25 state
governments have formulated Citizen’s Charters. More than seven hundred Charters are in
operation across government agencies of India (source – DARPG website).

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 Citizen’s charters are empowering mechanism in ensuring accountability and
transparency in the public service delivery. It improves the effectiveness of organizations and
creates a citizen friendly environment.
Challenges in implementation of Citizen’s Charters in India:
a) Citizen’s Charters are not legally enforceable and it has made the formulation of
charters mere a formality.
b) Mostly, service providers are unaware of the underlying philosophy, aims and
features of the Charter.
c) Despite the guidelines, citizens and other stakeholders other than the service providers
are mostly not being involved in the preparation of the Charters.
d) In practice, the Charters are not being periodically reviewed.
e) The hierarchy and gap between field staff and officers leads to the lack of motivation
and team effort.
f) Lack of proper awareness and non- measurable standards is another reason for making
the charters ineffective.
iii. Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) and its
Role
In the year 2002-03, DARPG assigned the task of developing a more effective and
quantifiable model for internal and external evaluations of Citizen Charters to a professional
agency. The DARPG also sought suggestion regarding the ways to increase awareness among
the users and the organization staff. Besides, the agency was entrusted with the task of
discover possible ways to create coordination among management and staff in the
formulation and implementation of the Charters.
Based on the reports, the DAPRG made following recommendations:
a) “More inclusive consultation process at every stage of framing the charter.
b) Proper orientation of the staff members should be built about the features and
objectives of the charter and vision and mission statement of the department.
c) Staff should be trained in problem solving, team building and redressing grievances.
d) Necessary creation of database on consumer grievances and redress.
e) Proper publicity of the charters through print and electronic media.”
D. Electronic Governance (E-Governance)
The new form of governance which is governance through electronic is a comparatively
recent development where information and communication technology is used to facilitate
governance processes. At the global level, there is increased emphasis on widen e-
governance to make government activities efficient, convenient and more transparent. In

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India, we can see various initiatives like Digital India Initiative, the extensive use of plastic
money filing and service delivery to the citizens, digitalization of land etc. as step towards
incorporating e- governance.
i. Concept
The concept of e-governance mainly comprises four things
 Inter-government (G2G) interaction means that the dissemination of information is
within the different tiers or levels of government. Government-to-government model is
a two-way communication between different governmental departments. It refers to non
–commercial interaction between government organizations, departments and
authorities with the use of technologies.
 Government to Citizen (G2C) where a platform of interaction between government and
citizen is established. The objective of government to citizen (G2C) e-governance is to
provide a variety of ICT services to citizens. Instant messaging to public authority,
electronic voting, payment of taxes, application for grants or services, or transfer of
existing services are few examples.
 Government to Business (G2B) where an uninterrupted interaction take place between
government and business groups about the kind of services rendered and facilities being
provided to the business ventures. By reducing costs and removing obstacles e-
government facilitates the process of interaction of a company and government and
thereby provide immediate information.
 Government to Employees (G2E) where productive and speedy communication occurs
among the government and its stakeholders. E-Communication is maintained by the
employees with the government and their own companies. E-Payroll, E-benefits, E-
training etc. are part of it.
ii. Objective
a) Simplifying governance for citizens, government and businesses by ensuring effective
interaction.
b) Enhancing the accountability and transparency of governance and making it citizen
centric.
c) Ensuring fast administration of services and information
d) Reducing corruption in the government.
iii. E-Governance in India
E-governance in India is a recent development. There can be seen sustained growth from the
computerization of Government departments to an advanced system of E-Governance. In
1987, the “National Satellite-Based Computer Network (NICENET)” and later “District
Information System of the National Informatics Centre (DISNIC)” was launched. These

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agencies were supposed to computerize all data set in the district offices for which the central
government provided the necessary resources to the respective states. This was boost for E-
Governance. In India, digital governance has been legalised by the “Information Technology
Act 2000”. This Act provides “legal recognition for transactions carried out by the way of
electronic data exchange”. There can be seen various initiatives taken by Central and State
Governments with the development of technology. In 2006, the various plans on e-
governance came up along with the national one by the respective agencies with a common
vision and strategy. The shared infrastructure was effective in reducing the costs of
government. The vision statement of “National E Governance Plan” states that:
“Make all Government services accessible to the common man in his locality, through
common service delivery outlets, and ensure efficiency, transparency, and reliability of such
services at affordable costs to realise the basic needs of the common man.”
In 2006, the “National E-governance Plan” comprised of “27 Mission Mode Projects and
8 components”. In 2011, “4 new projects, health, education, PDS and Posts were introduced.”
Various schemes introduced under e-government initiatives, MyGov.In, UMANG,
Digital Locker, PayGov, MobileSeva are part of this National Plan. These initiatives are for
developing secure and stable digital infrastructure (Digital India), ensuring citizen’s
engagement in matters of policy and governance (MyGov.IN), providing contact to various
tiers of the government services through unified mobile application (UMANG), facilitating
services to the banking sector (PayGov) and making government service accessible through
gadgets (Mobile Seva). Besides, various other initiatives related to e-governance are also
taken by states from time to time.
iv. Limitations and Challenges
The concept of E-Governance has enhanced the citizen-centric administration by providing
transparency, convenience and efficiency. However, e-governance worldwide is facing
administrative, institutional and technological challenges. In developing countries, vast
majority of citizen lack or are deprived of computer literacy that is a big challenge to the
success of the programme. Shortages of resources and equipment, loss of human interaction
in a mechanized system, risk of personal data leakage is some of problems associated with e-
governance.

E. Check Your Progress

Q.1. Critically examine the Right to Information Act, 2005.
.............................................................................................................................................
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Q.2. What is Lokpal? Explain the role of Lokpal in India.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Q.3. What is citizen's charter? How to empower citizen in India?
.............................................................................................................................................
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Q.4. What is the meaning of objectives of E-Governance?
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F. References and Further Reading

Singh, M. & Kumar, A. (2011). RTI and Good Governance, In Challenges in Governance,
Anamika Publishers and Distributors: New Delhi.
Kaur, R. & Chanwaria, P. (2011). Implementation of the Right to Information Act: Are
Public Authorities doing their bit? In Challenges in Governance, Anamika Publishers and
Distributors: New Delhi.
Kundu, R. K. & Chahar, S.S. (2011) Right to Information for Effective Governance in India:
A Swot Analysis. In Challenges in Governance, Anamika Publishers and Distributors: New
Delhi.
https://rti.gov.in/rti-act.pdf
https://www.meity.gov.in/divisions/national-e-governance-plan
https://rti.gov.in/rticorner/studybypwc/key_issues.pdf
http://lokpal.gov.in/pdfs/act-2013.pdf
https://darpg.gov.in/citizens-charters-handbook
https://goicharters.nic.in/public/website/home
https://negd.gov.in/
https://cleartax.in/s/e-governance
https://www.india.gov.in/e-governance-portal

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 Unit-5: Social Welfare Administration

(a) Concept and Approaches of Social Welfare

Kumari Anupama

Structure

 Introduction
 Social Welfare Administration
 What is Social Welfare?
 Concept of Social Welfare
 Approaches of Social welfare
 Social Welfare in India
 Conclusion
 Check Your Progress
 References and Further readings

Introduction
Social welfare Administration is an inclusive disciplinary, which means to scientific process
which Promotes Social work Practices in administration. Social work like social services,
social dignity and the importance of human relationship and person’s worth, etc. In other
words, we can say that Social Welfare Administration is a mechanism which translate Social
Policies or Social Programs and Social legislations in to the Practice.
Firstly, we need to know What is social welfare Administration? And then What is
Social Welfare? And what is relationship between the Social Welfare and Social Policies? In
this sense Social Welfare contains two words ‘Social’ and ‘Welfare’. ‘Social’ means a large
number of people which are related to each other in many circumstances, their shared
problems and their shared solutions. In other side ‘Welfare’ means some kind of Social Work
that efforts to eliminate or reduce the incidence of Social problems. We can say that any
social interference that are earmarked to enhance the social functioning of human being, then
we can call it as a Social Welfare. When we talk about the antiquity of social welfare, this is
an evolution of benevolent works, which is related to organized activities, related to social
reforms movements and public social services or non-profit organizations, which are planned
to benefit or protect individual’s families and for the citizens of the Society.
Social Welfare Administration
Social welfare administration is the process by which a social institution is determined by its
policy and for the purpose of professional efficiency and content uses. In order to provide

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effective and strong services to the community, the Social organization needs to do some
administrative, financial and legal regulations. The combinations of these three are called
social welfare Administrations.
Social Welfare Administration From the above analysis of various synonyms and this is
why social welfare administration, it is concluded that the meaning of social welfare
administration is very broad, under which various social services for the benefit of common
people whether they are under public administration or private social welfare. This is due to
the administration being provided under the aegis of the organization. If we talk about the
objective of Social Welfare Administration than these points are important-
Protection of the nation and protection of law and order
In the event of emergency, the Social welfare administration helps the people in relation to
the arrangement of civil Security and increases the enthusiasm of the public. Despite the
occurrence of worrying events the mental balance remains, the Social welfare administration
is also involving in finding a long-term solution to the reduction of adult, youth and child
criminals.
Economic Development
In a developing country, the main function of the state is economic development. And
cooperation of social welfare administration is necessary in economic development;
especially social welfare administration contributes to economic development in the
following way:
 It develops work capabilities with the level of aspirations of the people.
 Increases industrial productivity. For this, the social welfare administration
encourages industrialists and managers and workers to establish good traditional
relations, education and technology provides for teaching, housing and health
services.
 Social welfare administration encourages economic development works, stabilizes
progressive increase in their standard of living, prevents wastage of income and
arrange adequate food, clothing, housing, education, health, welfare services, etc for
all. As a result of which there is real welfare of common people.
Social Development
The Social Welfare Administration for maximum development of manpower provides
nutrition, health, education, training, employment, etc. Various types of social welfare
services are often provided to those who have been deprived of their personality development
and social functionalities in the society due to their weak and low status. In these services,
welfare programs have been included for women and children, youth, aged, laborers, poor,
socially disabled, handicapped, people who do not work due to diseases etc. These services
are implemented through government and private institutions.

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Social Institutions
Social institutions are required to organize remedial and preventive social welfare services so
that the methods of social work can be used to fulfil the objectives of the institution according
to the needs and means of the community. There are two types of social institutions: –
(a) Government Institutions: - Government institution, established and operated by
the government’s income, means and resources and run by office bearers.
Governmental entities are regulated by governmental laws.
(b) Voluntary Institutions: - Voluntary institutions run by bye-laws by the
community. And the money stored by the community bear the expense of this.
However voluntary organizations also receive grants from government funds.
Voluntary organizations are groups of people who organizes themselves as
responsibly incorporated body.
After independence, traditional administrative methods were generally adopted with little
change in all the areas so as to fulfil the political, social and economic needs of the country.
On the contrary, an administrative organization was established for social welfare, which
earlier was not an example. An organization of government representatives, voluntary social
workers and representatives of Parliament was established in the year 1953 under the name of
Central Social Welfare Board. Such boards were formed in each state. The main function of
the Central Social Welfare Board is to develop the technical, organizational, administrative
and financial aspects of voluntary organizations functioning across the country and to
encourage the establishment of new voluntary institutions.
Concept of Social Welfare
The United Nation has defined Social Welfare as ‘a State of complete physical, mental and
Social well-being and not merely the amelioration of Specific Social evils. Such a goal
inevitably leads to a shift of emphasis from the principles of laissez-faire to the concept of
welfare state. (Saksena, 2017)
The main characteristic of the welfare state is the responsibility of minimum standard of
economic and Social Security for all its citizen. The Welfare state’s obligation to guarantee
the satisfaction of fundamental needs like food and shelter and security at minimal level and
render help to the individuals in adverse circumstances these needs are most important and
constitute the core of social policy. We can say that Welfare State sets a pattern for humane
and progressive society. (Saksena,2017)
The consciousness about the social responsibility is a sociological concept, in this sense
social welfare is an institution, designed to assist individuals and group, to achieve
satisfactory standards of life and health.
When we talk about the concept of Social Welfare, then we firstly need to understand
what is the welfare means in individual level and what it different in social level.

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Welfare
Social welfare is not just the sum total of welfare of different individuals. All persons may
have some in common, but there are some such interests which are contradictory among
themselves, that is, there may be conflict between the interests of any two persons. If seen in
detail, welfare refers to an act that is good for all people, which benefits them. And if we
understand ‘welfare’ in a narrow form, then it is only a provision providing services in the
society. Such as care, housing, social security, education and other social work. From the
remedial point of view, people who have faced or are facing unfair situations due to some
reason, they should get treatment. In a society where every individual is valued, it is well-
being to ensure that each person gets it according to his ability. For example, to provide
protection for the poor, for the old people and for the handicapped against their problems.
However, it is not necessary that this welfare arrangement should be made only for those who
get these services.
Social Welfare
The welfare of society is a goal set to solve diverse problems of society. Every initiative of
social life includes in this, because of this there is no fix definition of social welfare. It is a
goal not only the welfare of the particular class and the individual but the whole society. Its
approved target is the progressive standard of living of the general public, mandatory
requirement of the individual care in condition of illness, education and recreations reforms
in anti-social groups and cooperation between the different classes, are important factors.
Both the concepts of ‘necessity’ and ‘welfare’ are intertwined on the basis that society is
made up of individuals, and different individuals have different needs. And on this basis, if
we talk about social welfare, then it is made up of different individual welfare, it is a sum of
different individual welfare.
Jeremy Bentham, who is considered one of the most historical and important writers on
welfare issues, believes that community is a fictitious body made up of individuals who are
constituted as members of this community A community interest on this basis is the sum of
the interests of the members constituting it.
In the Social welfare, there are services organized for those people, who are the weaker
section of the society.
Definitions of Social Welfare
Social welfare is an establishment, consisting laws, governed by the prepared activities of
private or governmental (public) agencies, through this, individuals and households have
defined some consumption rights and money and minimum social services, for the
distribution. The aim of contributing to mitigating or solving recognized social problems, in
addition to the norms prevailing in groups, market places or systems, in the same way
directly enhance the individual’s well-being, communities and groups. Social welfare is a
systematized resource’s provision and services for society to solve social problems.

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 In the view of Ralph Dolgoff– Social welfare can be defined as a social intervention that
aims to boost or continue the social works of the people in the society.
In the view of Richard Titmuss to satisfy some important requirements of the individual
and to attend the larger interest of society, all related collective activities is called social
welfare. In a narrower sense, social welfare includes those non-benefited acts of society,
public or charitable, that are expressly aimed at reduce distress and poverty or improving the
causal circumstances of society.
In the view of Amy Gutmann: All programs that are intended to protecting adults and
children from the uncertainty of ignorance, and disease, disability, joblessness and the decline
of poverty includes in social welfare.
Social welfare normally refers to the whole range of planned activities of voluntary and
government organization that seeks to prevent and solve recognized social problems and for
the betterment of individuals, groups and communities.
According to Elizabeth– Social welfare is a system of laws, programs, benefits and
services that strengthen or assure the welfare of the population and the provision of meeting
social needs recognized as basic to the functioning of the social system.
Provisions relating to social welfare refers to a government program that seek out to
provide a minimum income and service or other assistance to the caregivers, such as elderly,
poor, unpaid workers, disabled, students, disadvantaged people, etc. and services related to
social welfare are usually free or nominal fee is provided.
Approaches of Social welfare
The purpose of social welfare is to provide opportunity for every person’s progress and to
provide support for that progress. Therefore, any state in which such a system exists, we call
it a Welfare state. And any welfare state adopts various approaches to implement social
welfare. These are as follows: –
Correctional approach: When we accept the goal of social policy for the welfare of the
society, then it is necessary to determine the means to achieve it, rearrangements is essential
for the welfare of society, but in current condition rearrangements is not possible till then
desired change made. This desired change is a social reform. Through this desired change we
want to achieve the goal of social welfare. If we want to make very progressive process of
reform then in this sense system of law performs very essential role. Social reforms have
been getting legitimacy through social laws. In the zone of social laws, the labour laws have
very important place. Factory laws, laws which are related to protection of child and women
labours, laws related to compensation and maternity benefit, laws related to welfare and
social security etc, have been helpful in achieving the goal of social welfare.
Protective approach: Damage, accident, sickness, inability, and unemployment are the
conditions in a person’s life when external help becomes necessary for him. Therefore, the
system of protection against these different types of risk is called social security. It is an

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important foundation for the attainment of social welfare. Under this, social insurance, social
assistance and business insurance schemes are included. Under the insurance, the insured
person has to provide benefits in case of loss and inability. Social assistance is provided by
the state to the person in times of crisis.
Democratic approach: Initially, the social welfare was limited to the individual, family, the
business associations and the religious people who the inspired by the religious sentiments,
for the purpose of benevolence. Until the nineteenth century it was believed that no state
intervention was required for social welfare. According to the developmental theory, the
person who does not have the ability to live, nature ends itself. But this attitude has changed
today.
Community approach: The state and the individual are equally responsible for the welfare
work. Therefore, under the Five-Year Plans in India, community approach has been adopted
to fulfil the goal of welfare works. An attempt has been made to develop social welfare works
to that extent. The extent to which the local community is ready to bear the responsibility of
these welfare works on its shoulders. For this, such policies have been adopted by the state,
which are trying to protect the weaker parts of society and to make them as supportive as
possible. While conducting the scheme, care has been taken to ensure that it is beneficial for
all the parts of the society. All people have equal responsibility to make the plan successful
for achieving this goal.
Therefore, under the community program, the state provides assistance to the people, so that
they can be able to make their progress with their efforts. Following are the main things
under this program
Self-help and traditional help.
Maximum utilization of local resources through organized community efforts.
Participation in cooperative efforts.
Economic progress, social reform and cultural development.
Human has always strived for a happy and prosperous life. Family, community and
administration have been making efforts since the beginning to rid man of disability disease,
poverty and other problems. The importance of citizens is considered to be of utmost
importance in a democratic system and in the current working state system, the responsibility
of the citizens has become the responsibility of the government, in such circumstances, the
importance of social welfare administration becomes more important as a system of social
work.
There are different types of needs in different societies and an important need of one
society is not necessarily equally important for another society, therefore it is a complex task
to define social welfare universally, in this context social welfare can be define in two
different point of view, first one should be done only for those people who need it like for
poor people or social welfare we can see as a right of every person.

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In the sense of policies: –
The Residual and The Institutional are two different approaches to define social welfare.
First is for needy people and second is for as a right of every citizen.
The residual model normally holds that the government should be involved in social
welfare matters only as a last resort when all other measures have failed. On the other hand,
the institutional model believes that the government should continue to intervene as needed,
on this basis both the essential model and the institutional model have different approaches to
play the role of welfare in the society, the residual approach where talks about only the needy
are in dire need. On the other hand, the institutional model talks about providing assistance to
all in general.
The Residual Model
The residual model of social welfare sees government intervention support for citizens and
people as a last resort when people close to those in need are not able to get support from the
market or in their capacity, from family or other social relationships. If he is not able or he is
not able to, then the intervention of the government is required and only then the government
should take necessary steps and not for everyone, but now only for the needy people.
Programs designed under this model, normally are considered to be limited to the poor.
Aid is stopped when people have access to help from elsewhere. As a result, such programs
may be cheaper to administer than other models and may be more in line with people’s
perceptions of justice as it does not help all people, only those who needs it as utmost
necessity, but they may be less expensive than programs produced under different models.
But due to this the support of this model is also less, under this it is also clear that the victim
or the needy have to first prove that we are needy and we are not getting help from many
other places.
The Institutional Model
Under this model, social welfare is necessarily provided to all the rich and poor without any
discrimination in the society and social welfare is considered as an important part of the
government program for the citizens. In this model, there is no need to change the categories
of social welfare recipients, it is for everyone, it is not that if someone is getting help from
other places, then the government will not give them facilities again. Although it proves to be
costly to administer and at the same time this model also attracts the anger of those people
who are supporters of the limited government.
The Residual Welfare
 The literal meaning of residual is remaining things.
 It is related to welfare which is done by the government for such needy people who
are poor unemployed people and unable to fix their own standard of living and they
are not getting help from any other place like from family friends and other
relationships.

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  That is, this system first ensures that the needy people are not getting any help from
any other place like family friend, job and donation etc.
 Services are non-permanent and short-term services as these services are discontinued
after getting a job that has been received from elsewhere.
 Under this, it is assessed that there is no other medium other than the government that
can give help to the needy related to them or the needy can take help from them.
 Social welfare acts as a safety net under this model, it acts like a system for people
suffering from serious problems who are not getting any help from anywhere else.
 Remedial method because under this the state acts only when the problem is clearly
visible is used as an immediate program.
 A one type of Stigma attached with it because under this view it traces poor
conditioned people and helpless people etc.
The Institutional Welfare
 In the institutional model, welfare is not only for needy people but for the everyone.
 Under the institutional model, welfare provided for all population in the universal
level like public services for example roads, hospitals, school. it gives equal
opportunity for all whatever their conditions.
 The institutional approach of the social welfare is the planned or organized method
for fulfilling needs of the people.
 In the modern Industrial society, social welfare is considered to be the first line
safeguard with the institutional model of social welfare. (This is the most important
and useful method to deal with the problems of the society).
 It is a prevention action for the problems, which has the possibility to come any time.
This preventive activity provides services before waiting for problems occur.
 In this model of Social Welfare, no any stigma attached with it, because these services
are as a right to everyone. There is no any discrimination between needy people and
normal people. It can be available for anyone who wants it.
 In the institutional model of social welfare, state have very important obligation to
ensure well-being and maintain the living standard of its citizens. That is why people
have the right to get these benefits or services.
Social Welfare in India
In the context of social welfare, Indian traditional approach is based on dharma, alms, mercy,
dakshina and renunciation, the essence of which is self-sacrifice, self-government and helpful
thoughts for others. The welfare of all depends on these values and moral feelings through
individual or collective welfare of individual or through community medium. These
objectives have been discussed in all the religions present on earth. In ancient times, the help

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provided by the kings in emergency can be considered its origin, such as in the context of
flood, drought, earthquake, arson etc.
The concept of social welfare in India is very ancient concept. Human beings initially
lived as disorganized groups and tribes and Poverty, disease, suffering have always existed in
human life. This is why this life was insecure and disorganized. As a result, man gave rise to
a macro-system in the form of group, community, society and state. As a result of this
system, desalination developed in the society and division of labour took place. (Saksena,
1974)
Due to this division of labour, the means of production in the society were separated
from each other. Labour and capital went into the hands of two separate individuals. This led
to exploitation, oppression and unequal distribution of property and power in the society. Due
to uneven distribution many social problems were born and social welfare was developed to
solve these problems. (Saksena, 1974)
In Contemporary time, The Constitution of India guaranteed to its citizen or people -
Political, Socio-economic justice and worship among them all society, guaranteeing the
dignity of the individual and unity of the nation. In timely India is involve to implement all
these guarantees through its development and different policy activities. (Saksena, 1974)
In India, both the objectives of social policies and the means of implementing them are
full of controversies, but generally there is a consensus about them, that social policies
mainly related to social welfare have been adopted in India from the United Nations. Based
on the principles enunciated by the Atlantic Charter pledged on the basis of mutual
agreement.
Under the concept of social welfare, all those arrangements are included which provide
proper employment to those in need of employment or proper arrangements for earning
livelihood according to their capacity, adequate wages, proper leave, proper medical and
proper care, provide adequate facilities of entertainment. The system also provides equal
opportunities for business and also provides facilities for education and training, proper
arrangements for work have also been included in this.
The Constitution of India has given to justice for the Indian citizens, Justice of Political
and socio-economic, and freedom of language and expression and worship and belief,
equality of opportunity and status, and at the same time promoted fraternity and fraternity
among citizens and the self-respect of the individual. And unity has been assured, and the
plans and activities being adopted. In contemporary India these values are very important for
the objectives defined in the Indian Constitution. Establishment of Planning Commission in
India and presently NITI Aayog etc. are the efforts of Government of India in this context.
In another words, the main feature of the Indian Constitution is to do social welfare of
the people of India. It is clear from the ‘Preamble’ of the Constitution and ‘directive principle
of state policy’ that the objective of the constitution of India is social welfare. The preamble

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of the Indian Constitution promises to secure socio-economic and political -justice for the
Indian people.
Part – 4 of the Constitution of India which is “Directive principles of state policy” are
we can say that totally related to the idea of social welfare in India by the state policies,
which is declaring that India is a welfare state.
Some articles are important in this part of the Indian Constitution which are directed for
the welfare to make the Indian government as a welfare state: –
 According to Article 38: – The State shall endeavor to effectively secure and preserve
a social order in which socio-economic and Political justice, social, shall inform all
institutions of general life, to promote the welfare of the people.
 According to Article 39a: – citizens men and women have the equal right to an
adequate means of livelihood.
 According to Article 43: – It is the responsibility of the state that it will endeavor to
provide work, a subsistence wage, a decent standard of living to all workers in
agriculture, industrial and agriculture by suitable legislation. Apart from this, to
ensure full enjoyment of leisure, try to ensure working conditions and try to promote
cottage industries.
 According to Article 41: – The state will make such provisions by which it can ensure
public assistance, unemployment, old age, disease, works for the disabled, education,
etc. Within its economic capacity.
 According to Article 46: – The state shall protect the people from social injustice and
all forms of exploitation shall promote the educational and economic interests of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes i.e., weaker sections with special care.
These directions of the constitution of India reflects the philosophy of a welfare state. Indian
government tries to fulfill these objectives through economic planning.
India follows both approaches of social welfare Residual and institutional approaches. In
the basis of these Articles Indian state determined towards the comparable objectives, this
gateway provides state specific content and information in India, language on entitlements,
schemes, programs and institution details related to women, children, SC, ST, OBC,
Minorities, Senior Citizens, differently-abled and others. (History of central social welfare
program, n.d.)
Social welfare Administration in India
After independence the government of India accept the old administrative pattern with some
necessary changes for evolving new political, economic and social changes in India. Till first
five-year plan Indian government adopted for the administration an autonomous board named
CSWB (Central Social welfare Board) in 1953. And in the state level social welfare advisory
board were established.

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 Till 1964 in India Social welfare program managed by different ministries, for example
labor, education, industries, home etc. But in 1960 recommendation presented by the Renuka
ray committee by its report: - establishment of the Department of social security. In that time
Department of social security deals with the matter social welfare, social security, backward
classes, handicrafts and khadi etc. In 1966 it was renamed as social welfare department. In
1984 its name changed again with the name of ministry of social and women welfare. It was
reorganized with the creation of a separate department of women and child development in
the ministry of human resource development and was renamed as the ministry of welfare in
1985 and later as the Ministry of social justice and Empowerment.
In the year 1985-86, the erstwhile Ministry of welfare was bifurcated into the
Department of women and child Development and the Department of welfare.
Simultaneously, the Scheduled castes Development division, Tribal development division
and the minorities and Backward classes welfare Division were moved from the Ministry of
Home affairs and also the wakf division from the ministry of law to from the then Ministry of
welfare. (Ministry of social justice and empowerment)
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EMPOWERMENT (SAMAJIK NYAYA
AUR ADHIKARITA VIBHAG)
The Department of Social Justice and Empowerment shall be the nodal Department for the
overall policy, planning and coordination of programs for the development of the groups
mentioned at in the included in the concurrent list. However, overall management and
monitoring etc. of the sectoral programs in respect of these groups shall be the responsibility
of the concerned Central Ministries, State Governments and Union Territory Administrations.
Each Central Ministry or Department shall discharge nodal responsibility concerning its
sector. (Ministry of social justice and empowerment)
e.g., scholarships, hostels, residential schools, skill training, concession loans and
subsidy for self-employment, etc. The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 (in so far as it relates to the Scheduled Castes, excluding
administration of criminal justice in regard to offences under the Act).
National Commission for Backward Classes Act, 1993. The Maintenance and Welfare of
Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007. National Commission for Scheduled Castes. National
Commission for Safai Karmacharis. National Commission for Backward Classes. National
Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation. National Safai KaramCharis
Finance and Development Corporation. National Backward Classes Finance and
Development Corporation. National Institute of Social Defense.
Health welfare related Indian schemes for example Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Rastriya
Bal Swasthya karyakarm (RBSK), Rastriya Kishor swasthya karyakaram (RKSK), Janani
Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK)for pragnent lady.Mission indradhanush yojana etc.
Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equity related program like National commission
for Women, Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK), the Juvenile Justice. Child and Development

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policies are the good example for India’s Welfare policies. All these acts and activities show
that the Indian government is doing important work for all the areas related to Indian citizens
for example health, education, empowerment, employment etc. which shows that Indian is a
social welfare state.
Conclusion
Social welfare is a function of which in this time every state needs to perform, we can say
that, in today’s world social welfare is a currency of democratic power of every state. In India
being a world’s largest democracy “Social welfare” is the very important tool for the
development of the state. This is why it is very important to understand how social welfare
done by the government in India. In contemporary time in changing circumstances
government role in implementing social welfare policies is a very tough work, because in this
time we can’t find who are the more needy people. This is why government should use the
both approaches residual and institutional in a very flexible way.

Check Your Progress

Q.1. Explain the different approaches of social welfare in India.

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Q.2. What is social welfare? Explain the social welfare administration in India.
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Q.3. Explain the success and failure of social welfare in India.
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References
 Saksena, R. N. (1974). SOCIAL RESEARCH AND SOCIAL WELFARE IN
INDIA—BASE FOR AN INTER-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH. Sociological
Bulletin, 23(2), 193–201. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23618942?seq=1#metadata_
info_tab_contents
 Kenneth J. Arrow (1950) Difficulty in the concept of Social welfare. The Journal of
Political Economy, Vol.58, No.4, pp.328-346 URL-

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 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3808%28195008%2958%3A4%3C328%
3AADITCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-
 Spicker, Paul (n.d.). Principle of Social welfare: An introduction to thinking about the
welfare State. Social%20welfare/Paul%20Spicker%20-%20Principles%20of%
20Social%20Welfare.pdf
 Hoefer, R. (1996). A CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR STUDYING SOCIAL
WELFARE POLICY COMPARATIVELY. Journal of Social Work Education, 32(1),
101-113. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23042743
 Oakeshott M, (1975). The vocabulary European state’, Political studies, 23(2-3), pp.
319-341.
 https://www.academia.edu/11508823/History_of_Social_Welfare_Administration_an
d_Social_Welfare_Programmes_of_India
 https://pocketsense.com/what-is-heloc-vs-home-equity-loan-13763730.htm
 Residual vs institutional welfare Social%20welfare/5%20Residual%20Vs%
20Institutional%20Welfare.pdf
 Rengasamy, S (n.d.), Social welfare administration: Arrangements for Social welfare
in India.
Social%20welfare/IGNTU-eContent-642461769227-MSW-2-DrRameshB-
SocialWelfareAdministrationandSocialLegislations-1,2,3,4, 5.pdf
 Sinclair, S. (2016). Introduction to social policy Analysis: Illuminating welfare.
Policy press. https://books.google.co.in/books?id=aTqgCwAAQBAJ&dq=
1cb22603d718a691ce7e453da684fa0463eccf3b&source=gbs_navlinks_s
 Ministry of social justice and empowerment https://socialjustice.gov.in/

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 (b) Social Welfare Policies
Ms. Ashna Monga

Structure
 Introduction
 Education: Right to Education
 Health: National Health Mission
 Food: Right to Food Security
 Employment: Mgnrega
 Conclusion
 Check Your Progress
 Readings and References

Introduction
India is a welfare state devoted to the well-being, development, and quality of life of its
people in general and the disadvantaged sections in particular. Human development is the
main thrust of the social welfare policies and programmes relating to the development and
protection of all the sections of the people, especially the least advantaged population. With
these objectives, the government has resorted to planned development since 1951 and, in this
regard, coming up with social welfare policies. The objective is equitable and sustained
development and ensuring essential social services for the deprived sections of society. Social
welfare policies define the roles, duties, and obligations within and outside the government to
fulfill the ultimate goal of empowering the marginalized sections of society. All these
provisions envisage a positive role of the state and reflect its concerns for the emancipation
and development of the vulnerable groups through special provisions, acts, policies and
programmes. Social evils like unemployment, poverty, illiteracy, gender discrimination have
stunted the nation’s development and have been a significant bottleneck in India’s progress.
Therefore, the government has identified these problems and has taken significant measures
to empower each individual. The social welfare policies in India are targeted towards an
upward push to the nation’s dream of an ideal welfare state.
The existence of the word ‘Social’ in the Preamble of the Constitution of Independent
India is a comprehensive, exhaustive, and inclusive connotation that reflects the purpose of
governance and the aspirations of the citizens. The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 added the
word ‘social’ in the Indian Constitution, which amended the description of India to a
‘sovereign, socialist, secular democratic republic (C. o. India, Constitution amendment act
1976). However, before enacting the amendment in 1976, the word ‘social’ had its place in
the Constitution’s Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP). The DPSPs laid down in part
IV of the Constitution reflect the welfare policies of the Indian nation. Article 41 postulates

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that the state shall endeavour to secure the right to work, right to education, right to health,
and public assistance in unemployment matters. (C. o. India, article 41 1949) This article is
the guiding principle for various social welfare schemes of the government. The DPSPs are
novel principles that invoke the state to promote a welfare government through its policies
and programmes. The DPSPs were made non-enforceable in the court of law as these were
the welfare provisions of the state, and the government sought to implement them gradually
due to the lack of resources.
The country’s socio-economic situation has changed since Independence, and it has
acquired a rapid pace since the 1990s with pro liberalization and globalization measures. The
increased pace of industrialization and privatization has had far-reaching socio-economic
consequences on our society’s vulnerable and disadvantaged segments. Therefore, the drift
towards modernization has strained and stressed the lives of the vulnerable sections like-
women, children, specially-abled people, aged, Schedule Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other
poor and marginalized people.
In recent years, India has witnessed a shift towards the state in providing social welfare
services. Along with the state, the civil society and the voluntary sector have also activated
themselves in discharging their duties towards the well-being of the deprived groups. The
primary aim is to achieve the stipulated growth and development for the less advantaged
sections. Thus, the changes taking place in the society are the result of planned efforts of the
state from 1951 and have made it necessary to review the performance of the state concerning
the social welfare policies. In this regard, the government has geared itself toward
formulating, executing, and implementing various acts, policies, and programmes. Amongst
all the welfare policies of the government, ranging from rehabilitation programmes, housing
schemes, insurance policies, maternity benefits to the old-age pension scheme, 4 are the
primary policies that affect the basic needs of a person. The government’s social welfare
policies are targeted in their essence and have elevated many people from a life of misery.
These are:
1) Education: Right to Education
2) Health: National Health Mission
3) Food: Right to Food Security
4) Employment: MGNREGA
Education: Right to Education
Right to Education and associated phenomena have their genesis in The United Nations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It defines the Right to Education in Article 26 as
everyone has the right to free education in the elementary and fundamental stages. It should
be administered for the overall development of the personality and to nourish the culture of
human dignity. (Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948)
The stalwart of the Indian Education System, Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, defined
Education as the medium for cultural, economic and social change. Education is the
realization of the soul that eliminates unconsciousness and inexperience and lights up the

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person. (Hashia 2020) The Chief architect of the Indian Constitution, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar,
emphasizes Education as a mode through which an individual opens the gate of light and
discernment to get rid of the darkness of ignorance. (Rajadhyaksha 2016) Intellectuals like
Amartya Sen viewed Education as something more significant than only a starting point of
other capabilities to completely enlarge the significant freedom to live the life they appreciate
and to amplify their natural choices. He believes Education should include the
interdependence of teaching, learning, and the individual’s overall growth. (Rajapakse 2016)
The Indian Constitution envisages provisions to ensure state-sponsored accessible
Education. In its original enactment, the Constitution defined Education as a state subject.
However, an amendment was added in 1976, and Education became a subject of the
concurrent list, enabling the central government to legislate. Further, India is also a signatory
to several international covenants like the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child
(UNCRC), Millennium Development Goals (MDG), Sustainable Development Goals (SDG),
and South-Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Declaration, making
education a reality for all children.
At the time of Independence, the scenario of Education was gloomy and disappointing.
In the year 1951, the literacy rate stood at a meager percentage, 18.3 percent. (Mehta) The
Gross Enrolment Ratio, in primary schools, age group 6-11 years was 43 percent, and in the
age group 11-14, that is, from class 6 to 8, the ratio was as low as 13 percent. (Mehta) This
was the result of the unproductive Education provided by the British colonial government.
However, Successive governments after the Independence fabricate Education as the focal
point of social welfare policies. They tried that every child should get the right to full-time
elementary Education, satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school that satisfies
certain essential norms and standards. (Ministry of Human Resource Development 2010)
Therefore the government has introduced the Right to Education Act, 2009, to provide
universal free elementary education.
The 86th Amendment Act, 2002 of the Constitution, added up Article 21-A to grant free
of charge and mandatory Education to every child, of 6-14 year’s age group, as a
Fundamental Right. (Ministry of Human Resource Development 2010) Articles 21-A and the
RTE Act were passed, and laws were framed in the Lok Sabha in 2009 but came into effect
on 1st April 2010, in the subcontinent, except Kashmir. (Ministry of Human Resource
Development 2010) The subject of the Act contained the words ‘free and compulsory’. It
includes provisions for a child in the age group of 6-14 years who are not admitted to any
school to be granted admission to an age-appropriate class. The Act makes it obligatory for
the government to ensure that each child gets free elementary Education. India became one of
the major developing countries to make Education a fundamental right of every child. ‘Free
education’ implies that every child admitted to any government school should not be made to
pay any cost, fee, or charges (tuition fee, uniform, books, and study material). Provisions of
this Act also include that these children are allowed admission to elementary schools within
the ‘defined area or limits of the neighborhood’. (Ministry of Human Resource Development
2010)

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 The Right to Education Act, 2009, introduces the assessment process in continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE). The students were evaluated using a series of curricular
and extra-curricular evaluations accompanied by academics. Right to Education seeks to
provide comprehensive Education; however, there are grey areas about the quality and
accessibility of Education, especially in the peripheral areas. (Ministry of Human Resource
Development 2010) According to United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) India, various
evaluations have shown that many school-going children cannot learn even the basic skills or
the fundamentals of literacy, which is essential for their overall development. (UNICEF)
Moreover, experts of UNICEF mentioned that substandard quality education has led to poor
results, eventually leading more and more children to the vicious circle of labour, abuse, and
poverty. Due to this, India is not able to compete with the international standards and lags in
Education, resulting in a substandard quality human resource, thereby increasing
unemployment.

YEAR LITERACY RATE

1951 18.32%
2001 65.38%
2011 72.98%
2020 77.70%

The table represents the Literacy Rate before and after the implementation of the RTE
Act in India.
Against the backdrop of all these situations, the Government of India has come up with a new
Education Policy. The Union Ministry passed the National Education Policy (NEP) in July
2020 with the objective of universalization of Education from pre-school to secondary level.
(M. o. Development 2020) The target of the policy is to strengthen the Indian education
system by 2040 to induce quality, accessible, affordable, and market-compatible Education.
(M. o. Development 2020) The country has witnessed a phenomenal expansion of
educational opportunities in the post-independence period. The NEP 2020 aims to further
improve the country’s educational system by focusing on the individual’s overall
development, with vocational Education, the creative culmination of subjects, and the pliable
syllabus. The NEP 2020 also emphasizes removing disparities and equalizing educational
opportunities by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality so
far. (M. o. Development 2020)
Health: National Health Mission
The health sector always remains in the neglected zone for developing countries like India,
which has many epidemics and millions of causalities due to inappropriate health
infrastructure. Additionally, India is a tropical country prone to many diseases, primarily due
to sanitation. These poor health facilities increase the chances of transmission of various fatal
diseases. Poverty is a significant factor in the communication of diseases like tuberculosis

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and respiratory infections such as pneumonia. Overcrowded, poor living conditions, lack of
hygiene, and sanitation all contribute to the spread of various infections. Dependence upon
open fires and the chulah (traditional stoves) are responsible for fatal indoor air pollution.
Moreover, no proper access to safe drinking water may cause dangerous diseases like
cholera, diarrhea, and typhoid. Moreover, a lack of nutritious food may lead to malnutrition,
especially in children. Other factors may also be responsible for poverty-related diseases,
such as lack of information, education, safety precautions, and prevention methods. The poor
people may also not be able to afford medical tests, medicines, treatment.
At the time of Independence, the average life expectancy in India was as low as 32 years,
compared to 69.42 years in 2018. Moreover, in 1947, there were only 7000 hospitals in the
whole country, with only 50000 doctors for the whole population of 35 crores. However, this
condition has improved notably to a doctor per 1456 people as per 2019-20. The infant
mortality rate in 1950 was 26.8 deaths per 1000 live births. The health-related expenditure as
a percentage of national income was 0.42% during the initial years of Independence. Further,
India did not have any health insurance facilities before 1986. In 1986 the Indian government
launched ‘Mediclaim.’ However, the cost of healthcare has also risen since then. The
treatment procedure that used to cost INR 10000 now costs more than INR 50000. Also, the
medical inflation is currently over 18% which individuals from their pocket bear. This out-of-
pocket expenditure on medical facilities further leads to poverty and deprivation. A vicious
cycle of poverty, unemployment, and diseases turns out to curse the nation. To break this
vicious cycle and promote affordable and universal health facilities to the masses, the
government of India has come up with the National Health Mission.
The national health Mission comprises two sub-missions: the National Rural Health
Mission and National Urban Health Mission. Its primary programs aim to improve the health
system in rural and urban areas. (G. o. India, National Health Mission 2005) One of the
significant objectives of the program is to strengthen the Reproductive-Maternal-Neonatal-
Child and Adolescent Health (RMNCH+A) and combat Communicable and Non-
Communicable Diseases. (G. o. India, National Health Mission 2005)
There are four components of the mission:
1. National Rural Health Mission
2. National Urban Health Mission
3. Tertiary Care Programs
4. Human Resource for Health and Medical Education (G. o. India, National Health
Mission 2005)
The vision of the mission is to provide adequate healthcare in rural areas with more focus on
less developed states which have weak public health indicators. It further aims to increase the
expenditure on healthcare from 0.9% to 2-3% of the GDP. The program’s primary objectives
are to advance the previous missions on reproductive and child health and to confront both
types of diseases- including Communicable and Non – Communicable. Further, it aims to

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provide momentum to the healthcare facilities and infrastructure at the District and Sub-
Districts levels. (G. o. India, National Health Mission 2005)
The main aim of the mission is to reduce the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to 2.1. The
second goal is to bring the Infant Mortality Rate to 25 deaths per 1000 live births and reduce
the Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) to 1 per 1000 live births. Through this programme, the
government aims to reduce the Malaria infection cases to less than 1 per 1000 population,
reduce the tuberculosis cases by half, and prevent anemia in women in the age group of 15-49
years. (G. o. India, National Health Mission 2005)
However, the Mission made remarkable changes in the Rural and Urban healthcare
facilities and infrastructure, but it has not been able to meet the desired outcomes. India’s
public health expenditure is only around 1.2 to 1.6 percent of the GDP, within 2008-09 and
2019-20. It has been advised by The Economic Survey year to increase the expenditure to
2.5-3 percent of the GDP. Thus, there is a need for many actions to be taken by the
government to improve Urban and Rural health infrastructure in particular and public health
in general. To achieve these desired outcomes, ameliorate the conditions of deprived sections,
and reduce the burden of out-of-pocket medical expenditure, the government has introduced a
universal health program named Ayushman Bharat.
The Ayushman Bharat Program was launched in 2018 to improve healthcare at all three
levels – primary, secondary, and tertiary.
It consists of two constituents–
1. The first component is Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY), earlier known
as the National Health Protection Scheme (NHPS).
2. The second component is Health and Wellness Centers (HWCs). (G. o. India,
Ayushman Bharat Yojana 2018)
Ayushman Bharat is a combined proposal containing health insurance and addresses primary,
secondary and tertiary medical care. The objective of the PM-JAY is to provide financial
protection for healthcare services at the secondary and tertiary levels. The objective of the
HWCs is to provide cheap and quality healthcare services at the primary level. (G. o. India,
Ayushman Bharat Yojana 2018) Ayushman Bharat scheme would enhance access to
healthcare, including detection and treatment facilities for the subaltern sections of the
society. Thus, Ayushman Bharat is an integrated umbrella healthcare scheme providing
health care benefits to the economically deprived population and thereby serving the
government’s goal in providing accessible and affordable medical services to its citizens.
Food: Right to Food Security
Roti, Kapda, and Makan, the omnipotent phrase reflects the central struggle of millions of
pauperized masses. Hunger and malnutrition always remain one of the staunching challenges
of the developing countries throughout the world, and India is no exception. Food is the basic
need of humans to sustain life. The Right to Food is a fundamental human right. It provides
dignity, food security, and malnutrition-free life to all. However, in India, a large number of
women, men, and children are affected by under-nourishment and even suffer from extreme

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hunger. The meaning of the word hunger, on a global scale, refers to the scarcity of food in a
country. On an individual scale, hunger occurs when a person consumes an inefficient
number of calories to sustain life, called malnourishment.
The right to food is recognized by Article 25 of the Universal Declaration on Human
Rights. (Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948) Further United Nations
Sustainable Development Goal announced in 2015 also envisages ‘Zero Hunger as one of the
objectives to achieve Sustainable Development. (Nations, Sustainable Development Goals
2015) The three main goals of the United Nations in terms of food security are:
 100% access to adequate food all year round
 100% increase in smallholder productivity and income
 Zero loss or waste of food. (Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948)
Agriculture is the fundamental source of livelihood for millions of people in India, especially
in rural India, providing seasonal employment to agricultural labourers. Before
Independence, India faced many famines and droughts. For instance, during the Bengal
famine in 1943, around 2 to 3 million people suffered starvation during British rule. Even
after Independence, India relied upon food supplies from many countries, like importing PL-
480 from the United States. The biggest challenge for India was to feed the exploding
population. However, during 1960 owing to political differences and strategic reasons, United
States suspended the wheat supply to India putting enormous pressure on the government. To
overcome the challenges of Hunger and ensure food security, India adopted the path of the
Green Revolution, which has exponentially increased food production. However, food
availability to the last person always remains a critical issue and an unaccomplished goal.
Even in the 21st century globalized India, with ample food grains, millions of Indians sleep on
an empty stomach. Statistical data, like the Global Hunger Index, which has ranked India 96
among 119countriesin 2006 in terms of hunger, represents a bleak and alarming food security
scenario in India. However, after 2006, India improved its GHI score with the help of
government schemes that rolled out and expanded various programs and targeted a mix of
direct and indirect causes of malnutrition.
To improve the last-mile delivery of food and eliminate hunger, the government has
come up with the national food security act 2013, guaranteeing food security to all its citizens
in the country at all times and every place on their plate. India took significant initiatives to
food supply and food security. (G. o. India, National Food Security Act 2013) Food security
means that all the citizens of the country, at all times, have access to sufficient food on their
plates.
Food security has the following three elements:
1. Food availability
2. Food access
3. Food utilization (G. o. India, National Food Security Act 2013)

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National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013 provides subsidized food grains to 75% of the rural
population and 50% of the urban population of all the states and Union Territories (UTs). (G.
o. India, National Food Security Act 2013) The implementation of the NFSA marked a
watershed moment in food security from welfare to a rights-based approach. The schemes
included under this Act are- Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS), the Public Distribution System
(PDS), and the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS). (G. o. India, National Food
Security Act 2013) The Act is in line with Goal 2 of the Sustainable Development Goals set
by the United Nations General Assembly, which seeks sustainable solutions to end hunger in
all of its forms by 2030 and to achieve food security with the objective that everyone
everywhere has enough good-quality food to lead a healthy life. (Nations, Sustainable
Development Goals 2015)
Despite all this, the Food Corporation of India faces huge structural issues and delivery
problems. The biggest problem is regarding the safe storage of food grains. Since India has
an insufficient storage capacity and a lack of a robust public distribution system, a large
number of food grains decay every year in the godown of FCI. This is accompanied by
corruption, mismanagement, and leakage at fair-price shops (ration shops). Malnutrition and
under nutrition also pose severe challenges to food security which hinders the proper
development of human capital. Therefore, there is a need for technological up-gradation,
digitization of the ration shops, efficient cold storage facilities, and swift transportation
facilities. The government’s one nation – one ration card scheme is a required step in the
right direction to ensure that all its citizens have enough food nutritious food available and all
persons can buy acceptable quality food.
Employment: Mgnrega
Employment having direct implications on the poverty and day-to-day living of the masses
has always remained a politically sensitive and socio-economically imperative issue in India,
both pre and post-independence. Employment generation has remained the focal point of the
welfare states throughout the world. As per the United Nations Statistics Division,
Unemployed persons are defined as all those of working age (usually aged 15 and above)
who were not in employment, carried out activities to seek employment during a specified
recent period, and were currently available to take up employment given a job opportunity.
(Nations, SDG indicator metadata 2015) Unemployment is a crucial aspect of poverty,
especially when poor and unemployed people have labour as the only asset to sustain a living.
So, to eradicate poverty from society, employment opportunities must be created, which
would, in turn, lead to sustainable economic development. That is why job creation always
remains a central plank in the poverty alleviation policies of the state.
In India, the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) defines employment and
unemployment based on the activity statuses of the individual:
 Whether the individual is working (engaged in some economic activity) that means,
‘Employed’ or
 The individual is seeking or available for work, that is, ‘Unemployment’ or

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  If the individual is neither seeking nor available for work. (Implementation 2001)
According to NITI Aayog, ‘severe under-employment’ is a more severe problem for the
country than unemployment. (Severe underemployment more serious than unemployment:
Niti Aayog 2017) Under-employment refers to the situation when the workers are highly
skilled but are working in low-paying jobs or as part-time workers who want to work full
time. It implies a situation in which the skills and Education of the individual do not match
the employment opportunities. (Severe underemployment more serious than unemployment:
Niti Aayog 2017)
India is an agriculturally dominating country where around 70% of the population
directly or indirectly earns their living from agriculture and the associated sectors.
Approximately 58% of the Indian population works in the agriculture sector; however,
Agriculture’s contribution to the economy is only around 18% of the GDP, reflecting an
acute and disappointing condition of cyclic and disguised unemployment. There are many
causes of unemployment in agriculture, such as landlessness, environmental constraints,
population pressure, technological changes, lack of capital, and infrastructure. The human-
intensive MSME sector, which has the massive potential of generating employment, also
lacks government support. To address the conditions of cyclic, seasonal, and disguised
unemployment in India and to lift millions of agrarian labourers out of poverty, especially the
women and landless members of SC/ ST’S, the government had introduced the MGNREGA
programme in 2005.
MGNREGA is a pilot scheme for the generation of rural employment. This scheme was
initially named Employment Assurance Scheme, but later on, in the early 2000s, it evolved
into the MGNREGA after the merger with the Food for Work Programme. (Ministry Of
Rural Development 2005) The goals of MGNREGA include the Generation of employment
for agricultural labour during the lean season, the Development of infrastructure, especially in
rural areas, and enhancing the food security for the rural socio-economically deprived
population. (Ministry Of Rural Development 2005) The objective of the Act is to provide 100
days of guaranteed wage employment to rural unskilled labour and increase economic
security. Moreover, the Act aims to decrease the migration of labour from rural to urban
areas. It gives a notable amount of control to the Gram Panchayats for managing public
works and strengthening Panchayati Raj institutions. The Gram Sabha is free to accept or
reject recommendations from intermediate and District Panchayats. The Act incorporates
accountability in its operational guidelines and ensures compliance and transparency at all
levels. (Ministry Of Rural Development 2005)
The world’s most extensive employment guarantee programme has generated a demand-
driven scheme. It has manifested to be very lucrative in enhancing economic empowerment
in rural India and helping overcome labor exploitation. Since the scheme was implemented,
the number of jobs has increased by 240% in the past 10 years. The scheme has also helped
in reducing the wage volatility and the gender pay gap in labour. The programme has
curtailed distress migration, as the individuals are not forced to migrate to the cities searching
for employment. However, the government should also look at the lacunas of the
MGNREGA programme and improvise it according to the changing needs of society. With

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the unemployment rate reaching as high as 6%, giving work for just 100 days will not sustain
the livelihood of an individual and the dependent family. Therefore, the government has
revised MGNREGA and came up with second-generation reforms for the rural employment
scheme named MGNREGA 2.0 in 2012. (M. o. Development 2012) In the revised
programme, the government has added 30 new programs whereas earlier only 8 types of
works were allowed. The new programme covers all the sources of rural livelihood from
watershed development to sanitation works and from poultry to fisheries. (M. o.
Development 2012) Therefore keeping in mind the changing rural conditions, the government
has revised, reformed, and implemented the new programme for employment and socio-
economic development of the nation.
Conclusion
The above-mentioned social welfare policies run by the government of India are the most
extensive social welfare programmes offered by any government in the world. After
Independence, India adopted a hybrid market structure relying on both private and public
sector. However, like any developing nation, it has faced many challenges, allowing it to
streamline the government programmes and effective implementation of the governance. The
development discourse of India is quite challenging but all-encompassing and comprehensive
that has led to the philosophy of minimum government and maximum governance, ensuring
the welfare policies to right-based programmes. These right-based approaches to food
security, employment, universal health coverage, and Education has uplifted millions of
Indians out of poverty, and the nation as a whole marched on the path of development that is
inclusive, sustainable, and citizen-centric.
Although these policies have some challenges, these have proved a milestone to enhance
the quality of life and dignified livelihood of millions of Indians. With time, there happen to
be many modifications in these programmes as per the requirement, which is the sign of the
responsible government pursuing the goal of right-based governance towards its citizens.
Along with other policies, these are the pillars in the development of India and are the steps
in the forward direction to fulfill constitutional obligations of the government, to realize the
aims and ambitions of DPSPs as envisaged in the Constitution, to effectuate the dream of a
welfare state and to materialize United Nations Sustainable development goals.

Check Your Progress

Q.1. Define social welfare policies in India with example.
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Q.2. Explain about Right to Education in India.
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Q.3. Explain the Right to Food Security in India.
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Readings and References

S.N. Dubey. “Social Welfare Policy and Services: Some Issues.” Economic and Political
Weekly 8, no. 13 (1973): 640-44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362487.
RATH, ANITA. “Growing Centralisation of Social Sector Policies in India.” Economic and
Political Weekly 48, no. 4 (2013): 62-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23391352.
MUKHERJEE, RANI. “OUR PROGRESS TOWARDS A WELFARE STATE.” <i>The
Indian Journal of Political Science 16, no. 2 (1955): 147-51. http://www.jstor.org/
stable/42743361.
Development, Ministry of Human Resource. New Education Policy. Government,
Government of India, 2020.
Development, Ministry of Rural. “MGNREGA 2.0.” 2012.
Hashia, Vijay. “Radhakrishnan on education.” The Economic Times, 2020.
Implementation, Ministry of Statistics & Programme. National Sample Survey Organisation.
Government of India, 2001.
India, Constitution of. “article 41.” 1949.
India, Constitution of. “Constitution amendment act .” 1976.
India, Government of. “Ayushman Bharat Yojana.” Government , 2018.
India, Government of. “National Food Security Act.” Government, 2013.
India, Government of. “National Health Mission.” 2005.
Mehta, Pooja. “State of Education in India on the Eve of Independence.” Economics
Discussion .
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. “Right to Education.”
Development of School Education and Literacy , 2010.
Ministry Of Rural Development, Government Of India. “MGNREGA.” 2005.

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Nations, United. “SDG indicator metadata.” 2015.
Nations, United. “Sustainable Development Goals .” Government, 2015.
Nations, United. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights .” 1948.
Rajadhyaksha, Niranjan. “BR Ambedkar: In his own words.” Live Mint, 2016.
Rajapakse, Nadeera. “Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and Education: Enhancing Social
Justice.” Literature, History of Ideas, Images and societies of the English speaking world,
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The Economic Times. “Severe underemployment more serious than unemployment: Niti
Aayog.” 2017.
UNICEF, India. “Education.” UNICEF, India.

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