GENDER, TWENTYFIRST CENTURY PUBLICATIONS SCHOOL & BOCIETY Lola elm PLease MN EU C Dr. Rajnee Gaur CELE Msc)GENDER, SCHOOL AND Be Sr S} SOCIETY ==" DR. INDER DEV SINGH NANDRA MA. (Punjabi, English, Poltical Science), ‘MLEd., MPhil (Punlab), Ph.D. (Education) &, Si Guru Gobind Singh College of Education Mukarian w DR. RAJNEE GAUR ‘M.A. English, Education, Sociology & Psychology), ‘M.Ed, MPhil. (Education), NET (Educaon, Ph.D (Education) Assistant Professor Jagannath insu of Education, JIMS, JEMTEC GARMIA BATRA (M.Sc. Mathematics, M.Ed., UGC-NET (Education) Assistant Professor ‘.D nstute of Education (For Gis) ‘Ambala Cant kA TWENTY FIRST CENTURY PUBLICATIONS: . PATIALAFirst eiton published in 2020 by ‘TWENTYFIRST CENTURY PUBLICATIONS. #79, Shelkhpura, RO. Punjabi University, Patiala (PB) - 147002 Ph, 99153-98354 (Of), 92167-59888 e-mail rinku_randhawa77@yahoo.com In Association with ‘BOOKMAN B-41, Sawan Park. ‘Ashok Vihar, Phase - 3 Dethi~110052 COPYRIGHT NOTICE ‘Alright ae reserved by the Publisher No partof this book canbe reproduced form itouth ri ermssion of Pubtetopyngnt cane sa © Publisher GENDER, SCHOOL AND SOCIETY y r. Inder Dev Singh Nandra, Dr. Rajnee Gaur & Garmia Batra ISBN : 978-93-89673-52-4 Price : 280/- Laser Type Setting Roshan Dhindsa & Manpreet Singh Printed in india at ‘Twentyfirst Century Printing Press, Patiala SYLLABUS (Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Dethi) SEMESTER -IV GENDER, SCHOOL AND SOCIETY UNIT—1 GENDER ISSUES : KEY CONCEPTS. Gender, Sex, Sexuality ‘Third Gender, Transgender Patriarchy, Masculinity and Feminism Gender bias, Gender Stereotyping, and Empowerment Equity and Equality in Education w:rt. relation with caste, class, religion, ethnicity, disability and region with respect to Gender: Present status in India and prospects * — Polyandrous, Matrilineal and Matriarchal Societies in India Relevance and Status of Education UNIT GENDER STUDIES: PARADIGM SHIFT Paradigm shift from Women’s studies to Gender studies Historical backdrop: Some landmarks from social ‘Theories on Gender and Education and theie application in the Indian context Socialisation theory Gender difference Structural theory Deconstructive theory Power Control in Patriarchal, Patrilineal, Matriarchal and Matrilineal Socictios : Assessing affect on Edueation of Boys and Girls UNIT II GENDER, POWER AND EDUCATION Socialisation Practices in: Family, other © Gender Identities and formal and informal organisation,‘* Schooling of Girls: Inequalities and Resistances (issues of Access, Retention and Exchusion). © Collection of folklores reflecting socialisation processes © Changing Perspectives with Logal Provisions: Right to Inheritance UNITIV GENDER ISSUES IN CURRICULUM Social Construction of Masculinity and Femininity Patriarchies in interaction with other social structures and identities Reproducing Gender in School: Curriculum, Text:books, Classroom Processes and Student-Teacher interactions © Overvoming Gender Stereotypes © Working towards gender equality in the classroom: Need and Strategies © Empowerment of Women: Strategies and Issues Practical Assignments /Field Engagement(Any one); © Discussion on theor in the Indian context of gender and education with its application © Project on analysing the institution of the family Marriage, reproduction Sexual division of labour and resources * Debates and discussions on violation of rights of girls and women ‘* Analysis of the Films post screening of the following: Bawander, India's Daughter, Water © Analysis of textual materials from the perspective of gender bias and sterootype © Organising debates on equity and equality cutting across gender, ‘lass, caste, religion, ethnicity disability, and region, '* The above discussion/debates to be documented in the formof an portfolio, PREFACE ‘This book ‘Gender, School and Society’ is specially written for the B.Ed, students of Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi according to the new prescribed syllabus. In this sense, this book will also be useful to the students of education of other neibouring and Indian Universities. In this book we have tried to present the standard and latest subject-matter in a lucid style and simple language. 1 different concept are made simple and understandable to the students ‘The Authors extend their sincere thanks to all the authors whose works they have consulted while preparing this book. The publisher of this book 8. Harvinder Singh Randhawa proprietor Twentyfirst Century Publications, Patiala, deserves special thanks for publishing this book in a short time. We are also thankful to our colleagues, well wishers who deserve special regards for providing us all possible help and ‘encouragement, as they have never pulled themselves back from offering their valuable insights. Constructive criticism comments and suggestions for the improvement of this book are earnestly solicited and these will be acknowledged with thanks. AuthorsCONTENTS Page Nos 1 | GENDER, SEX AND SEXUALITY 1a AL Sexand Gender 1 Lit Concept of ‘Gender 1 112 Definitions of Gender 2 11.8 Social Construction of Gender 3 | L1A Characteristics of Gender 3 | 1.1.5 Sexand Gender 5 1,6 Differences hetween Sex and Gender 6 12 Sexuality xs 12.1 Meaning and Definitions of Sexuality 8 1.2.2 Expression and Experience of Sexuality 8 1.2.3 Influences on Sexuality 9 1.244 Difference Between ‘Sex’ and Sexuality 9 ! 2 THIRD GENDER AND TRANSGENDER 1248 21. Meaning 12 ! 22 Typos of Third-Sex People 18 23 Transgender Meaning and Definition 13 2.3.1 Definition of Transgender 3 28.2 Catopories of Transgender People “4 23.3 Transgender Vs Transsoxual 6 23.4 Transgender Vs Intersex 15 24 Problems/lseues Related to Transgender 6 25 Enforcement of Transgender People’s Rights in India 1 26 Probloms Faced by Transgender People in India 1 27 Efforts by Indian Government wv 8 PATRIARCHY, MASCULINITY AND FEMINISM 19.52 41 Patriarchy 19 8.1.1 Concept and Definitions 20 3.1.2 Patsiarchal Mdeology 21 8.1.8 Scope of Patriarchal Control 22 3.4 Characteristics of a Patriarchal System 2: 3.1.5 Theories of the Origin of Patriarchy 2a 5.1.6 Causes of Patriarchy 2A ()8.1.7 Matriarchy- Opposite to Patriarchy 3.1.8 Characteristics of Matriarchal Family 8.1.9 Impact/Bifects of Patriarchy 3.1.10 Impacts on Indian Society 3.1.11 How to Combat Patriarchy 29 32 Masculinity 20 32.1 Concept of Masculinity 30 3.2.2 Factors of Masculinity 8.2.3 Definitions of Masculinity 3.2.4 Fomininity 3.2.5 Masculinity Vs Femininity 3.2.6 Difference in Traits of Masculinity and Femininity 3.2.7 Types of Masculinity 8.28 The Development of Masculinity and Feminity 3.3 Feminism 3.3.1 Meaning and Definition of Feminism 38.2 A Brief History of Feminism 3.8.9 Basie Principles of Feminism 88.4 Different Approaches to Feminism (Types of Feminism) 43 3.3.5 Objectives/Goals of Feminism 45 336 inism Ideologies 3.3.7 Feminism in India 47 22.8 Hietory of Indian Feminism Movement ar 3.3.9 Contemporary Women's Issues of India 49 3.8.10 Reactions of Feminism 51 4 GENDER BIAS, GENDER STEREOTYPES AND EMPOWERMENT 4.1 Gonder Biases 4.1.1 Definition of Gender Biases 4.1.2 ‘Types of Gender Bias 54 4.18 Difference between Gender Bins and Sexism 55 4.1.4 Impacts of Gender Bias on Society 55 4.1.5 Causes of Gender Bias 59 4.1.6 Measures to Remove Geniler Bias é1 4.1.7 Present Indian Situation of Gender Bias/Discrimination 63 4.1.8 Measures/Ideas for Eliminating Gender Bias in India 68 4.2 Gender Stereotypes 66 42.1 Concept of Gender Stereotypes 66 42.2 Definition of Gender Stereotype 67 42.3 Common Gender Stereotypes in Indian Culture 65 4.2.4 Impact/Effoct of Gender Stereotypes 70 4.2.5 Effect of Media on Gender Storeotyping 2 4.3. Gender Empowerment 3 4.3.1 Empowerment and Gender Empowerment 73 43.2 Gender Empowerment Measures 3 4.3.3 Gender, Gender Equity, Gender Equality and Gender (Women) Empowerment a“ 4.3.4 Challenges to Gender Empowerment 75 4.3.5 Strategies for Gender Empowerment 76 5 GENDER EQUITY AND EQUALITY IN INDIA 78-115, 5.1 Gender Equity and Gender Equality 78 5.2 Difference between Gender Equality and Gender Equity 79 5.3 Gender Equality includes all aspects of Gender Equity 80 54 Gender Equality in India 81 5.5 Definitions of Gender Equality 82 5.6 History of Gender Equality 82 5.7 Global Intervontions or International Efforts to Promote Gender Equality 83 58 National Level Efforts 84 5.9 Logal and Constitutional Safeguards for Gender Equality 85 5.10 Gender Equality in India with Special Reference to Caste System 87 5.10.1 India’s Caste System 87 5.10.2 Characteristics of the Caste System 88 §.11 Caste and Gender in India 89 5.11.1 Disadvantages of Caste System 91 5.11.2 Solutions 92 5.12 Gender Bquality in India with Special Reference to Class. 93 5.12.1 Charactoristies of Class System 93 12.2 Issues Relatod to Gender Equality in Class System — 93 5.13 Gender Equality in Religion 95 5.14 Gender Equity and Equality in Education in Relation to Ethnicity. Present Status in India 98 6.15 Gender Equality in Relation to Disability 103 5.15.1 The Gender Dimension of Disability 102 5.15.2 Gender and Disability Issues 103. 5.15.3. Causes/Rensons for Gender Gap in Disability 108. 5.15.4 Measures for Solution 107 5.16 Strong Trap of Stereotypes of Disability Gender against Education 108 5.17 Gender Equality in Relation to Region (Rural, Urban and Tribal Areas) 108 5.17.1 Gender Equality in Relation to Rural Region (India) 1095.17.2 Gender Bquality in Relation to Ur 5.17.8 Gender Rogion (India) 110 ality in Relation to Tribal Region (India) 111 6 POLYANDROUS, MATRILINEAL AND MATRIARCHIAL SOCIETIES IN INDIA; RELEVANCE AND STATUS OF EDUCATION 116-128 6.1 Polyandrous 116 6.1.1 Polyandry: (One Wife, Many Husbands) 118 6.1.2 Polyandry Related Concepts us 6.1.3 Merits of Polyandry (for women) 8 6.14 Demerits of Polyandry Marriages (for the status of women) ns 6.1.5 Merits of Polygamy for the Status of Women ng 6.1.6 Demerits of Polygamy for the Status of Women ig 6.1.7 Impact on Education of Women in Polyandrous Society120 6.2 Matrilineal Societies In India 120 62.1 Meaning and Definition of Matrilinenl 120 622 Characteristics of Matrilineal Societies 121 62.3 Matrilineal Vs Matriarchy/Matriarchal 122 62.4 Examples of Matrilineal Societies in India 122 6.3 Matriarehial Society 124 64 Status of Education of Women in Martriaychial and rilineal Societies 6 a PARADIGM SHIFT FROM WOMEN'S STUDIES TO GENDER STUDIES 128.135 7.1 Women’s Studies and Gender Studies 129 7.1.1 Women’s Studies 129 71.2 Gender Studies 130 7.2 Difference Between Gender and Women Studies 133 3 ‘The Need and Importance for a Paradigm Shift in Gender Perception 184 8 HISTORICAL BACKDROP : SOME LANDMARKS. FROM SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENT 136-143 8.1 Position of Women in 19! Century 136, 52 Role and Contribution of Social Reformers 136 89 Impact of the Reform Movements on Indian Soe 140 8.4 Initiatives to Reform Indian Society 141 &5 Nature of Reforms 142 86 Landmarks During 19 to 21 Century 142 en 9 THEORIES ON GENDER AND EDUCATION: APPLICATION IN INDIAN CONTEXT. 144-157 9.1 Socialization Theory 144 9.2 Gender Differences 149 9.8 Structural Theory 163 9.4 Deconstruction Theory 156 10 POWER CONTROL IN PATRIARCHAL, PATRILINEAL, ‘MATRIARCHAL AND MATRILINEAL SOCIETH ASSESSING AFFECT ON EDUCATION OF BOYS AND GIRLS 158-167 10.1. Introduction 158 10.2 Different Types of Societies 158. 10.3 Power Control in Patriarchal and Patrilineal Socioties 160 10.4 Power control in Matriarchal and Matrilineal Societies 164 10.4.1 Power Control in Matriarchal/Matrilineal Societies 164 10.5 Assossing Affect on Education of Boys and Girls 165, 10.5.1 Effect of Patriarchy on the Education of Boys and Girls 166 10.5.2 Rifect of Matriarchal and Matrilineal Societies fon the Education of Boys and Girls 168 u GENDER IDENTITIES AND SOCIALIZATION PRACTICES 168-185 1L1 Gender Identity- Meaning and Definition 168 11.2 Gonder Identity Development 170 11.3. Factors that Influence Gender Identity 170 114 Gender Identities and Socialization Practices in Family 172 11.4.1 Views of different Authors regarding Importance of Family in Socialization Process 172 11.4.2 Biffeets of Family 1 11.5 Gender Identities and Socialization Practices in School 178 11.5.1 Funetions of Schoo! in Socialization 178 11.6 Role of Other Informal Agencies in Socialization 181 12 SCHOOLING OF GIRLS : INEQUALITIES AND RESISTANCES 186-206 12.1. Importance of Girls’ Education 186 12.2 Incqualitios for Girls 190 12.8 Reasons for Inequalities 191 12.4 Effect of Inequalities and resistances to Girls! Education 192 12.5. Interventions or Strategies for Girls! Participation in Schooling 193126 Issues of Girl Education 196 12.6.1 Access to Education 196 12.6.2 Retention of Girls in Schooling 199 12.6.3 Exclusion in Edueation of Girls 203 13 COLLECTION OF FOLKLORES REFLECTING SOCIALIZATION PROCESSES 207-214 13.1. Folklore - Meaning 207 13.2 Folklores and Socialization 208 18.2.1. Funetions Folklores in Socialization Processes 208 18.2.2 Role of Folklores in the Socialization Processes 210 18.3. Collections of Folklores 211 18.4 Concept of Folklore 212 13.5. Reflecting Socialization Process by Folklores 2 14 CHANGING PERSPECTIVES WITH LEGAL PROVISIONS; RIGHT TO INHERITANCE ETC. 215-222 14.1. Brief History of Women’s Status in India 215 142 Inheritance Rights of Women in India 219 14.3. Laws that Govern Inheritance in India 219 144 Changing Poropeetive with Legal Provisions 15 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF MASCULINITY AND FEMININITY 223-21 15.1 Culture and the Construction of Masculine and Feminine 15.2 Changes in Femininities and Masculinitic 15.8 Creation of Masculine and Feminine Behaviour PATRIARCHIES IN INTERACTION WITH OTHER SOCIAL STRUCTURES AND IDENTITIES 227-233 16.1. Social Structures and Gender Identities 16.2. Diverse Learning Thoories and Gender Identity Formulation 16.3 Gender Roles and Gender Socialisation 164 Family Role in Gender Identity and Role Playing 229 16.5 Patriarchical System ~ Interaction x 16.5.1. Social Structures in Patriarchy and Interaction 1 16.5.2 Identities in Patriarchy 17 REPRODUCING GENDER IN SCHOOL : CURRICULUM, TEXT-BOOKS, CLASSROOM PROCESSES AND STUDENT-TEACHER INTERACTIONS 234.262, 17.1 Introduction 234 17.2 Gendor Bias in Schooling 235 17.2.1 Gender Biases in Schools 17.2.2 Biased Bohaviours in the Classroom 238 17.2.3 Gonder Biases against Boys in Schools 239 17.2.4 Causes of Edueational Biases in Schools 239 178 Gender Bias in Textbooks 244 17.3.1 Studies Related to Gender Bias in Text Books 245, 17.8.2 Removal of Gender Biases in Text Books 247 W74 Gendor Biases in Curricular Choices 248 17.4.1 Biases that Emerge in Curriculum 249 17.4.2 Consequences of Biased Curriculum 250 17.4.3. Changes in Curriculum for Gender Equality 251 17.4.4 Strategies for Change in Curriculum Planning 251 125 Gender in Hidden Curriculum 17.5.1 The Hidden Curriculum of Gender (HOG) 254 17.5.2 Genderin Hidden Curriculum. 254 1 8 Difforent Views about Hidden Curriculum Role in Gender Stereotypes 17.5.4 Removal of Gender Bias in Hidden Curriculum WG Gender Biases and Teacher Attitudes WE Gender Biases and Classroom Interaction 1.8 Gender Bias in Peer Cultures 18 OVERCOMING GENDER STEREOTYPE’ 181 What Is A Stereotype? 182 Gender Stereotypes Definition 18.3 What's Wrong With Gender Storcotypes 18.4 Role of Education to Overcome Stereotype 18.5 School Environment 18.6 Stratogios vo Overcome Gender Stereotypes in the Classroom 187 Role of Parents ABB Role of Mass Media 189 Role of Government 18,10 Role of Individual and Society19 WORKING TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY IN THE CLASSROOM : NEED AND STRATEGIES 276-285 19.1 What is Gender Equality? 76 19.2 Need and Importance of Gender Equality 66 19.3. Factors that Contribute to Gender Incquality in the Classroom 279 19.4 How to Promote Gender Equality in the Classroom? 280 19.4.1 Challenging Gender Stereotypes 280 19.5. Identifying Bias - Materials and Curriculum Checklist 284 20 EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN : STRATEGIES AND ISSUES 286-304 ‘The Concept of Women Empowerment, 286 Meaning of Women Empowerment 287 Definition of Women Empowerment 287 Issues of Women Empowerment 288 Strategies for Women Empowerment 291 Policy Initiative for Women Empowerment in India 293 National Poliey/Plan for Empowerment of Women 295 8 Major Policies for Women Empowerment in Independent India 295, 20.8.1 Recently Implemented Schemes/Programmes for Achieving Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women by Govt, of India 20.9 Present Status of Women Empowerment in India oo) LS (A GENDER, SEX AND SEXUALITY ‘U1 SEX AND GENDER. Gender means ‘type’. Itis a word commonly used for a person's sex — male or female, Before 1950, the term ‘gender’ was used in the field of grammar and to distinguish only a category of words that are called “Feminine nouns’ from other words that are masculine nouns. Jn11955, the meaning ofthe word ‘Gender’ began to change. A scientist studying the similarities and differences between men and women, began to use the word ‘Gender’ in new ways that referred to people’s beliaviout. Now, the word ‘Gender’ is taken as different fiom “Sen” and described someone's personality or character ‘LAA Concept of ‘Gender’ World Health Organisation states that sex refers tothe biological and physiological characteristics and defines men and women, and *Gender’ refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities {and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women 1 Sociological View-point: In Sociology, a distinction between sex and gender is made. Sex refers to the biological traits that societies use to assign people into the category of either male or female, whether it be through a focus on chromosomes, genitalia or ‘some other physical ascription. This concept is based on rigid ideas of biology: ‘On the other hand, Gender is more fluid — it may or may not “depend upon biological traits. More specifically, it is a concept that \eseribes how societies determine and manage sex categories, the ‘cultural meaning, meariings attached to men tind women’s roles and. ‘how individuals understand their identities, 12 Genie, School and Society Gender involves social norms, attitudes and activities that society deems more appropriate for one sex over another. Gender is also determined by what an individual feels and does. 2. Psychological View-point: Psychology is the study of mind and all human behaviour. An individual psychology is influenced by his/her biology i.e. nature as well as his/her environmental influences i.e. nurture. Since, biological and social influences manifest differently for men and women, one finds individual psychology strongly affected by gender, For example, itis shown by research that depression, stress and anxiety are more profound in women than in men. Alcohol dependence ‘and antisocial tendencies are more in men than in women, Some theories of different views are given by psychologists regarding this. Hence, psychologically, gender is conceived asa set of characteristics “traits that ae associated witha certain biological sex (male or female), The characteristics that generally define gender are referred to as ‘masculine or feminine. 3. Cultural View-point: Cultural construction of gender refers to the way in which culture takes up the framework set by biology and adds meaning and value to gender. Culture contributes to what one perceives as traits of a man and traits of a woman. ‘Most cultures perceive a woman to be caring, gentle, patient, physically delicate and family-oriented, A man is perceived to be ‘physically strong, aggressive and more rational than emotional. Culture also contributes to what career is suitable to males and females. For ‘example, Indian culture considers a driver's profession to bea career suitable fora male. This is not true in some other cultures of the world. 1.1.2 Definitions of Gender 1. World Health Organization (WHO) states that “Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women” and “gender refers to the socially constructed role: behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women.” 2. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) USA has defined (1997) gender as “The relation between men and women boih perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, as result of sexual characteristics of either women or men, but is ‘constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies and Gender, Sex and Sexuality 3 ‘ofien governs the processes of production and reproduction ‘consumption and distribution : 3. According to Gupta, gender has been defined as “the commonly shared expectations and norms within a society about ppropriate male and female behaviour, characteristics and roles Gender can be considered a social and cultural construct that lifferentiates females from males and thus defines the ways in which males and males interact with each other. These roles and jences are learned and they can change over time as well as within and between cultures. 4. According to Unger “The term gender may be used to eribe those non-physiological components of sex that are culturally garded as appropriate to males and females.” In this way, gender may be defined as the socially constructed and behaviours thata society typically associates with males and les. It isa socio-cultural phenomenon that divides people into categories such as ‘males" and ‘females’ with each having ociated dress, roles, stereotypes etc. Hence, it is a socially structed definition of men and women. It isnot the same as sex, is, biological characteristics of men and women and is not the as women. Gender is determined by the conception of tasks ions and roles attributed to women and men in society and in jc and private Construction of Gender i The idea that gender difference is socially constructed, is a view in many philosophical and sociological theories about gender. Scording to this view, society and culture create “gender role’, a m just used by John Money in 1955, These roles are prescribed as, ‘or appropriate behaviour for a person of that specific gender. ‘Some argue that the differences between behaviour of men and nen are entirely social conventions, whereas others believe that uris influenced by biological universal factors to some extent, social conventions having a major effect on gender behaviour. ( es of Gender — ee Following are some of the important characteristics of ‘Gender’ 1. Socially Constructed: Gender is socially constructed Peiety and culture creates gender roles which give shape to gender inler, Sex and Sexus y s 4 Gender, School and Society 11, Power Relationships: Power relationships are influenced a society ‘gender. People accept generally that the male should be the decision s nota static or rigid concept. Itisa er in the family and country. Male should earn more than the le. People still do not accept a female in a leadership position. ety has imposed such like beliefs. 12. Access to Resources: Access to resources is determined ‘one’s gender. In a society, norms and rules are set in accordance the ideology of gender to determine a person’s access to resources. ally, itis seen that males have greater access to and claim over fees as food, health and education. In ordinary families, males first and the better share of food is served to them, 13. Manifestation of Gender in Different Forms: Gender fests itself in the form of roles, relations and identity. Our own societal perception of gender determine the roles that men and nn play ina society. It decides how men and women relate to one i also decides how both men and women perceive themselves the opposite sex. 14, Variation of Gender Roles: Culture plays a vital role in ining gender roles. Therefore, gender roles vary across cultures. Jexample, in some cultures the role of breadwinner is solely assigned ymen and women are not allowed to work. Similarly, certain religious is are only performed by men in certain cultures, 15. Change in Gender Roles: Gender roles and norms can over time. For example, in some cultures, women were not ed to make decisions but now they are allowed to make decisions ‘important matters. Therefore, roles and expectations ascribed to jet are dynamic and change over time. All these roles are enforced society and not by nature or other force. In this way, the above characteristics of gender show that the logy of gender decides what is expected of us and valued in us. It forced by society upon ws. Sex and Gender Sex refers toa set of biological attributes in humans and animals, is primarily associated with physical and physiological features luding chromosomes, gene expression, hormone levels and function jreproductive/sexual anatomy. According to World Health Organisation (WHO), 2. Dynamic Concept: It dynamic concept. Itmay change over time due to influence of education or influences of other cultures, 3. _ASet of Traits: Psychologically, gender is conceived as a set of certain traits that are associated with a certain biological sex (male or female), The characteristics that generally define gender are referred as masculine of feminine. 4. Different from Physical Characteristics: ‘Gender’ refers to your sense of who you are as a guy, girl or something else, as ‘opposed to what your physical characteristics, genes and hormones indicate. Identifying your gendercan be more diverse than simply seeing ‘yourself as ‘male’ or ‘female’. 5, Learnt Behaviour: Gender involves learnt behaviour or ‘an acquired identity, The process of socialisation introduces a person to his ot her gender roles. Social surroundings impose expectations ‘upon a person and the person accordingly accepts gender roles. 6. Expected Behaviour: The concept of gender includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely ‘behaviours of both men and women (masculinity and femininity). 7. An Array of Rights, Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships: Gender involves the rights ofan individual. The right of an individual, the roles he/she has to perform, the responsibilities to tbe undertaken and the inter-individual relationships to be maintained, are all shaped by gender. 8. A Cross-cutting Socio-cultural Variable: The concept of gender is a cross-cutting socio-cultural variable. Its an overarching ‘variable in the sense that gender can also be applied to al other cross- cautting variables such as race, class, age, ethnic groups ete. 9, Shapes the Personality: Gender often shapes the personality and behavioural traits of a person. For example, when & girl displays emotions by crying, it is quite easily accepted. Ifa boy cries, he is often told to ‘behave like a man’, 10. Gender Dynamics: Gender dynamics include the relationships and interactions between and among boys, girls, menané women. Gender dynamics are influenced by socio-cultural ideas about gender and the power relationships that define them. Sex refers6 ‘Gender, School and Society to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.” It classifies people as male or female, typically assigned at birth based on the appearance of external anatomy. 1.1.6 Differences between Sex and Gender Though the words’ Sex’ and ‘Gender’ are sometimes used interchangeably, sex is determined by nature, while gender is a social cor cultural concept. When we refer to sex, we mean the biological ‘characteristics that make one male or female. On the other hand, when we speak of gender, we mean the characteristics of people associated with being male or female. Gender Roles: Gender roles are functions that society sees as feminine or masculine. These roles are encouraged in children from a very early age. There is no law that binds a girl to behave ina particular ‘way or compels a boy to perform certain functions. Gender Differences: Since gender differences are a social or ‘cultural concept, it varies from one society to another. Italso changes ‘vith time, For example, way back in the 1840s and 50s, when Florence Nightingale wanted to serve the sick, ler family was horrified, At the time, no ‘decent’ woman became a nurse. And now, nursing, by and large, is seen as a feminine profession ‘The difference between Sex and Gender is given here: ‘Gender refers to the meaning This the biological identity with which one is bor. Ieis ‘one attaches to those chromosomal, chemical and differences within a specific anatomical organization ofan | culture which identifies a man individual (female is born with | or woman. It can be changed ‘sexchromosomes(XX) while | since gender identity is ale child is born with sex determined by society. Gender chromosome (XY). Sex cannot | is masculinity or femininity. bbe changed without medical intervention. 2 | Biological ~ primary and Socially constructed roles, ‘secondary characteristics, responsibilities and behaviour Gender, ex and Sexual ul Sexuality 7 No. | Sex Biological Difference) Universal ~ factors selected to | Cultural- Elements related to ‘sex are the same around the world.| gender vary within and between cultures; the roles of ‘men and women in Kenya may be different from the roles of ‘men and women in India. Bom with —generally ‘Learned behaviour - Changes ‘unchanging (change is possible | over time - In the past few ‘now with surgical intervention) years women become lawyers ‘or physicians, today itis very ‘common to find women in these professions. ‘Varies within and between Gender (Social Ditferene Does not vary, does not change across ‘cultures, overtime and space also ‘Sex identifies biological Gender identities soci differences between men and | relationship between men and womeneg. woman face nee er [eee on ‘Sex is categorized as male or female | Categorized as masculinity and Itis an endowed fra ‘concept It is an natural and Itis a man-made biological aspect of human being. ; Hence, sex makes distinction between women and men asa result, their biological, physical and generic differences while gender roles set by conventions and other social, economic, political and cultural es, Sex identifies biological differences between men and women, x is universal. Gender identifies social relations between men and .. Gender is socially constructed, but gender roles are dynamic cl hhange over time. SEXUALITY Sexuality is one of the fundamental drive behind everyone's lings, thoughts and behaviours. It defines the means of biological production, describes psychological and sociological representation self and orients a person’s attraction to others. It shapes the brainGender, Schoo! and Soc! ‘and body to be pleasure- secking. Tt is something everyone is born with, it cannot be changed or altered. Sexuality is often viewed as a taboo topic for personal or scientific inquiry. 1.2.1 Meaning and Definitions of Sexuality Generally, sexuality is understood as the characteristic quality of the male and female reproductive elements. It refers to habits and preferences in terms of sexual behaviour. Human sexuality is the way people experience and express themselves sexually. This involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social or spiritual feelings and behaviours. Hence, sexuality is the sexual feelings or emotions (or lack there of), towards other people. It is inborn and cannot be changed or altered. i ‘Complex and Personal: Human sexuality is complex and personal. It entails more than just sexual activity. A person’s own definitions of sexuality may include: (i) _ Feeling or attraction towards others. (Gi) Intimacy with others. (ii) Feelings related to body images, and (iv). Personal values. i In this way, human sexuality may be defined as the people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their capacity to have ‘erotic experiences and responses. Sexuality is notjust about ‘sex’ and certain body parts that are associated with males and females. Sexuality includes sexual orientation, such as who a person is attracted to and ‘whether the person identifies as heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual, as well as their funetions and attitudes and values related to sex. 1.2.2 Expression and Experience of Sexuality People’s sexual orientation is their emotional and sexual attraction to particular sexes or gender, which often shapes their sexuality. Sexual orientation refers to sexual and romantic feelings for people of the same gender, a different gender or more than one gender. ‘Sexuality may be expressed and experienced in a variety of ways, Some ways include ~ thoughts, fantasies, desires, belief’, attitudes, values, behaviours, practices, roles and relationships. These may ‘manifest themselves in biological, physical, emotional, social or spiritual aspects. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely Gender, Sex and Sexuality ° concern the human reproductive functions, including the ‘human sexual —response cycle, and the basic biological drive that exists in all species, Emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds between individual, and are expressed through profound feelings or physical manifestations of love, trust and care, Social aspects of sexuality deal with the effects of human society on one’s sexuality Lastly, spirituality concerns an individual's spiritual ‘connection with other through sexuality. .3 Influences on Sexuality ‘Gender orientation and identity can influence sexuality. But these late distinct concepts, ‘Sex’ refers to be the determined at birth, Physical jatomy determines sex at birth. Gender refers to someone’s ‘Knowledge of being male, female, non-binary or other gender. Sexuality isalso different from sexual orientation. Sexual orientation refers to, € type of sexual attraction a person feels. ‘Sexuality also influences and is influenced by cultural, political, philosophical, moral, ethical and religious aspects of life. 4 Difference Between ‘Sex’ and ‘Sexuality’ 1, _ Sex: Sex refers to whether or not a parson is male or female. is the physiological differences found among male and female and jous intersex bodies. Sex includes both primary sex characteristics, tare related to the reproductive system, and secondary sex teristics, that are not directly related to the reproductive system, sh as breasts and facial hair, In humans, biological sex ofa child is determined at birth based several factors including chromosomes, gonads, hormones, internal roductive anatomy and genitalia, Sex is also commonly used as an sbreviation to refer to sexual intercourse. 2 : Sexuality refers to the total expression of whoa mis as a human being, her femaleness or his maleness. Sexuality ins at birth and ends at death, Everyone is a sexual being. A person’s ity is an interplay between body image, gender identity, gender le, sexual orientation, eroticism, genitals, intimacy, relationships and Wve and affection. A person’s sexuality includes his or her attitudes, lues, knowledge and behaviours. How people express their sexuality Gi) Gi) 0)