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 Optimal scheduling of hydrothermal plants :

Consider hydrothermal plant where one generating unit is a thermal unit and the other is hydel
plant feeding the load connected by transmission network . The generation of thermal plant be
PT & that of hydel plant be PH & the total load supplied be PD & transmission loss be PL.

The aim of optimal load scheduling is to minimize the total generation cost of hydrothermal
plant. The operating cost is significant only in thermal plants while the hydel plants have to
operate under constraints of availability of water for power generation.

Mathematical formulation :
The analysis is carried out over a certain period T (1 year / 1 day / 1 month) of operation. During
this period , the fuel cost should be minimum in thermal plant with water available under
specific condition for hydro generation & at the same time total generation must meet load and
transmission losses.

Assumptions :

Various assumptions are made :

i) Storage of hydro reservoir at beginning & end of period T are specified.

ii) Water inflow into the reservoir & load demand on the system are known.

Let X(T) be level of water in the reservoir at the end of period T

X(0) be level of water in the reservoir at the beginning of period T

J(t) – Rate of inflow of water

- Total inflow of water

q(t) - Rate of discharge of water

 - Total discharge of water

Water availability equation :

The power balance equation is given by :

Solution :

In case of thermal power plant the optimal operation is to see to that it satisfies the exact
coordination equation while in case of hydel plant the idea of optimal dispatch confines to
efficient use of available water for generation. Incorporating both of these together will give
optimal scheduling for hydrothermal plant.

The problem is to determine the variable q(t) in equation (1) to minimize the cost of generation.

Initially q(t) is assumed & hydro generation is computed. The total generation must satisfy
equation (2). From this expression , thermal generation can be calculated. Hence incremental
fuel cost λ can be determined.

The value of λ is updated in successive iterations also satisfying equations (1) & (2) . That
value of rate of discharge of water q(t) which satisfies equations (1) & (2) & at the same time
minimizes system λ will give optimal solution. The hydel power generation corresponding to this
optimum q(t) gives economic hydro power generation. Using this optimum thermal power
generation also can be computed. This gives optimal load dispatch for hydrothermal plant.
 Power System Security

Introduction
The operation of power system must be economical , reliable and secure. Economy deals with the
operation of the system with least operating cost while reliability refers to the ability of the
system to meet the demand at all the time despite dynamic disturbances. One of the most vital
factor in the operation of a power system is to maintain system security. An operationally secure
power system is the one with low probability of system blackout or equipment damage.

“System security” can be defined as the practices designed to keep the system operating within
prescribed limits when components fail.
Or
“System security” is the ability of a system to be operational within prescribed limits after being
subjected to a contingency. ( Failure of a component of power system refers to contingency)

Security levels of a power system :

1. Level 1 ( Secure) - At this level , the load is supplied (adequate generation) without violating
the limits and none of the contingencies will cause violations of system variables.

2. Level 2 ( Correctively Secure) - In this level, the load is supplied without limit violations. If
contingency occurs , by taking necessary control actions the system can be corrected without
loss of load.

3. Level 3 ( Alert ) - In this level, load is still supplied without violating limits but a contingency
causes some violations which cannot be corrected without loss of load.

4. Level 4 ( Correctable emergency) - Here all load is supplied , but operating limits are violated.
These violations can be corrected by suitable control action without loss of load.

5. Level 5 ( Non Correctable emergency) - Here , all load supplied but operating limits are
violated. These cannot be corrected without loss of load.

6. Level 6 ( Restorative ) - Here there are no operating limits violated but system is operating
with loss of load. The restorative mode brings the system back to level 1 or level 2.

Depending upon the state of the system (security level ) the control action can be decided .

Factors affecting system security :

The two major factors affecting system security are the contingencies - line outage and
generator outage.
The transmission line and generator outages causes deviations in the line flows and bus voltage
limits . The analysis of these contingencies requires load flow analysis techniques so as to
ensure these variables are within limits by comparison with nominal values.

Functions of power system security :

(a) System monitoring -

System monitoring involves gathering of up-to-date information about the power system
variables on real time basis as load & generation change. This is accomplished by SCADA
application which measures & transmits the information about voltages , currents, line flows,
status of circuit breakers , switches , transformer tap positions, frequency , generation etc….
The system alarms the operator when there is a deviation of the variables out of limits.

(b) Contingency analysis / evaluation -

Contingency analysis involves running of simulation programs. Various possible

contingencies will be simulated in the given network. Simulation uses load flow algorithms (
Newton Raphson / FDLF ) to get the results.

Contingency analysis involves three steps -

(i) Contingency definition - Here all possible contingencies are listed.
(ii) Contingency selection - Here the most severe contingencies are shortlisted whose
occurrence may create violations in the system limits .This activity is also called
contingency ranking .
Contingency ranking is the process of arranging the contingencies in the decreasing order
of their severity.
Contingency selection is based on network sensitivity factors or performance indices .

(iii) Contingency evaluation - Here , the selected contingencies will be simulated using load
flow algorithms. Based on the results obtained , preventive measures can be initiated.
( c) Security constrained optimal power flow (SCOPF) :

This is the third major security function which functions based on contingency evaluation.
This provides preventive and post contingency control. In this function contingency analysis
is combined with optimal power flow so as to avoid undesirable effects of contingency.
The following example explains SCOPF -

It comprises four stages :

Transmission line capacity -- 400 MW
(i) Optimal dispatch -

- In this state load dispatch is economical

Load on the system is 1200MW
( Unit 1 supplies 500MW - line 1 carries
250MW & line 2 carries 250MW
Unit 2 supplies 700MW )
- System may not be secure
- There is no contingency in this state.

(ii) Post contingency -

- This is state of the system after contingency

( outage of line 1)
- Limit violation occurs (overload of line 2)
- System is insecure

(iii) Secure dispatch

- Contingency has not yet occurred
- But based on contingency analysis
preventive corrections are applied
--- Generation of unit 2 is increased to
800MW & that of unit 1 reduced to 400MW
(iv) Secure post contingency
- Contingency occurs ( outage of line 1)
- But system remains secure
--- Preventive action is already taken in secure
dispatch and only 400MW flows in line 2

Contingency evaluation techniques -

There are two contingency evaluation techniques - Dc load flow and Ac load flow.

(a) Dc load flow -

In this method FDLF algorithm is used for running contingency simulation program. In FDLF
technique , the interaction between P-V and Q-δ are neglected. Hence this algorithm doesn‟t
give information about voltage limit violation and MVAr flows after a contingency. In this
method contingency ranking is done based on a & d factors.

(b) Ac load flow -

This method uses Newton Raphson algorithm for contingency simulation. This method
provides complete information about the system - line flows , loading of the line , voltage limit
violation , MVAr flows etc… after a contingency. This is a time consuming technique. In this
method contingency ranking is done based on performance index.

Contingency analysis :

The algorithms used may be dc load flow or ac load flow depending upon the requirement. The
contingency analysis technique simulates helps to study the impact of two credible outages - line
outage & generator outage. The impact of these outages on line flows and voltage limit violation
are checked. The contingency analysis is explained using a flowchart :
Contingency selection :
Contingency selection is classified into direct and indirect methods. In direct method, post
contingency parameters such as line flows , bus voltages are monitored and shortlisted based on
severity. In indirect method , contingency ranking is done based on network sensitivity factors.

Network sensitivity factors :

Network sensitivity factor gives the approximate change in line flow for generation changes in the
network and can be calculated using dc load flow.

They are of two types :

Generation shift factor ( „a‟ factor ) and Line outage distribution factor ( „d‟ factor )

(i) Generation shift factor ( „a‟ factor )

This factor gives the change in line flow caused due to generator outage. „a‟ factor is defined
as follows :

The „a‟ factors are pre calculated for all lines , for outage of a particular generator . This is
repeated for outages of all generators one by one. The effects of simultaneous changes on a
given number of buses can be analyzed using superposition principle.

(ii) Line outage distribution factor ( „d‟ factor )

This factor can be used to identify overloading of lines caused due to line outage . „d‟ factor
is defined as follows :

The „d‟ factors are pre calculated for all lines , for outage of a particular line and checked for
overloading . This is repeated for outages of all other lines one by one and overloads can be
found out for initiating corrective action.
Performance index (PI) :

Performance index is a measure of severity of a contingency. This can be calculated using ac

load flow . This ac load flow gives information about line flows , MVAr flows and also bus
voltage limit violation for both line and generator outage. In ac load flow contingency ranking is
done on the basis of PI .
PI is defined as :

This method uses FDLF algorithm with 1 iteration only hence the name 1P1Q method (1 P-δ
calculation and 1 Q-V calculation)