Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Introduction :
• He was born in 'Stagira' of Athens, in on influencial family. His Father was a court physician
of the Macedonian King. He lost his parents in early age. He, then studied under Plato for
20 years.
• He was very genius and competent in many disciplines but his masterpiece was 'Politics'
which differ both in temper and content from that of his mentor and in the history of western
intellectual Traditions.
• Like his predecessor, he also held that desire for knowledge was The single motivating
factor in his life. Held that guest for knowledge was universal among humans for they
endowed mind to think.
• Thus, he was a thinker who placed moral within the frame work of ordinary human life.
So, his Ideas are as follows:
Aristotle on state & Human Nature : -
• He also talked about ideal state but not like Plato. He says that state is a natural institution.
It is not a artificial creation or aggregate of individual.
• He says that. 'A Man is a political Animal'. so, state has developed from family. so
(i) Family - Reproduction + Eco. Needs (A)
(ii) Village - A + Religious + Justice for Village
(iii) State - A + B + military + Justice + Education (B)
• So, state is the highest from of political union and highest form of social evolution. But
reject both individualist + Collective concept of state. He followed middle path giving
importance to both individual and state.
Features : -
• Natural Association - Evolutionary inherent in humane nature.
• It is Supreme Association - Bigger than community.
• Unity & plurality - control people & Also gives freedom to them.
Functions : -
(i) Provide framework for best quality of life
(ii) Provide Protection (security).
(iii) Being moral institution it develops morality of people.
(iv) Justice to people.
• But quality of state depends on the quality of people compositing the state. He also talked
about ideal state but practical in nature, should follow 'golden mean' and not utopian as
suggested by Plato.
• It should have
(i) Poph, (ii) Territory, (iii) 6 classes, (iv) virtuous people, (v) Education

(vi) Defence (vii) Public utilities

Aristotle on Family & property : -
• For Aristotle Family and property is of personal matters.
• Family is the first school of social life. within family they get learning to be a good citizen.
• It is the source of motivation.
• He talked of Patriarchal Family, male is more capable to run family. It is composed of wife.
Husband, Children & parents.
• It is important for
(i) Socialisation (ii) Protection (iii) Core & Love (iv) Discipline

(v) Cooperation & Emotional support 'so it is lifelong friendship.

Regarding property :-

• It is important part of family, without property normal human life is not possible
Property is required to

Meet Hunger [Food]

Residence [Shelter]

Cloths [Cloths]

Two sources of Property

1. Animate 2. Inanimate

Slaves, servant Land, Building, etc.

Live stocks
Middle Path :-
• Talk about property but not indiscriminate accumulation.
• It is required to meet human needs only. It should be enough to meet a dignified human
life. So we should not be made behind it because it may be the source of moral decline of
people society.
• It is only the means and not the 'end in itself' so, it can be acquired by two means
(i) Natural way - by applying own Labour power [Farmer on Land]
(ii) Unnatural way - Here own humanity is forgotten [ usury system, profit making]
Distribution : -
1) Common ownership & common use

Shall be lack of motivation, duty & carelessness to protect it. Lock of skill and source of
conflict/fight.
2) Individual ownership & common use

It is useful for generosity, charity and serving guest.

• So, It is good for a morel life.

For dignity of a person

But limited distribution.

• Human happiness [Eudaimonia]

• Aristotle says that happiness is the highest purpose or end of life.
• It is Summum Bonum - Means Final end towards which every human activity is directed.
[Moksha for Hinduism]
• He says that every being in nature has its proper end, and its achievement is the special
function of that being and adequate performance of the special function is the good for any
being.
Like : -
• Animal has sensation.
• Knife cut so human has reason.
• So. sensations is the special function for animals so, it can't be good for human. Reason
is the special Function of human being. So, Summum Bonum or ultimate & Good is to be
found in the life of reason. But he was not extreme and need that Appetites is also found
in human nature, so can be met to the laves of need.
• So happiness is the result of moral activity. so, he says that (an act is good not b/c it
provides pleasure but it is good so provides or gives pleasure.
• So, his concept of happiness is based on human rationality. So human being have ability
to reason which serves or /laves to a particular goal or end caused called virtue.
• It is derived from the ‘Eudaimonia'. It is not what we think of in an ordinary way. It is not a
state of mind or feeling result from any act of person [As held by utilitarianism)
• So, to him happiness is flowerishing of life. It is contentment or fulfilment. It is the name of
best kind of life which is an end in itself and not a means to live.
• He says that human beings are higher being. so they are not required to go by sensuous
pleasure though he recognized its place in human life.
• So, According to Aristotle - It is unity of will & Action, intellect, Reason. It is not only
pleasure but fulfilment of soul.
• Happiness consist in achieving through the course of a whole lifetime - all the goods-
health, wealth, knowledge, friends etc. that leads to perfection of human nature and
enrichment of life.
• It is virtuous activity which is guided by the intellect and by reason. It is the end in itself.
• So, happiness depends on virtue - Because virtuous thinking leads to a good action that
further cultivate good habits & these good habits develops virtuous character which leads
to happiness s/c such person will take care of health, wealth, honour, friendship so,
happiness is not momentary but long lasting part of life.
• Aristotle on Virtue & Golden Mean : -
Term Arete - Excellence

On virtue : -
• Like virtue of knife sharpness
• It is in b/w two vices. It is the excellence or quality higher in nature. so it focuses on what
kind of person we aspire to be or what do you want to be
• It is about appropriate attitude towards pleaser pain. It is about trait or character to action
a particular way
• He talks of two virtues
(i) intellectual virtue. (ii) moral virtue.

(i) Intellectual virtue : - Means prudence which can be taught & learned. so we can learn
easily from other about how to be prudent. like

(1) scientific knowledge (2) Artistic knowledge (3) practical wisdom - act as per good to
humidity.

• Moral virtue : - Are those which are not innate but they are acquired by developing the
habit of exercising them through repeated action. [Like a person can become truthful &
unselfish by exercising truthfulness and unselfishness)
• So, it is difficult for a person to become virtuous if he a she has not acquired the habit of
acting of virtuonsly. so, only knowledge about it is (virtue) is not enough.
• According to Aristotle, Moral Virtues includes
i) prudence ii) courage iii) Temperance
iv) modesty v) Humility vi) generosity
vii) Friendliness viii) Friendliness ix) Justice.
Vice -

i) Cowardice ii) self-indulgence iii) Recklessness

iv) Greed v) Vanity vi) injustice
vii) untruthfulness.
• so, virtues are inherent in the coordinated existence of intellectual and moral life of people.
Mean Theory : -
• For Aristotle virtue is a 'Golden mean 'which avoid two extremes and lies in the middle. so,
he says that every virtue lies b/w two extreme vices like.

S.N. Extreme (1) Balance Extreme (2)

(Deficiency)
1. Cowardice Courage Rashness
2. Miserliness Generosity Extravagance
 3. Insensibility Temperance Intemperance
4. Shamelessness Modesty Shyness
5. Malicious Righteous Envy
6. Mock Modesty Truthfulness Boastfulness
7. Spiritless patience Irascibility

• But Aristotle provide no rule to decide it. It develop & depends on individual and circler
stances - ab a particular Act.
• It is the result from 'Good judgement' or good sense or good act. so he rejected complete
Ascetic ideals b/c humans have natural appetites & passions which can't be suppresses
completely.
On moral /Ethical Act : -
• It his book 'Nichomachean Ethics' (Book on friendship & justice) Held that human soul
consist of rational and irrational parts. so human should always act on the basis of rational
part. so moral act is not an isolated act but stable character developed in habit through
regular excise
• So, purpose of human action is to achieve something which is good. Goodness is seen as
pleasure/happiness. so then actions which are performed for the sake of honour, justice
benevolence or other virtues may be judge) as good b/c they bring pleasure / Happiness.
• So, ethical act is virtuous act rather than selfish individualism. so, virtuous person is one
who act in the interest of society, neighbor, friends and has
i) Noble conduct, ii) Have virtuous friends

iii) Love Goodness for iv) Apply justice to others

So, an act is moral if –

• it is based on 'Free will' - implies that a man can choose b/w good or evil.
• So, moral, responsibility for an act is only when a person
Knows its consequences & do voluntarily

has prior Awareness

Act is intentional

Not for forced Action or beyond his control.