UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES

SCHOOL OF CONTINUING AND DISTANCE EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EXTRA-MURAL STUDIES.

In collaboration with

CENTRE FOR OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

MASTER IN PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

COURSE: LDP 603: RESEARCH METHODS

Authored by:

Dr. Christopher Mwangi Gakuu

Senior Lecturer, Department of Extra-
Mural studies, University of Nairobi

Dr. Harriet Jepuchumba Kidombo

Senior Lecturer, Department of Educational Studies,
University of Nairobi

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE MODULE

The Research Methods course is one of the first semester core courses for those learners
pursuing the Master in Project Planning and Management course. You are aware that any
good decision is based on facts. Facts are based on data. The data must be systematically
collected, processed, analysed and presented for use. The best-known way of collecting
empirical data is through scientific research methods. This is what this course module is
all about.

The main aims of this course module is to:

1. Providing the learner with the basic information needed to understand the
research process.
2. Enable the learners to use the knowledge to design their own research
agenda on an area of personal interest or that of an organization.

Why offer the course by distance mode?

This course will be offered by the distance-learning mode using the on-line format. This
is because there are many changes that have been brought about in society, caused by
globalisation and the knowledge and information society, as new way of studying. This
method of offering learning is commonly referred to as Open and Distance learning
(ODL). It is a different way of studying because one will study from his/her living room
and has to study the course material mainly alone.

Therefore it demands a great deal of perseverance of the students and there are a number
of difficulties that have to be combated which other students face less. One of them is that
they have to cope with their study material in a different way. Other students can refer to
their professor for questions and information at all times.

Time management and planning is a major issue for ODL students who are probably less
encouraged than other students. Other students also have a number of fellow students and
build a network. Contacts with fellow students are important for moral support and study
support.

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This course is structured in form of lectures. In each lecture you will find some activities
or exercises that you should go through before starting the subsequent unit. It is advisable
that you answer all the questions and check the answers from the various sources i.e., the
library, the Internet or any other relevant source. You should also consult with the
university lecturers or any other qualified staff. As you might be aware, you should read
other sources to supplement the materials in this course unit.
.

This being a distance-learning course, you are expected to spare at least two hours
everyday to read the course unit. You are also advised to set aside some reading space
equipped with a chair and a reading table in you house.

The course will be delivered on-line hence by distance –teaching mode. However, you will
have at least twenty hours of face-to-face sessions when you will meet with the course
tutor. The Department will communicate the venue and the timetable to you.

Mode of assessment and grading

You will also be evaluated and assessed in the course. The mode of assessment will be
governed by the general University of Nairobi Postgraduate Studies guidelines. The tutor
will give an assignment, which you are expected to answer as a group or as an individual.
There will be a Continuous Assessment Test and a Final Examination at the end of the
semester. The following will be the weighting for each type of assessment:

 Continuous Assessment Test = 30%. This will be comprised of a timed test (15%)
and an assignment (15%)
 The final examination = 70%
Total = 100%

The course will adopt the University of Nairobi Postgraduate courses grading system,
which is indicated here below:

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  Distinction- 75% and above
 Credit- 65%-74%
 Pass- 50%-64%
 Fail- 49% and below.

It important that you familiarise yourself with the general regulations and rules that guide
Postgraduate Studies in the University of Nairobi which are available on-line via
www.uonbi.ac.ke.

It is my hope that you will find the course beneficial to your study and career aspirations.
In case you require some assistance do not hesitate to contact the course tutor or the
Department.

Course Objectives

This course module aims at equipping the learner with the knowledge and skills to
handle research methodology issues in any type or size of an organization or institution.

It is expected that by the end of this course you should be able to specifically:

1.0 Describe the foundations on which research is based on

2.0 Describe how research is designed and structured
3.0 Describe the data collection methods in research
4.0 Describe how data is processed and analyzed
5.0 Describe the how to prepare a research proposal
6.0 Describe how to write a research report
7.0 Discuss how a researcher can use the computer to conduct research

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Lecture Series: LDP 603- Research Methods

Published by University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya.

Printed by the College of Education and External Studies, University of Nairobi, P.O.
Box 30197, Nairobi, 2010

© University of Nairobi, 2010

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 LDP 603: RESEARCH METHODS

COURSE OUTLINE

1. LECTURE ONE: THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

2. LECTURE TWO: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF
RESEARCH
3. LECTURE THREE: VARIABLES, CONCEPTS AND
CONSTRUCTS
4. LECTURE FOUR: MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES,
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
5. LECTURE FIVE: SAMPLING DESIGN
6. LECTURE SIX: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
7. LECTURE SEVEN: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODOLGY
8. LECTURE EIGHT: UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH DATA
9. LECTURE NINE: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
10. LECTURE TEN: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
11. LECTURE ELEVEN: DATA COLLECTION METHODS
12. LECTURE TWELVE :DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
13. LECTURE THIRTEEN: DATA ANALYSIS I
14. LECTURE FOURTEEN: DATA ANALYSIS II: MEASURES OF
RELATIONSHIP
15. LECTURE FIFTEEN: LITERATURE REVIEW
16. LECTURE SIXTEEN: ETHICS IN RESEARCH
17. LECTURE SEVENTEEN: FORMAT WRITING RESEARCH
PROPOSALS AND REPORTS

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 LECTURE ONE
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Lecture outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Lecture objectives
1.3 Ways of knowing
1.4 Types of research
1.5 Lecture summary
1.6 Activity
1.7 Suggestion for further readings

1.1 Introduction

Research takes many forms. In this lecture we introduce you to the subject of research and
explain why knowledge of various types of research can be of value to researchers.
Research is only one way through which we obtain knowledge; we look at several other
ways of knowing. We also briefly discuss several research methodologies used in research.
_____________________________________________________________________

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

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 1.2 Lecture objectives

1. Explain what is meant by the term “research”

2. Explain why a knowledge of scientific research
methodology can be of value to researchers
3. Name and give four ways of knowing other than the
methods used by scientific
4. Describe briefly what is meant by critical research
5. Explain what is meant by the term “scientific method”
6. Give an example of six different types of research
methodologies used by researchers Describe the
difference among describe, associational, and
intervention-types studies
7. Describe briefly the basic components involved in the
research process.

1.3 Ways of knowing

There are four ways of knowing. Let us look at each one of them.
1.3.1 Sensory experience
Normally we, see, hear, and smell taste touch. We gather a lot of data through our senses.
However, sensory knowledge is undependable and in some cases incomplete. the data we
take through our sense do not account for all (or even most) of what we seem to feel is the
range of human knowing. For us to obtain reliable knowledge, therefore, we cannot rely
on our senses alone, but must check what we think we know with other sources.

1.3.2 Agreement with other

The opinion of other is another source of knowledge. We can share our sensations with
others and also check on the accuracy and authenticity of these sensations. The problem

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with such common knowledge is that it can be wrong. A majority vote in a meeting is no
guarantee of the truth. Two groups of eyewitnesses to an accident may disagree as to which
driver was on the wrong. Hence we would require considering additional ways to obtain
reliable knowledge.

1.3.3 Expert opinion

Some people can consider experts in their field because they know a great deal about what
we are interested in finding out. However experts like everybody else can be mistaken. For
all their study and training, what expert know is still based on primarily on what they have
learned from reading and thinking, from listening to and observing others, and from their
own experience. No expert, however, has studied or experienced all there is to know in a
given field, and thus even an expert can never be totally sure.

1.3.4 Logic
We also get to know by logic. That is by our intellect- the capability we have to reason
things out. This allows us to use sensory data to develop a new kind of knowledge. For
example,

 All human beings are mortal

 Juma is a human being
 Therefore, Juma is mortal.
Note that the first statement (called the major premise) we need only from our experience
about the majority of individuals. We have never experienced anyone who was not mortal,
so we state that all human beings are mortal.

The second d statement (called the minor premise) is based entirely on sensory experience.
If we come in contact with Juma and classify him as human beings we then can deduce
that the third statement (called the conclusion) must be true. Logics tell us it is. As long as
the first two statements are true the third statement must be true.

However, there is a fundamental danger in logical reason in of which we need to be aware.

It is only when the major and minor premises of the syllogism are both true that the
conclusion is guaranteed to be true. If either of the premises is false, the conclusion may

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or may not be true.

1.3.5 The scientific Method

Science is another way of knowing. However, it is the scientific method that is important
to researchers.

The scientific method essentially involves the testing of ideas in the public arena.
Almost all human beings are capable of making connections- of seeing relationship and
associations. These connections are called “facts”. Facts are items of knowledge about the
world in which we live. in many cases we guess or speculate about the world around us.
To be sure that our guesses or speculation s are true, we need to 0[rigorously test to see if
they hold up under more controlled conditions. To investigate our speculations, we can
observe carefully and systematically.

However such investigations do not constitutes science unless they are made public.
This means that all aspects of the investigations are described in sufficient details so that
the study can be repeated by any who question the results. This basically boils down to
seven distinct steps.

 There must be a problem to be investigated. This can be something bothering

us or disturbing us. It may also be an unexplained discrepancy in a researcher’s
field of knowledge, a gap to be closed.
 The second step involves defining more precisely the problem or the question
to be answered, to be clear about exactly what the purpose of the study is.
 In the third step we attempt to determine what kinds of information would solve
the problem.
 The fourth step involves going to the field to collect the data
 Fifth, we must decide as far as possible, how we will organize the information
that we obtain.
 Sixth, after the information has been collected and analyzed, it must be
interpreted.
 Seven, we must write and present the report on our finding.
 In many studies, there are several possible explanations for a problem

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 or phenomenon. These are called Hypothesis and may occur at any
stager of an investigation
 There are two features of scientific research: freedom of thought and
public procedure. At every step, it is crucial that the researcher be as
open as humanly possible to alternatives- in focusing and clarifying the
problem, in collecting and analysing information, and in interpreting
results. The process must be as public as possible. It is not a private
game to be played by a group of insiders. The value of scientific
research is that it can be replicated (i.e. repeated) by anyone interested
in doing so.
 The essence of all research originates in curiosity-a desire to find out
how and why things happen, including why people do the things they
do, as well as whether or not certain ways of doing things work better
than other ways.
 A common misperception of science fosters the idea that there are
fixed, once-and-all answers to particular questions, which contributes
to a common, but unfortunate tendency to accept, and rigidly adhere to
oversimplified solutions to very complex problems.

1.4 Types of research

The term “research” can mean any sort of “careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts and
principles”. In scientific research, however, the emphasis is on obtaining evidence to
support or refute proposed facts or principles. There are many methodologies that fit this
definition. Let us now look at the various types of research.

1.4.1 Experimental research

This is the most conclusive of scientific methods. The researcher has two groups: the
experimental group and the control group. The researcher actually establishes different
treatments and then studies their effects; results of this type are likely to lead to the clear-

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cut interpretations. In this type of research we have the control group and the experimental
group. The researcher will administer some treatment to the experimental group while
denying the control group, and then he/she sees the effect.

Another form of experimental research is the single-subject research which involves the
intensive study of a single individual (or sometimes a single group) overtime. These
designs are particularly appropriate when individuals with special characteristics are
studied by means of direct observation.

1.4.2 Correlation Research

This is a type of research that is done to determine relationships among two or more
variables and to explore their implications for cause and effect. Correlation research seeks
to investigate whether one or more relationships of some type exist. For example: wealth
and family background; wealth and education. In this approach no manipulation or
intervention on the part of the researcher other than that required administering the
instrument(s) necessary to collect the data desired.

In general, this type of research would be undertaken when one wants to look for and
describe relationships that may exist among naturally occurring phenomena, without
trying in any way to alter theses phenomena.

1.4.3 Casual – comparative research

This type of research is intended to determine the cause for or the consequences of different
treatment between groups of people. Suppose a teacher wants to determine whether
students from single –parent families do more poorly in the class than students from two-
parent families. To conduct this investigation, the teacher would systematically select two
groups of students and then assign each a single parent or two-parent family-which is
clearly impossible (and unethical).

To test this issue using a causal-comparative design, the teacher might compare two
groups of students who already belong to one or the other type of family to see if they
differ.

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However, interpretations of this type of research are limited because the researcher cannot
say conclusively whether a particular factor is a cause or a result of the behaviour(s)
observed. In our example above, the teacher could not be certain whether:

 Any perceived difference in achievement between the two groups was due to the
differences in home situation.
 The parents’ status was due to the difference in achievement between the two
groups (though this seems likely).
 Some unidentified factor was at work.

Despite problems of interpretation, causal-comparative studies are of value in identifying

possible causes of observed variations in the behaviour pattern of individuals.

1.4 .4 Survey research

This is a type of research used to obtain data that can help determine specific characteristics
of a group. A descriptive survey involves asking questions (often in the form of a
questionnaire) of a large group of individuals either by mail, by telephone or in person.
When answers to a set of question are solicited in person, the research is called an
Interview.

The main difficulties involved in survey research are mainly:

 Ensuring that the questions to be answered are clear and not misleading
 Getting respondents to answer questions thoughtfully and honestly
 Getting a sufficient number of the questionnaires completed and returned so that
meaningful analyses can be made.

The main advantage of survey research is that it has the potential to provide us with a lot
of information obtained from quite a large sample of individuals.

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1.4.5 Content Analysis research

Content analysis is a method that permits researchers to study human behaviour

unobtrusively- that is, without being directly involved with people or situations.
Essentially it is a means of analysing the communications (intended or not) that are
inevitably present in anything human being produced. All human products, therefore, offer
potential materials for study.

While most such studies involve an analysis of written documents, some is conducted
using films, folk songs, ancient pottery etc. The method is applicable to any material that
does not come pre-organized for the researcher’s purpose. The major task of the researcher
is to locate appropriate materials and then find a way to analyze them.

1.4.6 Qualitative Research

Qualitative involves obtaining a holistic picture of what goes on in a particular situation

or setting. There are two categories:

Ethnographic study: the emphasis in this type of research is on documenting or

portraying the everyday experiences of individuals by observing and interviewing
them and relevant others. For example, a researcher may want to study the behaviour
of an elementary classroom. This can be done by observing on a regular basis, and also
interviewing the teacher and the student in an attempt to describe as fully and as richly
as possible what goes on in that classroom. The data could include detailed prose
description by students of classroom activities, audiotapes of classroom discussions,
examples of teacher lesson plans and students work, sociograms depicting “power”
relationships in the class and flows charts illustrating the direction and frequency of
certain types of comments.

Case studies: this is a well-detailed study of one or a few individuals or situation.

1.4.7 Historical research

In historical research, some aspects of the past is studied, either by perusing documents of

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the period or by interviewing individuals who lived during the time. An attempt is then
made to reconstruct as accurately as possible what happened during that time to explain
why it did happen.

1.5 Lecture summary

There are several ways in which knowledge is generated. They include: through sensory
organs; agreement with others; expert opinion; logics and the scientific method.
The term “research” can mean any sort of “careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts and
principles”. In scientific research, the emphasis is on obtaining evidence to support or
refute proposed facts or principles.

1.6 Activity

1.3 Suggested further readings

1. Frankfort-Nachmias and David Nachmias(1996).Research Methods In Social
Sciences. 5th edition.St. Martins Press Inc. Great Britain. Chapter one pp 1-23
2. Frankel ,R. Jack & Norman E. Wallen (2000). How to Design and Evaluate Research
in Education, 4th edition. McGraw –Hill Higher Education, USA. Chapter One pp2-25.

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 LECTURE TWO
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF RESEARCH
Lecture outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Lecture objectives
2.3 Schools of thought on research theory
2.4 Ethics in research
2.5 Deception in research
2.6 Lecture summary
2.7 Activity
2.8 Suggestion for further reading

2.1 Introduction

Research is founded on some philosophical paradigms or underpinnings. A paradigm is a

way of looking at the world. It is composed of certain philosophical assumptions that guide
and direct thinking and action. There are several paradigms that have come up with their
philosophy of what research is. In this topic we will look at three such schools: the
positivism, the constructivism and the emancipatory paradigms.

2.2 Lecture objectives.

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish the three schools of thought that underpin research theory.
2. Discuss the philosophical underpinning of each of the schools of thought
3. Synthesise the three schools of thought.

2.3 Schools of thought on research theory

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 There are three major schools of thought which underpin research theory. They are:
a. The positivism/ post positivism paradigm
b. The interpretive/ constructivism paradigm
c. The emancipatory paradigm.
Each of the schools have their distinct way of explaining what research is, its methodology
and its processes. We are now going to look at each of the four schools of thought.

2.3.1 The positivism/ post-positivism paradigm

The positivism and the post-positivism school of thought have guided much of the research
particularly in psychology and education. Positivism is based on the rationalistic
euphemistic philosophy that has originated with Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke
August Comte and Emmanuel Kant. The underlying assumptions of positivism are:

 The belief that the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural
world.
 That is there is a method for studying the social world that is value-free and
 That explanation of a casual nature can be provided.

This paradigm was in practise before the Second World War when it was replaced by post
positivism.

What are their differences?

Ontology: The positivism hold that one reality exists and that it is the researcher’s job to
discover that reality (naïve realism) Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The positivists concur that a

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reality does exist but it can be known only imperfectly because of the researcher’s human
limitations (critical realism). Therefore, researchers can discover “reality” within certain
realms of probability. However, they cannot “prove” a theory, but they can make a stronger
case by eliminating alternative explanations (Reichardt & Ralli, 1994)

Epistemology: Positivists assume that the researcher and the subject of the study were
independent and that they did not influence each other (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The post
positivists modified this belief by recognizing that the theories, hypothesis and background
knowledge held by the investigator can strongly influence what is observed (( Reichardt
& Ralli, 1994). The positivists hold that a researcher should strive to achieve objectivity in
research by remaining neutral to prevent values and biases from influencing the work by
following prescribed procedures rigorously.

Methodology: The positivists borrowed their experimental methods from the natural
sciences. The post positivists recognized that many of the assumptions required for
rigorous application of the scientific methods were not appropriate when studying people.
Therefore, quasi-experimental methods were needed. In other words, many times it is
difficult to randomly assign subjects to conditions (i.e. a plot of land for study of fertilizer).
In this case the researcher needs to devise modifications to the experimental methods of
the natural sciences in order to apply them to people.

2.3.2 The interpretive/constructivists paradigm

This school of thought holds that reality is socially constructed. This paradigm grew out
of the philosophy of Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology and white Dilthey study of
interpretive understanding called hermeneutics (Eichelberger, 1989). Hermeneutics is the
study of interpretive understanding or meaning.
Interpretive/ constructivist researchers use the term more generally to interpret the
meaning of something from a certain standpoint situation.
The basic assumptions of this paradigm are: that knowledge is socially constructed by
people active in the research process researchers should attempt to understand the
“complex” world of lived experience from the point of view of those who live it”(
Schwandt,1994,p.118).

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They emphasize that research is a product of the values of researchers and cannot be
independent of them.

Ontology: They belief that reality is socially constructed. Therefore, multiple mental
constructions can be apprehended, some of which conflict with each other and perceptions
of reality may change throughout the process of the study. For example, the term gender
is socially constructed phenomena that mean different things to different people.

Epistemology: the researcher and the research itself are interlocked in an interactive
process; each influences the other. This school of thought therefore opts for a more
personal, interactive mode of data collection.

Methodology: qualitative methods such as interviews, observations, and document

reviews are predominant. These are applied in correspondence with the assumption about
the social construction of reality in that research can be conducted only through interaction
between ad among investigators and respondents (Guba &Lincoln, 1994). The
methodological implication of having multiple realities is that the research questions
cannot be definitively established before the study begins; rather, they will evolve and
change as the study progresses. In addition the perceptions of a variety of types of persons
must be sought.

2.3.3 The emancipatory paradgim

This paradigm emerged because of:
The dissatisfaction with the dominant research paradigms and practices and because of the
realization that much of sociological and psychological theory had been developed from
the white, able-bodied male perspective and was based on the study of male subjects.
Gilligan (1982) notes that theories that were formerly thought to be sexually neutral in
their scientific objectivity have been found to reflect a consistent observational and
evaluative bias. Examples are the Freud,s theory of personality, McClellarnd’s theiry of
motivation Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and Perry’s theory of college students
development.

The school-age population is becoming poorer and more racially and ethnic diverse. This
has contributed to the increased interest in multicultural education and ways to conduct

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race-sensitive research

Some ethnic-minority psychologists believe that white researchers who study other
communities do so without an understanding or caring for the people who live there.(Mio&
Iwamasa,1993).

That research is conducted without due consideration of the disadvantaged people like the
disabled, hence ignoring genetic and biological factors.
Need for more culturally sensitive research.
A need for informed practitioners to form partnerships with researchers to plan and
conduct research and evaluation studies in a meaningful way.

The emancipatory paradigm has four characteristics:

 It places central importance on the lives and experiences of the diverse groups that
traditionally have been marginalized(i.e. women, minorities, and persons with
disabilities)
 It analyses how and why inequalities based on gender, race, or ethnicity and
disability are reflected in asymmetric power relationships.
 It examines how results of social inquiry are linked to political and social action
 It uses an emancipatory theory to develop the program theory and the research
approach. A program theory is a set of beliefs about the way a program works or
why a problem occurs.

Ontology: like the constructivists paradigm the emancipatory paradigm recognizes

multiple realities. However, they stress the influence of social, cultural, economic, and
ethnic, gender, and disability values in the construction of reality. It also emphasizes that
which seems “real” may be reified structures that are taken to be real because of historical
situations. Thus, what is taken to be real needs to be critically examined via an ideological
critique in terms of its role in perpetuating oppressive social structures and politics.

Epistemology: The relationship between the knower and the would-be known (i.e., the
researcher and participant) is viewed as interactive. According to Harding (1993), the
researcher should use a methodology that involves” starting off thought” from the lives of

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marginalized people. This would reveal more of the unexamined assumptions influencing
science and generate more critical questions.

The relationship should be empowering to those without power. Thus, the research should
examine ways the research benefits or does not benefit the participants (Kelly etal., 1994).

Objectivity in this paradigm is achieved by reflectively examining the influence of the

values and social position of the researcher on the problems identified as appropriate for
research, hypotheses formulated and key concepts defined.

Methodology: Emancipatory researchers are pluralistic and evolving in their

methodologies. The empiricists who work within the emancipatory tradition tend to use
quantitative methods. However, they emphasize a need for more care and rigor in
following existing methods commonly associated with positivist’s paradigms to avoid
sexist, racist or otherwise biased results. In the emancipatory research that comes from the
participatory action research tradition, it is viewed as essential to involve the people who
are the research “participants” in the planning, conduct, analysis, interpretation, and use
of the research.

2.4 Ethics in Research

Ethics in research should be an integral part of the research planning and implementation
process, not viewed as an afterthought or a burden. There should be increased
consciousness of the need for strict ethical guidelines for researchers. Some of the ethical
issues touch on deception and invasion of privacy.
There are three main ethical principles that need to be considered:
 Beneficence: Maximizing good outcomes for science, humanity, and the
individual research participants and minimising or avoiding unnecessary risk,
harm, or wrong.
 Respect: Treating people with respect and courtesy, including those who are
not autonomous (e.g., small children, people who have mental retardation or
senility)
 Justice: Ensuring that those who bear the risk in the research are those who

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 benefit from it; ensuring that the procedures are reasonable, non-exploitative,
carefully considered and fairly administered.

There are six norms of scientific research. They include:

 Use of valid research design: faulty research is not useful to anyone and it is not
only a waste of time and money but cannot be conceived of as being ethical in that
it does not contribute to the well-being of the participant.
 The researcher must be competent to conduct the research
 Consequences of the research must be identified: procedures must respect privacy,
ensure confidentiality, maximize benefits, and minimise risks
 The sample selection must be appropriate for the purpose of the study,
representative of the population to benefit from the study, and sufficient in number.
 The participants must agree to participate in the study through voluntary informed
consent- that is , without threat or undue inducement(voluntary), knowing what a
reasonable person in the same situation would want to know before giving con
sent(informed), and explicitly agreeing to participate(consent).
 The researcher must inform the participants whether harm will be compensated.

2.5 Deception in Research

Most professional associations prohibit the use of deception unless it can be justified and
the effect of the deception “undone” after the study is completed. The “undoing” of
deception is supposed to be accomplished by the following:

 Debriefing the research participants after the research study, which means that
the research explains the real purpose and use of the research
 Dehoaxing the research participants in which the researcher demonstrates the
device that was used to deceive the participants. The researcher’s responsibility
is to attempt to allay a sense of generalized mistrust in educational and
psychological research.
 Guarding the privacy and confidentiality of the research participants obtaining
fully informed consent.

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You will note that the emancipatory paradigm emerged because of the dissatisfaction with
research conducted within other paradigms that was perceived to be irrelevant to, or a
misrepresentation of, the lives of people who experience oppression. There are three
characteristics of the emancipatory paradigm with ethical implications for methodological
choices:
 Traditionally silenced voices must be included to ensure that the groups
marginalized in society are equally “heard” during the research process and the
formation of the findings and recommendations.
 An analysis of power inequalities in terms of the social relationships involved
in the planning, implementation, and reporting of the research is needed to
ensure an equitable distribution of resources (conceptual and material)
 A mechanism should be identified to enable the research results to be linked to
social action: those who are most oppressed and least powerful should be at the
canter of the plans for action in order to empower them to change their own
lives.
When the research is cross-cultural, it is important that cross-cultural ethical standards are
developed to guide researchers while conducting research in other communities. Cross-
cultural ethical principles require collaboration between the researcher and the host
community. It also requires that the researcher communicate the intended research agenda,
design, activity, and reports with members of the host community. The research should be
designed in such a way as to bring benefits to the host community and to foster the skills
and slf-sufficiency of the host community scientists.

The paradigms considered here are certainly not exhaustive. New paradigms might come
in the future. However, what is crucial is that researchers should be aware of their basic
beliefs, their view of the world (their functional paradigm), and the way they influence
their approach to research.
2.6 Lecture summary
In this lecture we looked at the various philosophies that have guided
research overtime. We have stated that there are basically three schools:
positivist/post positivists; the emancipatory/ contructivism ; and the
entrepretivism

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 2.7 Activity
1. For each of the three schools of thought on research, highlight their
main epistemological, ontological and methodological
underpinnings
2. Which school appeals to you most and why?

2.8 Suggested further readings

1. Frankfort-Nachmias and David Nachmias(1996).Research Methods In Social
Sciences. 5th edition.St. Martins Press Inc. Great Britain. Chapter one pp 1-23
2. Frankel ,R. Jack & Norman E. Wallen (2000). How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education, 4th edition. McGraw –Hill Higher Education, USA. Chapter
One pp2-25.

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 LECTURE THREE
VARIABLES, CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS

Lecture outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Lecture Objectives
3.3 Concepts
3.4 Variables
3.5 Hypothesis
3.6 Theory
3.7 Models
3.8 Summary
3.9 Activity
3.10 Suggestion for further reading

3.1 Introduction

In research the words concepts constructs or variables are very important terms and need
to be understood clearly. Concepts and constructs are broad terms applied and used in
academics and research. In this lecturer we are going to define and give a general
understanding of the terms Concepts and Constructs from various scholars' point of view.
Outlining the functions of concepts is also key to further understanding these terms in
research and their relevance in research. Then we will go ahead to give the difference
between conceptual and operational definitions of concepts by giving relevant and
practical examples to demonstrate these two aspects.
_____________________________________________________________________

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 3.2 Lecture Objectives.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by the term “variable”
2. Distinguish between the various types of variables
3. Explain how independent and dependent variables are
related
4. Explain what a hypothesis is and formulate them.
5. Explain what is meant by the term “scientific method”
6. Name the advantages and disadvantages of stating research
questions as hypothesis
7. Distinguish between directional and non-directional
hypothesis
8. Define the term “ theory” and explain the role of theory in
research
9. Explain the functions of a “model” in research.

3.3 Concepts

It is common knowledge that we need to notice something before explaining what it is.
For example we see a dog first and then we are able to describe the dog in details. In this
case we have an idea (concept) of the phenomenon before it is explained.

According to Fred N. Kerlinger in his book "Foundations of Behavioural Research" the

term concept and construct have similar meanings in a way. Most of the scientists use these
terms interchangeably. A concept expresses an abstraction formed by generalization
from particulars.

He says that construct is a concept which has an added meaning of having been deliberately
and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose. He explains saying
that for example "intelligence" is a concept, an abstraction from the observation of

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presumably intelligent and non intelligent behaviours. But as a scientific construct
"intelligence" means both more or less than it may mean as a concept.

It means that scientists consciously and systematically use it in two ways. One, it enters
into theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to other constructs. We say for
example, that school achievement is in part a function of intelligence and motivation. Two,
intelligence is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured. We can make
observations of the intelligence of children by administering some intelligence test to them
or we can ask teachers to tell us the relative degrees of intelligence of their pupils.

A concept from the point of view of documented Wikipedia authors is an abstract idea or
a mental symbol, typically associated with a corresponding representation in language or
symbology, that denotes all of the objects in a given category or class of entities,
interactions, phenomena, or relationships between them. Concepts are abstract in that they
omit the differences of the things in their extension, treating them as if they were identical.
They are universal in that they apply equally to every thing in their extension. Concepts
are also the basic elements of propositions much the same way a word is the basic semantic
element of a sentence. Unlike perceptions which are particular images of individual objects
concepts cannot be visualized. Because they are not, themselves, individual perceptions
concepts are discursive and result from reason. They can only be thought and designated
by a name.

Concepts are bearers of meaning, as opposed to agents of meaning. A single concept can
be expressed by any number of languages. The concept of DOG can be expressed as dog
in English Hund in German as chzen in French perro in Spanish and mbwa in kiswahili.
The fact that concepts are in some sense independent of language makes translation
possible - words in various languages have identical meaning, because they express one
and the same concept.

3.3.1 Functions of concept

Concepts serve a number of important functions in social science research.
 They are the foundation of communication. Without a set of agreed upon concepts,
scientist could not communicate their findings or replicate each other's studies. It's
important to note that concepts are abstracted from perceptions and are used to convey

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 and transmit information. Concepts do not actually exist as empirical phenomena/ but
rather are symbols of phenomena/ not phenomena themselves.
 Concepts introduce a perspective is a way of looking at empirical phenomena.
As Norman Denzin (1989) puts it "Through Scientific conceptualization, the
Perceptual World is given an order and coherence that could not be perceived before
conceptualization". The concept therefore enables scientists to relate to some aspect
of reality and identify it as a quality common to different examples of the
Phenomenon in the real world.
Concepts allow scientists to classify and generalize. That is, scientists structure,
categorize, order and generalize their experiences and observations in terms of concepts.
As John McKinney (19660 puts it, "All Phenomena are unique in their concrete
occurrence, therefore no phenomena actually recur in their concrete wholeness. To
introduce order with its various scientific implications, including prediction, the scientist
necessarily ignores the unique, the extraneous and the non-recurring and thereby departs
from perceptual experience.
In a nutshell, the four functions of concepts are:
 Concepts provide a common language which enables scientists to
communicate with one another.
 Concepts give scientists a perspective - a way of looking at
phenomena.
 Concepts allow scientists to classify their experiences and to generalize
from them.
 Concepts are components of theories - they define a theory's content and
attributes.

If concepts are to serve as functions of communication, sensitivity to and organization of

experience, generalization and theory construction, they have to be clear, precise and
agreed upon. Everyday language however, is often vague, ambiguous and imprecise.
Concepts such as power, bureaucracy and satisfaction mean different things to different
people and are used in different contexts to designate various things.

However, science cannot progress with ambiguous and imprecise language. Social
scientists have attempted to establish a clear and precise body of concepts to characterize

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their subject matter. To achieve clarity and precision in the use of concepts during research,
scientists employ two major types of definitions/ that is, conceptual and operational
definitions.

3.3.2 Conceptual definition

Defining a concept is not very different form from defining any word. The reason for
defining a concept is to make it very clear to some audience. A good conceptual definition
is that one that clearly distinguishes the properties or characteristics of a concept from
other concepts.

A conceptual definition defines a concept with other concepts. For instance/ we can define
weight by saying that it is the heaviness of objects. Or we can define anxiety as subjectified
fear. In this case we have substituted one concept for another.

Definitions have two segments: how the concept is similar to other concepts and how it
differs from them. An example is of a cat as an animal/ but unlike other animals it "meows".
Another example is term “income”. Income can be defined as the money one gets after
engaging in an economically productive activity. A group of people may be involved in
different economic activities from which they get income. Some are farmers, other traders,
others civil servants etc. But at the end of the day each gets an income.

Better definitions are those ones that are more useful and used more often in scientific
theories and in research questions. Some concepts are also distinguished from other
concepts through the use of examples or analogy. Although a concepts name, such as "self-
esteem" may have wide usage in everyday use, it is generally a different concept from the
one that is carefully defined as technical term is scientific field. This is important because
by using an accepted technical term then a concept is given a single definition.
A good conceptual definition not only expresses how the phenomenon is similar and
different from other concepts but also provides insight into the kind of variability one
might expect to find. For example the definition of family income would suggest that
income could range from low to high and could be captured in some monetary unit such
as Kenya shillings and fractions thereof .It would indicate that the range is continuous.

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These features of conceptual definition specify the kind of relationships between
categories that are envisioned that are referred to as level of measurement of the concept.

3.3.3 Operational definitions

Once a concept has been defined so that it is clearly understandable to some audience, then
one need to devise indicators that can be used to measure that concept. Operational
definitions are specific ways of in which real cases can be classified into categories of the
concept ones wants to use in research. There may be several potential indicators for any
given concept.

Operational definition is a description of a variable, term or object in terms of the specific

process or set of validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity. Properties
described in this manner must be publicly accessible so that persons other than the definer
can independently measure or test for them at will.

An operational definition is generally designed to model a conceptual definition. For

example a weight of an object may be operationally defined in terms of specific steps of
putting an object on a scale. The weight is whatever that results from following the
measurement procedure, which can in principle be repeated by anyone. It is intentionally
not defined in terms of some intrinsic or private essence. The operational definition of
weight is just the result of what happens when the defined procedure is followed. In other
words what is being defined is how to measure weight for any arbitrary object, and only
incidentally the weight of a given object.

Operational definitions are also used to define system states of a specific, publicly
accessible process of validation testing which is repeatable at will. For example 100
degrees celsius may be crudely defined by describing the process of heating water until it
is observed to boil. An item like a brick may be defined in terms of how it is prepared and
baked (recipe is its operational definition).

Given the usual definition of gender as the sex role with which one identifies man or a
woman one could determine a person's gender by asking what gender are the person is and
writing down the response. Usually there are many potential indicators of the same

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concept. For example one could observe a person's dress, the form of address the person
prefers( Mr./ Ms./ Miss). Each of these indicators provides a basis for classifying the
person as man or woman. But it is important to note that not all these indicators of concept
“gender” are likely to be good measures in all situations.

One primary way in which operational definitions vary is in the extent to which they are
able to capture the concept the investigator has defined. This correspondence is called
“validity” of the operational definition or the extent to which it actually measures the
concept it is intended to measure. The temperature of a room is not a valid measure of the
room's ceiling height but on the other hand the answer to the question "what is your
gender?" is a valid measure of concept gender, assuming that the respondent also
understands the question in the way that investigator expects.

3.4 Variables

Most research studies involve looking for relationships among variables. The concept of
“variables” is one of the most important concepts in research. In this topic we look at
several kinds of variables. We will also discuss the concept of “hypothesis”. Hypotheses
express relationships between variables and they are based directly on the research
questions.

A research problem is conveyed by a set of concepts. We have already said that concepts
are abstractions representing empirical phenomenon. It is important that a research moves
from the conceptual to the empirical level where by the concepts are converted to variables.
You will note that it is the variables that are tested in research. Therefore, it is important
for a researcher to be very clear on the variables they are interested in their study.

A variable is an empirical property that can take on two or more values. Any property that
can change, either in quantity or quality can be regarded as a variable. Foe example, the
term “student” in the university is a variable because it can be differentiated into several
distinct values, for example, the academic year they are enrolled in. For example, a student
can be in first year, second year, third year fourth year, postgraduate, or undergraduate etc.

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A students can take any one of the four academic years (variables, in this case)

3.4.1 Types of variables

There are several ways in which we can categorise variables. Let us look at the categories.
(a) Dichotomous versus discrete variables.
A dichotomous variable have only two values reflecting the presence or absence of a
property. For example, a male or a female; employed or unemployed; dead or alive. On
the other hand, discrete variables are those characteristics that take only one value. That is
a variable that takes only one value for example a person can have one religion say
Christianity or Islam. There is no situation of having half of it.

(b) Dependent versus Independent variables

An independent variable (also called the “predictor variable”) is those variables that cause
changes in the dependent variables. An independent variable is presumed to affect the
dependent variable. A dependent variable is a variable whose outcome depends on the
manipulation of the independent variable. For example of a research question, “Does the
number of hours of study (independent variable) influence a student’s grade (dependent
variable)?” This statement implies that the numbers of hours spent on studies will
influence the grade the student score in the exam. The fewer the number of hours spent on
study the lower the expected score and vice versa. Therefore, if a student wants to score
highly he/she must spend more hours on study.

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( c) Moderating variables, Extraneous variables and Intervening variables.

 A moderating variable is a variable that behaves like the independent variable in that
it has a significant contributory or contingent effect on the relationship between the
dependent and the independent variable. For example, in our example above, we can
extend it to “Does the number of hours of study (independent variable) influence a
student’s grade (dependent variable) especially among the average students?” In this
case, there is a differential pattern of relationship between the hours of study and
student’s grade that occurs as a result of the nature of the student (i.e., excellent student,
above average student, average student, or below average student).

 An extraneous variable are those variable (both independent and independent) which
have the capacity to affect a given relationship. In a research study, such variables are
assumed or ignored; however, it is prudent for a researcher to note them. For instance,
in our example above, there are other variable that might affect the student’s
performance other than the number of hours. A student home background, type of
family etc. can also have some influence in his/her academic performance. But such
variables are assumed not to be very significant in predicting the student’s
performance.

 An intervening variable is a variable that might affect the relationship of the

dependent and independent variables but it is difficult to measure or to see the nature
of their influence. For example, a student’s performance can be affected by the state
of mind at the specific time of the exam. That is why sometimes an above average
student might perform poorer in an exam that expected!. But how do you measure this
variable?

An example:
Assume that you are to measure a person’s income. The first question that comes in
your mind is the variables that could adequately measure that person’s income.
For example if you only derive your income from a salary. Then it become the only
source of your income. However, the real income you get at the end of the month will
be determined by the your salary scale, the taxes you pay, your pension , bonuses and
allowances, contribution to your cooperative etc.

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 Salary= salary scale+ allowance+ taxes-pension- contribution to cooperative society

3.4.2 The importance of studying the relationships of variable

As mentioned earlier, one important characteristic of many research questions is that they
suggest a relationship of some sort to be investigated. However, not all research questions
suggest relationships. Sometimes the researcher is only interested with obtaining
descriptive information to find out how people think or feel or to describe how they behave
in a particular situation. For example, the following questions do not indicate relationships.

 How do the CEOs of large companies feel about training their staff?
 How does Kenyans feel about their economy?

In the two examples above, the researcher simply wants to identify the feeling of the
respondents and not the relationships between the respondent’s feelings with anything else.

The main problem with purely descriptive research questions is that answers to them do
not help us understand why people feel or think or behave in a certain way. As a result our
understanding of a situation, group, or phenomenon is usually limited.

Scientists consider research questions that suggest relationships to be investigated,

extremely important. This is because we learn to understand the world by learning to
explain how parts of it are related. This is because we begin to detect patterns or
connections between the parts.

Understanding of a phenomenon is generally enhanced by the demonstration of

relationships or their connections. It is for this reason that we favour the formation of a
hypothesis that predicts the existence of a relationship.

3.5 Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a prediction of some sort regarding the possible outcomes of a study.

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 An example:
Research question: Does training staff in change management help staff to cope with
change in their organizations?

Hypothesis: Staff trained in change management cope easily with change in their
organizations. This hypothesis predicts that the staffs that undergo training in change
management can easily cope with changes that might occur in their organizations than
perhaps the staff that have not been trained in change management.

Activity:
Identify the dependent and independent variables from the research question given in the research question given
above. Note that we can formulate many different hypotheses from a give question.

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3.5.1 Characteristics of a good hypothesis

A good hypothesis should fulfil three conditions. They are:

 It must be adequate for its purpose. That is, it must clearly state the conditions,
size or distribution of some variable in terms of values meaningful to the
research task if it a descriptive hypothesis. If it is an explanatory hypothesis, it
must explain the facts that give rise to the need for explanation. Therefore,
using the hypothesis, one should be able to deduce the original problem
condition.
 It must be testable. If a hypothesis cannot be testable with the existing
techniques or it defies all the known physical or psychological laws, then it is
not good.
 It must be better than its rivals. That is it must be able to explain the
phenomenon with more facts and with greater variety of facts than do others.
It is a better hypothesis if it is simple and if it requires few condition or
assumptions.

3.5.2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of stating hypothesis in research?

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of stating hypothesis in research:

Advantages
 A hypothesis forces us to think more deeply and specifically about the possible
outcomes of a study. It enables us to understand what the question implies and
exactly what variables are involved.
 If one is attempting to build a body of knowledge in addition to answering a
specific question, then stating hypothesis is a good strategy because it enables
one to make specific predictions based on prior evidence or theoretical
argument.
 Hypothesis stating helps us to see if we are or are not investigating a
relationship.

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Disadvantages
 Stating a hypothesis may lead to a bias, either consciously or unconsciously,
on the part of the researcher. This is because the researcher may be tempted to
arrange the procedures or manipulate the data in such a way as to bring about
a desired outcome. This depends on the honesty of the researchers.
 Stating hypothesis may sometimes be unnecessary, or even inappropriate, in
certain research projects of certain types i.e., descriptive or ethnographic
studies.
 Stating hypothesis may prevent researchers from noticing other phenomena
that might be important to study.

3.5.3 Directional versus Unidirectional hypothesis

A directional hypothesis is one in which the specific direction (such as higher, lower, more
or less) that a researcher expects to emerge in a relationship is indicated. The particular
direction expected is based on what the researcher has found in the literature, from
personal experience, or from the experience of others.

Non-directional hypothesis on the other hand does not make a specific prediction about
what direction the outcome of a study will take.

3.6 Theory

A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that

are advanced to explain or predict phenomenon or facts. We can also say that theories
are the generalizations we make about variables and the relationship among them. We use
these generalizations to make decisions and predict outcomes.

3.6.1 What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

It is usually difficult to distinguish a theory and a hypothesis because both involve

concepts, definitions and relationships among variables. The basic differences are in the
level of complexity and abstraction. Theories tend to be abstract and involve multiple

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variables, while hypothesis tend to be simple, two-variable propositions involving
concrete instances.

In research, a theory serves in various ways:

 It serves as an orientation. It narrows the range of facts we need to study. Any
research problem may be studied in a number of ways, and theory suggests which
ways are likely to yield the greatest meaning.
 Theory may also suggest a system for the researcher to impose on data in order to
classify them in the most meaningful way.
 Theory also summarizes what is known about an object and states the uniformities
that lie beyond the immediate observation. When this happens, the theory can also
be used to predict further facts that should be found.

3.7 Models

A model is defined as a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspects

of that system as a whole.

3.7.1 What is the difference between a model and a theory?

Models differ from theories in that the role of a theory is to offer explanation while a
model’s role is of representation.
A model represents a structure of something. For example a researcher is expected to
develop a conceptual model, which structurally describes the relationship between the
variables of the study.
3.8 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed about concepts, variables, models and theories.
We have said that:
A concept is an abstract idea or a mental symbol, typically associated with a
corresponding representation in language or symbology, that denotes all of the
objects in a given category or class of entities, interactions, phenomena, or
relationships between them.
A variable is an empirical property that can take on two or more values. Any

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property that can change, either in quantity or quality can be regarded as a
variable.
A hypothesis is a prediction of some sort regarding the possible outcomes of a
study.
A model is defined as a representation of a system that is constructed to study
some aspects of that system as a whole.

A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and

propositions that are advanced to explain or predict phenomenon or facts

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 3.9 Activity.

Now that you have understood what hypothesis are attempt to provide some answers to
the following question in respect to a research you expect to undertake.

1.State your research questions--------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Do you intend to use hypothesis to investigate these questions? Yes-----NO----

3.If your answer is no give reasons---------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---

4. If your answer is yes, state your hypothesis--------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. If the hypothesis suggests a relationships between at least two variables state

them ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

From the hypothesis, specify which is the (a) dependent variable----------------------

-----------------(b) the independent variable----------------------------

Indicate whether your variables are categorical or quantitative-------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 40 of 220

Check whether there are extraneous variables that might affect your results. List
3.10 Suggestion for further research

1. Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
2. Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.
3. Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics
4. George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social
Sciences.
5. Hunt N and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling
Techniques.
6. Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd
ed.). Newbury.
7. Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage
Publications. [Del Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu
8. Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the
Social sciences.
9. Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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 LECTURE FOUR
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Lecture outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Lecture objectives
4.3 Defining the term “Measurements”
4.4 Levels of measurements
4.5Measurement errors
4.6 Scaling techniques
4.7 Validity and reliability
4.8 Lecture summary
4.9 Self- evaluation test
4.10 Activity
4.11. Suggestion for further reading

4.1 Introduction

In your daily life, you carry out some measure when you use some yardstick to determine
weight, height, length, and time of any other feature of an object. You also measure when
you judge how well you like a person, a song, a place or an academic course. We, therefore,
measure physical objects as well as abstract concepts. We need to appreciate that
measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, especially when it involves
qualitative or abstract phenomena. In this lecture, we will look at the various measurement
and scaling techniques a researcher can use.
_____________________________________________________________________

4.2 Lecture objectives.

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Define the term “ measurement” as used in

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 research
2. Explain the various measurement scales
3. Discuss the sources of error in measurement
4. Define the term “scaling” as used in research.
5. Discuss the various scaling techniques.
6. Explain what is meant by the term “validity” in
research
7. Name the three types of validity in research
8. Explain what is meant by the term “reliability”.
9. Describe three ways to estimate the reliability of
the scores obtained using a particular instrument.

_____________________________________________________________________

4.3 Defining the term “measurement”

Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to objects or observation, the level of

measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are
assigned,(Kothari,2004). A rule specifies the procedure a researcher uses to assign
numerals or numbers to objects or events. A rule might say: assign the numerals “1” to a
male and numeral “2” to a female.

While it is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties of some object, it is relatively

difficult in respect to others. For example, measuring such things, as intelligence, love,
hate is much less obvious and requires much closer attention than measuring physical
properties like, length, height or width. While we can expect high accuracy in measuring
physical properties like the height of a person, we would be less confidence about the
accuracy of the measurements we use for abstract concepts like motivation to work.

In measuring a property of an object, we devise some form of scale in the range (in terms
of set theory) and then transform or map the property of the objects from the domain. Rules
are the most significant component of the measurement procedure because they determine
the quality of measurement. Poor rules make measurement meaningless. Measurement is
meaningless when it is not tied to reality, when it lacks an empirical basis. The functions

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of rules are to tie the measurement procedure to reality.

In social sciences, the researchers measure indicators of concepts. As we said earlier,

abstract concepts such as motivation, love or hate cannot be observed directly; researchers
must infer their presence by measuring their empirical, observable indicators. For instance
motivation can be measures by some identifiable behaviour like, being punctual or being
ready to take more responsibility.

Therefore, we can say that indicators are specified by operational definitions. After a
researcher observes the indicators, they substitute numerals or numbers for the value of
the indicator and perform quantitative analyses.

4.4 Levels of measurements (measurement scales)

The term, scales is sometimes used instead of levels of measurement

4.4.1What is a scale?

A scale may be thought of as a tool for measuring. The most widely used classification of
measurement scales are; nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Let us discuss each of them.

4.4.2 Nominal scale

Nominal scales are the lowest level of measurement. Nominal scale is simply a system of
assigning symbols to events in order to label them. The numbers assigned to an object is
only a symbol. For instance, we can use numbers “1” and “2” to represent male and female
respectively. As a rule, we should the categories should be exhaustive (that is, with no case
that include all cases of that type) and mutually exclusive (that no case can be classified
as belonging to more than one category). The numbers are just convenient labels for the
particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value.

Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It does not indicate order or

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distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. It simply describes differences between
things by assigning them to categories. The scale wastes all the information that may have
about varying degrees of the variable. The main statistics used for nominal scale are the
mode, measures of qualitative variation and appropriate measures of association. Chi-
square test is the most common test of statistical significance. Fore measures of correlation
the contingency coefficient can be worked out.

4.4.3 Ordinal scale.

This is a level of measurement that shows the relative importance of variables in order of
magnitude, size and preferences. Ordinal scale emphasizes order, which is expressed in
degree of quality. The typical relations are, “ higher”, “ greater”, “More desired” and so
on. In most cases, ordinal scales indicate rank order.

4.4.4 Interval scale.

An interval scale processes all the characteristics of an ordinal scale with one additional
feature; the distances between the points on this scale are equal. For example the distance
between a score of 70 and 80 is the same as the score between 80 and 90.

This level of measurement is used where particular data and information collected has
quantifiable magnitude such as population size, weight and distances, which are measured
against an established criteria or standard. Examples of such measurements include year
calendar, temperature, time, and test scores.

4.4.5. Ratio scales.

This is the highest level of measurement that entails expressing the number of persons,
and other attributes such as proportions of the total population. It is a scale that possesses
an actual, or zero point. Variables such as weight, time, length, and area have natural zero
points and are measured at the ratio level.

4.5 Measurement errors.

Any good scientific study should be precise and unambiguous. However, some errors can

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occur in the process of measurements. There are four main sources of measurement errors.
They are:

 Respondent: The respondents can be a source of measurement errors. This may

occur if the respondent is reluctant to express strong negative feelings or it is
just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his
ignorance on the subject of study. Other respondent related errors may occur
due to fatigue, boredom, anxiety etc. and may limit the ability of the respondent
to respond accurately and fully.
 Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct
measurement. Any condition that places a strain on interview can have serious
effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport. For example, if some one else is
present during the interview, the respondent may feel shy to give all the
information the may want to give.
 Measurer: The interviewer can be a source of error if they distort responses by
rewording or reordering the questions. The interviewer‘s behaviour, style, or
looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from the respondents. The
sources may relate to incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/ or statistical
calculations, or careless mechanical processing.
 Instruments: Defective measuring instruments may cause measurement errors.
For example when a person uses complex words beyond the comprehension of
the respondents, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for
replies, response choice omissions and so on.

It is therefore important for the researcher to ensure that they meet all the problems listed
above.

4.6 Scaling Techniques

Scales involve rating qualitative descriptions of a limited number of aspects or traits of a

person. When using rating scales (or categorical scales), we judge an object in absolute
terms against some specified criteria., for instance, we judge properties of objects without
reference to other similar objects. Such ratings may be in such forms as “like-dislike”,

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“above average, average below average”. Note that there is no specified rule whether to
use a two-point scale, three-point scale or scale with still more points.

4.6.1 Types of rating scales

Researchers use different rating scales for different research designs. We are now going
to discuss look at the various types of rating scales used in research.
(a) Arbitrary scales:
These are scales that are developed on ad hoc basis and are designed largely through the
researcher’s own subjective selection of items. Normally, the researcher will first collect
some statements or items, which he believes are unambiguous and appropriate to a given
topic. Some of these are selected for inclusion in the measuring instruments and then
people are asked to check in a list the statements with which they agree. Such scales are
easy to develop quickly and are relatively less expensive. They can also be designed to be
highly specific and adequate. It is for this reason that such scales are widely used in
practice.

Their greatest disadvantage is that we do not have objective evidence that such scales
measure the concepts for which they have been developed. They rely on the researcher’s
insight and competence.

(b) Differential scales (Thurstone type scales):

Under this approach, the selection of items is made by a panel of judges who evaluate the
items in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in
implication. The procedure entails the following:

 The researcher gathers a large number of statements, usually twenty or more,

that express various points of view towards a group, institution, idea or
practice( i.e., statements belonging to the topic area).
 These statements are then submitted to a panel of judges, each of who arranges
them in eleven groups or piles ranging from one extreme to another in position.
Each of the judges is requested to place generally in the first pile the statement
which he thinks are most unfavourable to the issue, in the second pile to place

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 those statements which he thinks are next most unfavourable and he goes on
doing so in this manner till in the eleventh pile he puts the statements which he
considers to be the most favourable.
 This sorting by each judge yields a composite position for each of the items. In
case of marked disagreement between the judges in assigning a position to an
item, what item is discarded?
 Fri items that are retained, each is given its median scale value between one
and eleven as established by the panel. That is the scale value of any statement
is computed as the median position to which it is assigned by the group of
judges.
 A final selection of statements is then made. For this purpose, a sample of
statements whose median scores are spread evenly from one extreme to the
other is taken. The statement so selected, constitute the final scale to be
administered to respondents. The position of each statement on the scale is the
same as determined by the judges.

The Thurstone method has been used widely for developing differential scales which are
utilised to measure attitudes towards varied issues like war, religion etc. However, they
are difficult to develop and also expensive. The method is not completely objective; it
involves ultimately subjective decision process.

(c) Summated scales (likert-type scales)

These are scales that are developed by utilizing the item analysis approach wherein a
particular item is evaluated on the basis of how well it discriminates between those persons
whose total scores is high and those scores is low. Those items or statements that best meet
this sort of discrimination test are included in the final instrument.

Summated scales consist of a number of statements which express either a favourable or

unfavourable attitude towards the given object to which the respondents is asked to react.
The respondent indicates his agreement or disagreement with each statement in the
instrument. Each response is given a numerical score, indicating its favourableness or

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unfavourableness, and the scores are totalled to measure the respondent’s attitude. At the
end, the overall score represents the respondent’s position on the continuum of favourable
– unfavourable ness towards an issue. The most frequently used of this type of scale is the
Likert Scales.

4.7 Validity and Reliability of data collection instruments

We have already mentioned earlier that the conclusions made by researchers are based on
the information they obtain from the instruments. Therefore, the quality of instruments
used in research is very important. To achieve this, researchers ensure that the instruments
are reliable and valid. Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and
usefulness of the inferences a researcher makes. Reliability refers to the consistency of
scores or answers from one administration of an instrument to another, and from one set
of items to another. In this lecture, we will discuss several procedures used by researchers
to ensure that the conclusions they draw are based on collect and valid data. Let us now
discuss the concepts of validity and reliability in details.

4.7.1 Validity

Before you use a research instrument you must ensure that it has some validity. Validity
is the most important idea to consider when preparing or selecting an instrument for use.
For example, if a project manager want to know whether the people support the project or
not he or she will need an instrument to record the data and some sort of assurance that the
information obtained will enable him or her to draw the correct conclusions about the
peoples feelings or opinions. The process of drawing the correct conclusions based on the
data obtained from an assessment is what validity is all about.

Validation on the other hand, is the process of collecting evidence to support the inference
made. What is important to us is to realize that validity refers to the degree to which
evidence supports any inferences a researcher makes based on the data he or she collects
using a particular instrument. It is important for us to note that it is the inferences about
the specific uses of an instrument that are validated, and not the instrument itself.
Therefore, the inferences made should be appropriate, meaningful and useful.

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 What do we mean by appropriate inference?

An “appropriate inference” is one that is relevant to the purpose of the study. For
example, if the purpose of a study was to determine what people know about the
importance of a project, it would make no sense to make inferences about this from a test
score about the most popular politician in the area.

A “meaningful inference”: A meaningful inference is one that says something about the
meaning of the information obtained through the use of the instrument. For example, if
you say that a person attitude towards something is high? What exactly does a positive
attitude score mean? What does such a positive attitude score allow us to say about an
individual who has it? In what ways is that individual different from one who receives a
negative attitude score? The important thing to remember is that the purpose of research
is not merely to collect data, but to use such data to draw warranted conclusions about a
people or a situation on which the data were collected.

Validity, therefore, depends on the amount and type of evidence there is to support the
interpretations the researchers wish to make concerning data they have collected. The most
important question we should ask ourselves as researchers is whether the results of the
assessment provided useful information about the research questions or the variables being
measured.

4.7.2.1 Types of validity

There are three types of validity that are of interest to us as researchers. They are: content-
related evidence of validity, the criterion-related evidence of validity and the construct –
related evidence of validity. Let us briefly look at each one of them.

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i)Content-related validity: this type of validity refers to the content and format of the
instrument. The mains questions a researcher should ask are:
 How appropriate is the content of the instrument to the purpose of the study?
 How comprehensive is the content in measuring all the constructs of the
variable being measured?
 Does the content logically get at the intended variable?
 How adequate does the sample of items or questions represent the content to
be measured?
 Is the instrument format appropriate?
A researcher needs to provide answers to these questions before using the instrument to
collect data.

ii)Criterion-related validity: this refers to the relationship between scores obtained using
an instrument and scores obtained using one or more other instruments or measures. It is
expressed as the coefficient of correlation between test scores and some measure of future
performance or between test scores and scores on another measure of known validity.
What is important is to ask ourselves how well the scores estimate present or predict future
occurrences. The criterion validity must possess the following qualities:
 Relevance: a criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms of what we judge to
be the proper measures.
 Freedom from bias: a criterion is said to be free from bias if it gives each subject
an equal opportunity to score
 Reliability: a reliable criterion is stable or reproducible
 Availability: the information specified by the criterion must be available.

iii) Construct Validity: this refers to the nature of the psychological construct or
characteristic being measured. A measure is said to possess construct validity to the degree
that it conforms to predicted correlations with other theoretical propositions. It measures
the degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for by the explanatory construct of
sound theory. In this case, we associate a set of other propositions with the results received
from using our measurement instrument. If the measurements on our devised scale
correlate in a predicated way with these other propositions, we conclude that there is some
construct validity.

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4.7.3 Reliability

Reliability is another important measurement in research. Reliability refers to the

consistence of the scores obtained. That is how consistent the scores are for each individual
from one administration of an instrument to another and from one item to another. It is
important to note that reliable measuring instruments do contribute to validity, but a
reliable instrument needs to be a valid instrument. For example, a measuring scale that
consistently under weighs an object by one kilo is a reliable scale but it is not a valid
measure of weight!

Reliability has two aspects, stability and equivalency.

Reliability is said to be stable if it gives consistent results with repeated measurements of

the same object with the same instrument. The degree of stability is determined by
comparing the results of repeated measurements.

Equivalency is the measure of how much error gets introduced by different investigators
or different samples of the items being studied. A good way to test for the equivalency of
measurement by two researchers is to compare their observations of the same events.

4.7.3.1 How do we improve reliability?

 By standardising the conditions under which the measurements takes place. That
is by ensuring that external sources of variation to the measure are minimised
 By carefully designing directions for measurement with no variation from group
to group, by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also
by broadening the sample of items used. The aim here is to improve equivalency

Just like many situations in life, errors of measurement can occur in research. If an
instrument is administered to the same group more than once, or when two different forms
of an instrument are used there is bound to be variation in the test score.

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Researchers should strive to ensure that their instruments are reliable. They can do so by
calculating the reliability coefficient of the instruments. A reliability coefficient expresses
a relationship between scores of the same individual on the same instrument at two
different times or between two parts of the same instrument. There are three best –known
ways to obtain a reliability coefficient. They are: the test-retest method, the equivalent-
forms method; and the internal consistency methods. Let us briefly look at how they are
used in research.

i) Test-retest method

This method involves administering the same test twice to the same group after a certain
time interval has elapsed since the previous test. A reliability coefficient is then calculated
to indicate the relationship between the two sets of scores obtained.
Note that this coefficient will be affected by the length of time that elapses between the
two administrations of the test. The longer the time interval, the lower the reliability
coefficient is likely to be since there is greater likelihood of changes in the individuals
taking the test. However, the variable being tested should have some level of stability
within a given period of time.

ii) Equivalent –Forms method

This involves giving two different but equivalent forms of an instrument to the same group
of people or research object during the same time period. Although the items (questions)
are different, they should sample the same content and they should be constructed
separately from each other. A reliability coefficient should be calculated between the two
sets of scores obtained. A high coefficient would indicate strong evidence of reliability.
This would imply that the two forms are measuring the same thing.

iii) Internal – consistency methods

The two method so far considered (i.e., the test-retest and the equivalent methods) require
two administration or testing sessions. However, there are other methods of estimating
reliability which requires only a single administration of an instrument. They are; the split-
half method, the Kuder- Richardson approaches and the alpha coefficient method. Let us

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discuss each one of them separately.

iv)The split- half methods

This involves scoring two-halves of a test separately for each person and then calculating
a correlation coefficient for the two sets of scores. In most cases researchers will split the
instrument into the odd items and the even items. The resulting coefficient indicates the
degree to which the two halves of the test provide the same results, and hence describes
the internal consistency of the test.

The reliability coefficient is calculated using the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula as

indicated here below:

Reliability of scores on total test = 2× reliability for ½ test

1+ reliability for ½ tests.

It is possible to increase reliability by increasing its length if the items added are similar
to the original ones.

v) Kuder- Richardson approaches:

This is the most frequently used method by researchers for determining internal
consistency. It uses two formulas, the KR20 and KR 21. KR20 formula requires three
types of information: the number of items in the test, the mean, and the standard deviation.
It is important to note that this formula can only be used if we assume that the items are of
equal difficulty.

The formula is stated as follows:

As you are aware by now, this is a coefficient and that a coefficient value of .00 indicates
a complete absence of a relationship and hence no reliability at all. A coefficient of 1.00
on the other hand indicates a complete relationship. For research purposes, the rule of
thumb is that the reliability should be at least.70 and preferably higher.

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vi)The Alpha coefficient (Cronbach alpha): This is a general form KR20 formula and it
is used to calculating reliability of items that are not scored right versus wrong.

4.8 Summary
We have discussed that validity as used in research refers to the appropriateness,
meaningfulness and usefulness of any inferences a researcher draws based on data
obtained through the use of an instrument. There are three types of validity: the content-
related validity, the criterion-related validity and the construct-related validity. On the
other hand, “reliability” as used in research refers to the consistency of scores or answers
provided by an instrument. There are three methods of estimating reliability: the test-
retest method, the equivalent forms method and the internal –consistency methods.
Whatever method a researcher decides to use, he or she must ensure that the results
represent the true picture of the situation.

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4.9 Self-Evaluation Test
In each of the statements presented here below, indicate what type of evidence
(Validity) would better represent the statement.
 Ninety five of the respondents who scored high on an attitude test.
 Do you think there is a relationship between reliability and validity in research?
 Discuss the three types of reliability and give example in what research situations
you would use each of them.
 What are the main sources of measurement errors in research?

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 4.10 Activity
1.In my research project , I will use the following existing instruments---------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------The following is a summary of what I have learnt
about validity and reliability of the scores obtained with these instruments------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.If you are not going to use an existing instrument , indicate here below the
instruments you intend to use-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Indicate how you will ensure reliability and validity of the results obtained with
these instruments--------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) indicate how you will collect evidence to check internal consistency of the
instruments you will use -----------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) indicate how you will collect evidence to check reliability over time
(Stability of the instrument)----------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------
(c )Indicate how you will collect evidence to check validity----------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 4.11 Suggestions for further readings

1. Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

2. Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.

3. Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics

4. George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social

Sciences.

5. Hunt N and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling

Techniques.

6. Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd

ed.). Newbury.

7. Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage

Publications. [Del Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu

8. Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the

Social sciences.

9. Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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 LECTURE FIVE
SAMPLING DESIGN
Lecture outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Lecture objective
5.3 Definition of the term “Sample”
5.4 Aims of sampling
5.5 A population
5.6 A sampling unit
5.7 A sampling frame
5.8 Sampling design
5.9 Non- probability sampling technique
5.10 Lecture summary
5.11 Activity
5.12 Suggestion for further readings

5.1 Introduction

When a researcher wants to know something about a certain group of people, they usually
find a few members of the group and study them. After they have finished studying the
individuals they usually come up with conclusions about a larger group.

Researchers collect data in order to test hypothesis and to provide empirical support for
explanations and predictions. Once the researchers have constructed their measuring
instruments in order to collect sufficient data pertinent to the research problem, the
subsequent explanations and predictions must be capable of being generalized to be of
scientific value.

Typically, generalizations are not based on data collected from all the observations, all the
respondents, or all the events that are defined by the research problem. Instead, researchers
use a relatively small number of cases (a sample) as the bases for making inferences about
all the cases (a population), Nachmias, 1996 pp178.

Many commonsense observations, in fact, are based on observations of relatively few

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people. In this lecture, we discuss the meaning of sampling and its purpose in research.
Later in the lecture, we will discuss the various sampling techniques.

_______________________________________________________________________
_

5.2 Lecture objectives

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between a sample and a population
2. Explain what is meant by the term “representative sample”.
3. Explain how a target population differs from an accessible
population
4. Distinguish between the various types of sampling techniques
5. Explain how the sample size can make a difference in terms of
representativeness of the sample.

What is a sample?

5.3 Definition of the term “sample”

A sample is a group in a research study on which information is obtained. A population is
the group to which the results of the study are intended to apply. In almost all research
investigations, the sample is smaller than the population, since the researchers rarely have
access to all the members of the population.

One of the most important steps in the research process is to select the sample of
individuals who will participate as part of the study.

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Sampling refers to the process of selecting these individuals. Researchers would prefer to
study the entire population in which they are interested. However, this is difficult to do.
Most populations of interest are large, diverse, and scattered over a large geographic area.
Finding, let alone contacting all the members can be time- consuming and expensive. For
that reason, of necessity, researchers often select a sample to study.

5.4 Aims of sampling

As we stated earlier, it is often impossible, impractical or extremely expensive to collect

data from all the potential units of analysis covered by the research problem. Therefore,
researchers normally resort to drawing inferences on all the units based on a relatively
small number of units when the subsets of the unit accurately represent the relevant
attributes of the whole set.

For a researcher to accurately estimate unknown parameters from the known statistics,
they have to effectively deal with three major problems namely, first, the definition of the
population, secondly, the sampling design and thirdly, the size of the sample. Let us now
discuss each of them.

5.5 A population

A population can be referred to as the entire set of relevant units of analysis, or data. It can
as well be referred to as the “ aggregate of all cases that conform to some designated set
of specifications, Isidor Chein, 1982, pp 419{ Isidor Chein, “ An Introduction to
Sampling”, in Claire Selltiz,et al., Research Methods in Social relations, 4th ed.( New
York: Holt, Renehart and Winston,1981), p.419. For example, we can define a population
consisting of all the people residing in Kenya. We can even narrow this down to a specific
population of say university students in the University of Nairobi.

A population may be either finite or infinite. A finite population contains a countable

number of sampling units, for example, all registered voters in a particular constituency in
a given election year. An infinite population, on the other hand, consists of an endless
number of sampling units, such as an unlimited number of stars in the sky.

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5.6 A sampling unit

A sampling unit is a single member of a sampling population. For example, if you are
studying the University of Nairobi students, each single students becomes your sampling
unit. A good sampling unit must it must be relevant to the research problem. It is important
to note that a sampling unit need not be an individual. It can be an event, a city, or a
situation.

5.7 A Sampling frame

It is very important for a researcher to draw a sampling frame for the population of the
study. A sampling frame is a complete listing of the sampling units. The accuracy of a
sample depends largely on the sampling frame. Indeed, every aspect of the sampling
design- the population covered, the stages of sampling, and the sampling frame influences
the actual selection process-.

5.8 Sample design.

We have already underscored the need for a representative sample. A sample is considered
to be representative if the analyses made using the researcher’s sampling units produce
results similar to those that would be obtained had the researcher analyzed the entire
population. There are several approaches that help the researchers to design a sample.
Broadly, speaking, the basic distinctions are between the probability and the non-
probability sampling technique. We are now going to discuss the distinction between the
two approaches.

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5.8.1 Probability Sampling Techniques

This provides a scientific technique of drawing samples from the population according to
the laws of chance in which each unit in the universe has some definite pre-assigned
probability of being selected in the sample. The selection of the sample based on the theory
of probability is also known as random selection and sometimes the probability sampling
is also called Random Sampling. According to Simpson and Kafka, "Random samples are
characterized by the way in which they are selected. Randomness is not used in the sense
of haphazard or hit or miss".

When using probability sampling technique, the sampling units are selected according to
some probability laws. Some of these laws are that:

 Each sample unit has an equal chance of being selected.

 Sampling units have varying probability of being selected.

 Probability of selection of a unit is proportional to the sample size.

With a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the
population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. Some of the
important types of probability sampling techniques include;

(i) Simple Random Sampling

(ii) Stratified Random Sampling

(iii) Multistage sampling

(iv) Simple Cluster Sampling

5.8.2 Simple random sampling technique

In statistics, a simple random sample is a group of subjects (a sample) chosen from a larger
group (a population). Each subject from the population is chosen randomly and entirely
by chance, such that each subject has the same probability (or chance) of being chosen at
any stage during the sampling process.

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In small populations such sampling is typically done "without replacement", i.e., one
deliberately avoids choosing any member of the population more than once. An unbiased
random selection of subjects is important so that in the long run, the sample represents the
population. However, this does not guarantee that a particular sample is a perfect
representation of the population.

Simple random sampling merely allows one to draw externally valid conclusions about
the entire population based on the sample. Although simple random sampling can be
conducted with replacement instead, this is less common and would normally be described
more fully as simple random sampling with replacement.

Conceptually, simple random sampling is the simplest of the probability sampling

techniques. It requires a complete sampling frame, which may not be available or feasible
to construct for large populations. Even if a complete frame is available, more efficient
approaches may be possible if other useful information is available about the units in the
population.

This type of sampling best suits situations where not much information is available about
the population and data collection can be efficiently conducted on randomly distributed
items. A simple random sample gives each member of the population an equal chance of
being chosen. It is not a haphazard sample as some people think! One way of achieving a
simple random sample is to number each element in the sampling frame (e.g. give
everyone on the Electoral register a number) and then use random numbers to select the
required sample.

Random numbers can be obtained using your calculator, a spreadsheet, and printed tables
of random numbers, or by the more traditional methods of drawing slips of paper from a
hat, tossing coins or rolling dice.

Advantages and disadvantages of a simple random sampling technique

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of simple random sampling
technique.
Advantages:

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  It is ideal for statistical purposes.
 It is free of classification error.
 It requires minimum advance knowledge of the population

Disadvantages

 It is hard to achieve in practice

 It requires an accurate list of the whole population
 It is expensive to conduct as those sampled may be scattered over a wide area.
 The selected sample is not necessarily representative of the larger population.

5.8.3 Stratified Random Sampling Technique

This is also referred to as proportional random sampling. It involves dividing your

population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each
subgroup. It falls under the random or probability sampling category. When surveys are
being conducted, due to the population not being homogeneous, different problems are
experienced in different parts of the population. To increase efficiency, it becomes
important to treat homogenous parts of the population as populations in their own rights.
Each homogenous part of the population is referred to as a stratum and simple random
samples are taken from each stratum independently of each other.

When do we use stratified random sampling?

Stratified sampling techniques are generally used when the population is heterogeneous,
or dissimilar or where certain homogeneous, or similar, sub-populations can be isolated
(strata). Simple random sampling is most appropriate when the entire population from
which the sample is taken is homogeneous.

Advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling technique.

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The following are the advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling techniques.

Advantages

It assures the researcher of representation not only for the overall population, but also key
subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. If you want to be able to
talk about subgroups, this may be the only way to effectively assure you'll be able to. If
the subgroup is extremely small, you can use different sampling fractions within the
different strata to randomly over-sample the small group (although you'll then have to
weight the within-group estimates using the sampling fraction whenever you want overall
population estimates).

 When we use the same sampling fraction within strata, we are conducting
proportionate stratified random sampling.

 When we use different sampling fractions in the strata, we call this disproportionate
stratified random sampling.

Stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple
random sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous. If they
are, we expect that the variability within-groups is lower than the variability for the
population as a whole. Administrative convenience - in this case we have field officers
dealing with different parts of the population independently.

Disadvantages:

The following are the disadvantages of stratified random sample.

 It can be difficult to select relevant stratification variables

 It is not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups

 It can be expensive

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  It requires accurate information about the population, or introduces bias.

 It looks randomly within specific sub headings.

5.8.4 Cluster Sampling Technique

This is a form of random sampling where the entire population is divided into groups, or
clusters and a random sample of these clusters are selected. All observations in the selected
clusters may be included in the sample or simple random sampling techniques may be used
to pick out the individuals to be included from each cluster. When all units of the selected
cluster are interviewed, this is referred to as "one-stage cluster sampling". If the subjects
to be interviewed are selected randomly within the selected clusters, it is called "two-stage
cluster sampling" (Caswell F 1989). Cluster sampling is a form of random sampling where
the units sampled are chosen in clusters.

This method of sampling is particularly useful where it is difficult to know the exact
numbers of individuals in a population, for example in developing countries where official
statistics are sparse. It is also applicable where the population is too large to carry out
simple random or stratified sampling and is commonly used in geography and biology
where; the survey area is covered with a grid of squares, A random sample of the squares
is then used for a complete investigation either by counting some physical or manmade
features in Geography or microbes, plant species etc in Biology. The results are then
generalized to the rest of the grids.

Advantages and disadvantages of cluster sampling technique

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of cluster sampling technique

Advantages

 It helps to reduced field costs as a result of saving of travelling time and distance
covered
 It is applicable where no complete list of units is available (special lists only

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 need be formed for clusters).

Disadvantages

 Units close to each other may be very similar and so less likely to represent the
whole population

 It results in a larger sampling error than simple random sampling

 Clusters may not be representative of whole population but may be too alike

 Analysis of data is more complicated than for simple random sampling.

Study the following examples

Suppose that a survey is to be done in a large town and that the unit of enquiry is
the individual household. Suppose further that the town contains 20,000
households, all listed on convenient records, and a sample of 200 is needed. A
simple random sample of 200 could well spread over the whole town incurring
high costs and much inconvenience.

However one might decide to concentrate the sample in a few parts of the town.
Suppose for simplicity the town can be divides into 400 areas with 50 households
in each then one could select at random 4 areas (1/100) and include all households
in these areas. Constituencies, Wards, Districts etc may be used as geographical
demarcations.

Another example would be conducting interviews with doctors in a major city

about their training needs. It would be difficult for the researcher to do a simple
random sample of all the doctors because firstly, there may be no proper records

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 of all the doctors practicing in that particular city, and secondly it may mean
visiting most of the hospitals in that city to conduct the interviews. Therefore the
researcher could decide that each hospital in the city represents one cluster, and
then randomly select a small number, e.g. 20. He would then contact the doctors in
these 20 hospitals for interviews. Better still he may use another random sample
technique identify which doctors to interview

_________________________________________________________________

5.8.5 Multi-stage Sampling Technique.

Multi-stage sampling is like cluster sampling, but involves selecting a sample within each
chosen cluster, rather than including all units in the cluster. Thus, multi-stage sampling
involves selecting a sample in at least two stages.

In the first stage, large groups or clusters are selected. These clusters are designed to
contain more population units than are required for the final sample.

In the second stage, population units are chosen from selected clusters to derive a final
sample. If more than two stages are used, the process of choosing population units within
clusters continues until the final sample is achieved. If we took the national elections as
an example, then a multi-stage sampling would involve, firstly, deciding on the electoral
sub-divisions (clusters) to be sampled from a city or state. Secondly, blocks of houses are
selected from within the electoral sub-divisions and, thirdly, individual houses are selected
from within the selected blocks of houses.

Advantages and disadvantages of multi-stage cluster sampling technique.

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of a multi-stage cluster sampling
technique.

Advantages:

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  It is convenient.
 It is economical.
 It is more efficient than the simple random, cluster random sampling techniques.

Disadvantages
 It has a lower accuracy due to higher sampling error.

5.8.6 Systematic sampling technique

Systematic sampling is a slight variation of the simple random sampling technique in

which only the first sample unit is selected at random and the remaining units are
automatically selected in a definite sequence at equal spacing from one another. This
technique of drawing samples is usually recommended if there is complete and up to date
list of the sampling units and that the units are arranged in some systematic order e.g.:
alphabetical, chronological, geographical etc. Systematic random sample appears like a
stratified random sample with one unit per stratum.

Advantages and disadvantages of systematic sampling technique

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of systematic sampling technique.

Advantages
 Very easy to operate and checking can also be done quickly.
 More efficient than simple random sampling

Disadvantages
 Works well only if the complete and up to date frame is available and if the units
are randomly arranged.
 Gives biased results if there are periodic features in the frame and the sampling
interval is equal to or a multiple of the period.

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5.9 Non-probability sampling techniques

In this method, a desired number of sample units is selected deliberately or purposely

depending upon the object of inquiry so that only the important items representing the true
characteristics of the population are included in the sample. There are several types of non-
probability sampling techniques. Let us discuss each one of them and where they would
be applicable in research.

5.9.2 Purposive Sampling Technique

A sampling method in which elements are chosen based on purpose of the study. Purposive
sampling may involve studying the entire population of some limited group (Diploma
students at the University of Nairobi) or a subset of a population (Post Graduate Diploma
in Project Planning & Management). Purposive sampling does not produce a sample that
is representative of a larger population. It's a sample which is selected by the researcher
subjectively. It is also called judgment sampling.
Purposive sampling is the most popular in qualitative research and subjects are selected
because of some characteristic ( Patton, 1990).

Areas/Instances of application of the technique - This sampling technique can be applied

in several situations. The main examples are:

 Validation of a test or instrument with a known population

 Collection of exploratory data from an unusual population (When the population
for study is highly unique e.g. Parents of children with Tay Sack's disease).

 Use in qualitative studies to study the lived experience of a specific population.

 Intended to counteract the potential biases in convenience sampling

 When the desired population for the study is rare or very difficult to locate and
recruit for a study, purposive sampling may be the only option.
 Where it is particularly important to explore the range of different potential impacts
e.g. ensuring that the quota for women includes a selection of single women, very
old women, and a literate woman and so on.(Epiet 1996)

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Advantages and disadvantages of Purposive sampling technique
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of purposeful sampling technique.
Advantages

 Easy to undertake

 It is sometimes possible to carry it through where randomization is not feasible.

 Very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and
where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern.

 Cheaper.

 Used when sampling frame is not available.

 Useful when population is so widely dispersed that cluster sampling would not be
efficient.

 Often used in exploratory studies, e.g. for hypothesis generation.

 Some research not interested in working out what proportion of population gives a
particular response but rather in obtaining an idea of the range of responses on
ideas that people have.

Disadvantages

 Results can be useless.

 Difficulty in determining how much of the effect (dependent variable) results from
the cause (independent variable).

 Potential for bias/inaccuracy in the researcher's criteria and resulting sample

selections

 Unable to generalize.

 One or two relevant examples/illustrations

 Ensuring that the quota for women includes a selection of single women, very old
women, a literate woman and so on..
 You are interested in studying cognitive processing speed of young adults who

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 have suffered closed head brain injuries in automobile accidents. This would be a
difficult population to find.

 Used in political polling - districts chosen because their pattern has in the past

5.9.3 Quota sampling technique

Quota sampling is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. In this case the
population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups. This technique is one of
non-probability sampling, selection of sample is non-random. Judgment is used to select
the subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion (Anderson,1966).

There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional. In proportional
quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by
sampling a proportional amount of each. For instance, if you know the population has 40%
women and 60% men, and that you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue
sampling until you get those percentages and then you will stop.

So, if you've already got the 40 women for your sample, but not the sixty men, you will
continue to sample men but even if legitimate women respondents come along, you will
not sample them because you have already "met your quota."

The problem here (as in much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the specific
characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education race,
religion, etc? One need to have answers to these questions.

Non proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you specify the
minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. Here, you're not concerned
with having numbers that match the proportions in the population. Instead, you simply
want to have enough to assure that you will be able to talk about even small groups in the
population. This method is the non probabilistic analogue of stratified random sampling
in that it is typically used to assure that smaller groups are adequately represented in your
sample.

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Advantages and disadvantages of quota sampling technique

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of a quota sampling technique.

Advantages:

 It reduces sampling error

 Relatively cheaper and easy to undertake

 Used when sampling frame is not available

 Often used in exploratory studies.

 Possible to carry it through where randomization is not feasible

 Useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where
sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern.

Disadvantages

 The problem is that these samples may be biased/ inaccurate because not
everyone gets a chance of selection.

 Results can be useless “Unable to generalize

 Difficulty in determining how much of the effect (dependent variable) results
from the cause (independent variable).

5.9.4 Convenience Sampling Technique

As its name implies, convenience sampling refers to the collection of information from
members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it. It is a non-
probability sampling method, thus the elements in the population do not have any
probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects.

This means the findings from the study of the sample cannot be confidently generalized to

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the population. In other words, the researcher has no way of estimating the
representativeness of convenience samples and therefore cannot estimate the population
parameters.

Advantages and disadvantages of Convenience sampling technique

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of a convenience sampling technique.

Advantages

 It is very easy to conduct.

 It is not expensive

 It is less time consuming.

Disadvantages

 It is very biased

 The results obtained cannot be generalized to the population.

Areas of application: It's important to note that, convenience sampling is most used
during exploratory phase of a research project i.e. during preliminary research efforts to
get a gross estimate of the results. The researcher will obtain some quick information to
get a feel for the phenomenon or variables of interest.
5.9.10 Snowball sampling

In the technique the researcher identifies a small number of individuals who have the
required characteristics. These people are then used as in formants to identify others
who qualify for inclusion in the sample. The second subjects also identify others hence
snowball. Snowball Sampling is used most when respondents are difficult to identify
and can best be located through referred networks. Snowball gathers subjects for the

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 sample as it rolls, along.The Sampling has been used to study drug cultures, power
elites, teenage where respondents are difficult to identify or contact

5.9 Lecture Summary

In this lecture we have discussed the need for sampling. We have defined a sample a
group in a research study on which information is obtained. Sampling refers to the
process of selecting these individuals. There are several approaches that help the
researchers to design a sample. Broadly, speaking, the basic distinctions are between
the probability and the non-probability sampling technique.

Probability Sampling Techniques provides a scientific technique of drawing samples

from the population according to the laws of chance in which each unit in the universe
has some definite pre-assigned probability of being selected in the sample. There are
several types which include: the simple random sampling; the stratified sampling; the
multi-stage sampling and simple cluster sampling.

Non-probability sampling techniques a desired number of sample units is selected

deliberately or purposely depending upon the object of inquiry so that only the
important items representing the true characteristics of the population are included in
the sample. There are several types of non-probability sampling techniques which
include: quota sampling; convenience sampling; purposive sampling and snowballing
sampling.
5

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 5.11 Activity

In respect to your proposed research problems fill in the bank spaces in the
following exercise.
1. In my proposed research study the following will be my intended sample
Subjects of the intended study---------------------------------------------
--------
List down the specific sample and their respective numbers----------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
2. Indicate the demographics (characteristics) of the sample in terms of the
following:
Age range------------------------------------
Sex distribution-------------------------------
Ethnic breakdown-----------------------
Their geographical location----------------------------------
Mention any other relevant characteristic not mentioned in the above list
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------
3. Indicate, by ticking one, the type of sample from the list given here below:
Simple random? -----
Stratified random? ------
Cluster random? --------
Two-stage? -------
Convenience? -----
Purposive? ----
4. Indicate how you will obtain your sample------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.11 Suggestion for further readings

1. Anderson, B. (1966). The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

Scientific Method. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

2. Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.

3. Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics
4. George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social Sciences.
5. Hunt N and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling
Techniques.
6. Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.).
Newbury.
7. Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage Publications.
[Del Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu
8. Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social
Sciences.
9. Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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Page 79 of 220
 LECTURE SIX
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Lecture outline
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lecture objectives
6.3 Characteristics of qualitative research
6.4 Comparison of qualitative and quantitative research
6.5 Steps followed when conducting qualitative research
6.6 Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research
6.7 Issues of generalization in qualitative research
6.8 Research strategies used in qualitative research
6.9 Data collection techniques in qualitative research
6.10 Lecture summary
6.11 Activity
6.12 Suggestions for further readings

6.1 Introduction

There has been much confusion over what qualitative research is. Some people
think that qualitative research is non- quantitative. This is not true. First, some
qualitative research results in some quantification (e.g., counting the numbers of
occurrences of a particular behaviour). Second, that qualitative research is based
on the phenomenological paradigm, which uses a variety of interpretive research
methodologies while quantitative research is based on the logical-positive
paradigm, which utilizes experimental research methodologies. Still some people
believe that qualitative research uses a unitary approach, when in reality it uses a
variety of alternative approaches.

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 What is qualitative research?

As Patton (1990)
says, qualitative research uses different data than those used in traditional research
methods.

“Qualitative research methods consist of three kinds of data collection:

 In- depth open-ended interviews;
 Direct observation; and
 Written documents.

The data from interviews consists of direct quotations from people about their experiences,
opinions, feelings and knowledge. The data from observations consists of detailed
description of people’s activities, actions, and the full range excerpts, quotations, or entire
passages from organizational clinical or program records; memoranda and
correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries; open- ended written
responses to questionnaires and survey”

_____________________________________________________________________

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 6.2 Lecture objectives
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
 Explain what is meant by the term “qualitative research”.
 Describe the general characteristics of qualitative research
 Describe at least three ways that qualitative research differs from
quantitative research.
 Describe briefly the steps involved in qualitative research
 Explain how generalizing differs in qualitative research and
quantitative research

_____________________________________________________________________

6.4 Characteristics of qualitative research

Patton proposes ten themes, which inculcate qualitative research. These themes make the
various qualitative research methods distinct from quantitative methods.

Theme How it works

1. Naturalistic It involves the following:
inquiry  Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally;
 It is none manipulative, unobtrusive, and none controlling;
 It is open to whatever emerges- it does not have predetermined
constraints on outcomes

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2.Inductive  The researcher focus on the details and specifics of the data to
analysis discover important categories, dimensions, and
interrelationships;
 The research activity begins by exploring genuinely open
questions rather than testing theoretically derived (deductive)
hypothesis.

3.Holistic  The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a

perspective complex interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few
discrete variables and linear, cause –effect relationships
4. Qualitative  It involves detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; direct
data quotations capturing people’s personal perspectives and
experiences
5. Personal  The researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the
contact and people, situation, and phenomenon under study.
insight  The researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an
important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the
phenomenon
6. Dynamic  The researcher main attention is the research process. He/she
systems assumes that change is constant and ongoing whether the focus
is on an individual or an entire culture
7.Unique case  Assumes each case is special and unique; the first level of
orientation inquiry is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of
the individuals cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows
from and depends on the quality of the individual case studies.
8. Context  It places its findings in a social, historical, and temporal
sensitivity context; dubious of the possibility or meaningfulness of
generalization across time and space
9. Emphatic  It recognizes that complete objectivity is impossible and that
neutrality pure subjectivity undermines credibility. The researcher’s
passion is understanding the world in all its complexity- not
proving something, not advocating, not advancing personal
agendas, but understanding.

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  The researcher’s personal experiences and emphatic insight as
part of the relevant data, while taking a neutral non-
judgemental stance towards whatever content may emerge
10. Design  It is an open adapting inquiry process. The researcher’s
flexibility understanding of the phenomenon changes as the situations
changes.
 It avoids getting locked into rigid designs that eliminates
responsiveness; pursues new paths of discovery as they
emerge.

It is important to note that all qualitative research methods have one thing in common:
 The use of qualitative data,
 Sensitive to the context,
 Emphasis on researchers neutrality, and
 It focuses on inductive analysis.

i) Context sensitivity: qualitative data are so powerful because they are sensitive to
the social, historical, and temporal context in which the data were collected. The
particular importance of context sensitivity is that data are not generalized to other
contexts, socially, spatially, or temporally. The logical-positivistic paradigm on the
other hand, purposefully pursues research findings that can be generalised to other
settings, persons, and times.

ii) Inductive analysis enables the researcher to explore the data without prior
hypotheses. This permits the researcher to discover reality without having to fit it
into a preconceived theoretical perspective. This is obviously the antithesis of the
logical-positivistic approaches, which insists that research be based on hypothesis
generated from theory, prior research, or experience.

iii) Holistic perspective taken by qualitative researchers is important for understanding

the complex nature of many aspects of human and organizational behaviour.

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 Design flexibility is critical to qualitative research. Whereas experimental research
is carefully planned prior to commencing data collection with no possibility of
change once started, qualitative research is open to change throughout the data
collection process. This permits the researcher to adjust the direction of the inquiry
based on the ongoing experience of collecting and thinking of the data.

6.5 Comparison between qualitative and quantitative research

You have already been introduced to quantitative techniques in your statistical methods
study unit. You will also recall that a researcher can either use a pure qualitative approach
or a pure quantitative approach. When the two approaches are combined the approach is
called the mixed mode approach. It is important that you have an idea of the similarities
and differences in the two approaches.

Quantitative methodologies Qualitative methodologies

1.Preference for precise hypothesis  Preference for hypothesis that
stated at the outset emerge as the study develops
2. preference for precise definition  Preference for definitions in
stated at the outset context or as the study progresses
3. Data reduced to numerical scores  Preference for narrative
description
4. Much attention to assessing and  Preference for assuming that
improving reliability of scores obtained reliability of inference is adequate
from instruments
5. Assessment of validity through a  Assessment of validity through
variety of procedures with reliance on cross-checking sources of
statistical indices information( triangulation)
6.preference for precise description of  Preference for narrative/ literacy
procedures description of procedures
7.prefernce for design or statistical
control of extraneous variables
8. Preference for specific design  Preference reliance on researcher
control for procedural bias to deal with procedural bias

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 9. Preference for statistical summary of
results
10. Preference for breaking down of
complex phenomenon into specific
parts for analysis
11. Willingness to manipulate aspects,
situations, or conditions in studying
complex phenomena
 Preference for narrative summary
of results
 Preference for holistic description
of complex phenomena
 Unwillingness to tamper with
neutrality occurring phenomena

6.5 Steps followed when conducting qualitative research

The steps involved in conducting a qualitative research study are not as distinct as they are
in quantitative research; they often overlap and are sometimes even conducted
concurrently. However, they have a starting and ending point.

There are several steps that are followed in qualitative research. They are:

i) Identification of the phenomenon to be studied. Before any study can begin, the
researcher must identify the particular phenomenon he or she is interested in
investigating

ii) Identification of the participants in the study. The participants in the study
constitute the sample of individuals who will be observed (interviewed, etc.). In
other words, the subjects of the study. In almost all-qualitative research, the sample
is a purposeful. Random sampling ordinarily is not feasible, since the researcher
wants to ensure that he or she obtains a sample that is uniquely suited to the intent
of the study.

iii) Generalization of hypothesis. Contrary to most quantitative studies, hypotheses

are not posed at the beginning of the study by the researcher. Instead, they emerge
from the data as the study progresses. Some are almost immediately discarded;
others are modified or replaced. New ones are formulated.

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 iv) Data collection. There is no “treatment” in a qualitative study, nor is there any
“Manipulation” of subjects. The participants in a qualitative study are not divided
into groups, for example, as in experimental research, with one group being
exposed to a treatment then measured in some way. Data are not collected at the
end of the study; rather the collection of data is the research goes on. The researcher
is continually observing people, events, and occurrences, often supplementing his
or her observations with in-depth interviews of selected participants and the
examination of various documents and records relevant to the phenomenon.

v) Data analysis. Analysing data in qualitative study essentially involves

synthesizing the information the researcher obtains from various sources (e.g.,
observation, interviews, content analysis) into a coherent description of what he or
she has observed or otherwise discovered. Hypothesis are not usually tested by
means of inferential statistical procedures, as is the case with experimental or
associational research, though some statistics, such as percentages may be
calculated. However, data analysis in qualitative research relies heavily on
description.

vi) Drawing conclusions. In qualitative research conclusions are drawn continuously

throughout the course of a study. Whereas quantitative researchers usually leave
the drawing of the conclusions to the very end of their research, qualitative
researchers tend to formulate their interpretations as they go along. As a result, one
finds the researcher’s conclusions in a qualitative study more or less integrated
with other steps in the research process.

6.6 Issue of validity and reliability in qualitative research

A fundamental concern in qualitative research, in fact, revolves around the degree of

confidence researchers can place in what they have seen or heard. In other words, how can
researchers be sure that they are not being misled?

As you are already aware, validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and

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usefulness of the inferences researchers make based on the data they collect, while
reliability refers to the consistency of these inferences overtime.

However, in qualitative study much depends on the perspective of the researcher.

Qualitative researchers use a number of techniques to check their perceptions in order to
ensure that they are not being misinformed- that they are, in effect, seeing (or hearing)
what they think they are.

Such techniques include the following:

a) Using a variety of instruments to collect data. When a conclusion is supported by

data collected from a number of different instruments, its validity is enhanced. This
kind of checking is called TRIANGULATION.
b) Checking one informant’s descriptions of something against another informant’s
description of the same thing.
c) Learning to understand and, where appropriate, speak the vocabulary of the group
being studied.
d) Writing down the questions asked (in addition to the answers received). This helps
the researcher to make sense at a later date out of the answers recorded earlier, and
help them reduce distortions owing to selective forgetting.
e) Recording personal thoughts while conducting observations and interviews.
Responses that seem unusual or incorrect can be noted and checked later against
other remarks or observations.
f) Documenting the sources of remarks whenever possible and appropriate. This
helps researchers make sense out of comments that otherwise might seem
misplaced.
g) Documenting the basis for inferences
h) Describing the context in which questions are asked and situations are observed.
i) Using audiotapes and videotapes when possible and appropriate.
j) Drawing conclusions based on one understands of the situation being observed and
then acting on these conclusions. If these conclusions are invalid, the researcher
will soon find out after acting on them.
k) Interviewing individuals more than once. Inconsistencies overtime in what the
same individual reports may suggest that he or she is an unreliable informant.

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 l) Observing the setting or situation of interest over a period of time. The length of
an observation is extremely important in qualitative research. Consistency over
time with regards to what researchers are seeing or hearing is a strong indication
of reliability. Furthermore, there is much about a group that does not even begin to
emerge until some time has passed, and the members of the group become familiar
with, and willing to trust, the researcher.

6.7 Issues of generalization in qualitative research

A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or claim of some sort that applies to

more than one individual, group, object, or situation. The value of generalization is that it
allows us to have expectations (and sometimes to make predictions) about the future.
Although a generalization might not be true in every case, it describes. More often than
not, what we would expect to find.

Generalization in quantitative research is different from that from the qualitative research.
In quantitative research, the researcher generalizes from the sample under investigation to
the population of interest. Note that it is the researcher who does the generalising. He or
she is likely to suggest to practitioners that the findings are of value and can (sometimes
they say “should”) be applied in their situation.

In qualitative studies, on the other hand, the researcher may also generalize, but it is much
more likely that any generalization to be done will be by interested practitioners- by
individuals who are in situations similar to the one(s) investigated by the researcher. It is
the practitioner, rather than the researcher, who judges the applicability of the researcher’s
findings and conclusions, who determines whether the researcher’s findings fit his or her
situation.

6.8 Research strategies (methodologies) in qualitative research

The choice of qualitative strategy depends on the focus of the research and the desired
time frame for the study. The main and mostly used strategies are the ethnographic studies,
case studies, content analysis, and field study.

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 a) Documents or content analysis

Documents are an important source of data in research. Document analysis is concerned

with the explanation of the status of some phenomenon at a particular time or its
development over a period of time. It serves a useful purpose in adding knowledge to fields
of inquiry and in explaining certain social events. The main sources of data are: reports,
printed forms, letters, autobiographies, diaries, compositions, themes or other academic
work, books, periodicals, bulletins or catalogues, syllabi, court decisions, pictures, films,
and cartoons.

When using documentary sources, one must bear in mind that data appearing in print are
not necessarily trustworthy. Documents used in descriptive research must be subjected to
careful criticism. The documents must be authentic and valid. The researcher must hence
establish the trustworthiness of all the data.

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b) The Case Study.

The case study is a way of organising social data for the purpose of viewing social reality.
It examines a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social group, a
social institution, or a community. The main purpose is to understand the lifecycle or an
important part of the life cycle of the unit. The case study probes deeply and analyses
interactions between the factors that explain present status or that influence change or
growth. It is a longitudinal approach, showing development over a period of time.

The focus of such a study is the typicalness rather than uniqueness. According to Bromley
(1986), “A ‘case’ is not only about a ‘person’ but also about that ‘kind of a person’. Thus
the selection of the subject of the case study needs to be done carefully in order to assure
that he or she is typical of those to whom we wish to generalise.

There are several methods of collecting data in a case study:

1. Observations by the researcher or his or her informants of physical characteristics,
social qualities, or behaviour.
2. Interviews with the subject(s), relatives, friends, teachers, counsellors, and others
3. Questionnaires, opinionnaires, psychological tests and inventories.
4. Recorded data from newspapers, schools, courts, clinics, government agencies,
institution or other sources.

Case studies are not confined to the study of individuals and their behavioural
characteristics. They also include groups and organizations.

There are several precautions that one should consider when using case study as a
methodology:

 The method may look deceptively simple. To use it effectively, the researcher must
be thoroughly familiar with existing theoretical knowledge of the field of inquiry,
and skilful in isolating the significant variables from many that are irrelevant.
There is tendency to select variables because of their spectacular nature rather than
for their critical significance.

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  Subjective bias is a constant threat to subjective data –gathering and analysis. The
danger of selecting variables relationships based upon preconceived convictions
and the apparent consistency of a too limited feeling of certainty about the validity
of his or her conclusions.
 Effects may be wrongly attributed to factors that are merely associated rather than
cause-effect related.

c) Ethnographic Studies.

Ethnography is a method of field study observation that becomes popular in the later parts
of the 19th century. It is alternatively called, cultural anthropology or naturalistic inquiry.
It studies cultural features as language, marriage and family life, child-rearing practices,
religious beliefs and practices, social relations and rules of conduct, political institutions,
and methods of production.

The data gathered consists of observation of patterns of action, verbal and nonverbal
interactions between members of the tribe as well as between the subjects and the
researcher and his or her informants, and the examination of whatever records or artefacts
available.

In most cases, the researcher is integrated into the group he or she is studying. Using the
method of observation, the researcher observes, listens to, and sometimes converses with
the subjects in as free and natural an atmosphere as possible. The assumption is that the
most important behaviour of individuals in groups is a dynamic process of complex
interactions and consists of more than a set of facts, statistics, or even discrete incidents.
The strength of this kind of study lies in the observation of natural behaviour in a real-life
setting, free from the constraints of more conventional research procedures.

The second assumption is that human behaviour is influenced by the setting in which it
occurs. The researcher must understand that setting and the nature of the social structure;
its traditions, values, and norms of behaviour. This is because it is important to observe
and interpret not just as an outside observer but also in terms of the subjects-how they view
the situation, how they interpret their own thought, words, and activities, as well as those

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of others in the group. The researcher gets inside the minds of the subjects; while at the
same time interpreting the behaviour from his or her own perspective.

The relationship of the researcher to their subjects is based upon trust and confidence. A
researcher should avoid aligning with either the authority or the subjects. He or she should
take a neutral position. This will help in objective observation.

6.9 Data collection techniques in qualitative research

There are two main techniques of collecting data in qualitative research. They are
observation and interviews.

i) Observations

Observation as a data collection technique in qualitative research consists of detailed

notation of behaviour, events, and the contexts surrounding the events and behaviours. The
detailed descriptions collected in qualitative research can be converted later to numerical
data and analyzed quantitatively. According to Patton (1990), there are five dimensions to
observation in qualitative research:

 The observer’s role may vary from full participation to complete outsider.
 The observer may conduct the observations covertly with the full knowledge of
those being observed or with only some of those being observes aware of the
observation
 Those being observed may be given full explanation, partial explanations, no
explanations, or given false explanation.
 The observation may take place over the course of an entire duration or a brief
duration
 Observations may vary in breadth. Some may be broad while others may be
narrow.

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It is important to note that the observations can be of the setting or physical environment,
social interactions, physical activities, nonverbal communications, planned and unplanned
activities and interactions, and unobtrusive indicators. The observer should be alert for
non-occurrence- the things that should have happened but did not.

ii) Interviews

Interviewing is the careful asking of relevant questions to a respondent. It has been

described as the most important data-collection technique a qualitative researcher
possesses. The purpose of interviewing people is to find out what is on their minds (what
they think or how they feel about something).

Interviews range from quite informal and completely open-ended to very formal with
questions predetermined and asked in a standard manner (for example, the question may
read to the interviewee to assure the same wording with all those being interviewed).

Types of Interviews used in qualitative research.

 Structured and semi-structured interviews are verbal questionnaires. When

formal, they consist of a series of questions designed to elicit specific answers on
the part of respondents. Often they are used to obtain information that can later be
compared and contrasted. They are conducted at the end of the study rather than at
the beginning.

 Informal interviews are much less formal than structures or semi-structured

interviews. They tend to resemble casual conversation, pursuing the interests of
both the researcher and the respondents in turn. they are the most common in
qualitative research. They do not involve any specific type or sequence of questions
or any particular form of questioning. The primary intent of the informal interview
is to find out what people think and how the views of one individual compare with
those of another.

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  Retrospective interviews can range from structured, semi-structured, to
informal. This involves the researcher trying to get the respondent to recall and
then reconstruct from memory something that happened in the past. Unfortunately
this type is the least likely of the four to provide accurate, reliable data for the
researcher.

Table 4.1 Interviewing strategies used in research

Type of interview Characteristics Strength Weaknesses
Informal conversational Questions emerge Increases the salience Different information
interview from the immediate and relevance of collected from different
context and are questions; interviews are people with different
asked in the natural built on and emerge questions. Less
course of things; from observations; the systematic and
there is no interview can be comprehensive if certain
predetermination of matched to individual questions do not arise”
question topics or and circumstances naturally”. Date
wording organization and analysis
can be quite difficult.
Interview guide Topics and issues to The outline increases the Important and salient
be covered are comprehensiveness of topics may be
specified in the data and makes data inadvertently omitted.
advance, in outline collection somewhat Interviewer flexibility in
form; interviewers systematic for each sequencing and wording
decides sequence respondent. Logical questions can result in
and wording of gaps in data can be substantially different
questions in the anticipated and closed. responses from different
course of the Interviews remain fairly perspectives, thus
interview conversational and reducing the
situational comparability of
responses
Standardized open-ended The exact wording Respondents answer the Little flexibility in
interview and sequence of same questions, thus relating the interview to

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 questions are increasing comparability particular individuals and
determined in of responses; data are circumstances;
advance. All complete for each standardized wording of
interviewees are person on the topic questions may constrain
asked the same addressed in the and limit naturalness and
basic question in the interview. Reduces relevance of questions
same order. interviewer effects and and answers.
Questions are bias when several
worded in a interviewers are used
completely open- .permits evaluation users
ended format to see and review the
instrumentation used in
the evaluation.
Facilitates organization
and analysis of the data.

Closed, fixed-response Questions and Data analysis is simple; Respondents must fit
interview responses responses can be directly their experiences and
categories are compared and easily feelings into the
determined in aggravated; many researcher’s categories;
advance. Responses questions can be asked may be perceived as
are fixed; in a short time impersonal, irrelevant,
respondents and mechanistic. Can
chooses from distort what respondents
among these fixed really mean or have
responses experienced by so
completely limiting their
response choice.

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Types of interview questions used

Patton has identified six basic types of questions that can be asked of people. They are:
i) Background or demographic questions. They are routine sorts of questions about
the background characteristics of the respondents. They include questions about
education, previous occupations, age, incomes, etc.
ii) Knowledge questions: they are questions researchers ask to find out what factual
information (as contrasted with their opinions, beliefs, and attitudes) respondents
possess.
iii) Experience or behaviour questions: they are questions a researcher asks to find
out what a respondent is currently doing or has done in the past. Their intent is to
illicit descriptions of experience, behaviour, or activities that could have been
observed but were not.
iv) Opinion or value questions: are questions researchers ask to find out what people
think about some topic or issue. Answers to such questions call attention to the
respondent’s goals, beliefs, attitudes, or values.
v) Feeling questions: they are questions that a researcher asks to find out how
respondents feel about things. They are directed towards the emotional responses
of people to their experiences.
vi) Sensory questions: They are questions a researcher asks to find out what a
respondent has seen, heard, tasted, smelled, or touched.

Interviewing Behaviour

Fetterman has identified a number of elements common to all interviews. They are:
 Respect the culture of the group being studied.
 Respect the individual being interviewed
 Be natural
 Ask the same questions in different ways during the interview.
 Ask the interview to repeat an answer or statement when there is some doubt about
the completeness of a remark.

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  Learn how to wait.
6.10 Lecture summary

6.11 Activity
a) What are the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative
research?
b) Explain the characteristic of qualitative research
c) Describe the steps followed in qualitative research
d) How do you ensure validity and reliability in qualitative
research
e) How would you handle generalization in qualitative research
f) Describe the various types of interviewing questions
g) Describe the various interviewing behaviour

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 6.12 Suggestions for further research

1.Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
2. Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.
3. Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics
6. George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social Sciences.
7. Hunt N. and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling
Techniques.
8. Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.).
Newbury.
9. Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage Publications.
[Del 10. Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu
8. Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social
sciences.
9. Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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 LECTURE SEVEN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLGY

Lecture outline
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Lecture objectives
7.3 Descriptive versus inferential statistics
7.4 Frequency distribution
7.5 Lecture summary
7.6 Activity
7.7 Suggestions for further readings

7.1 Introduction

In the previous lecture we discussed the meaning and process of qualitative research
approach. In the next series of lectures, we are going to discuss the quantitative research
methodologies.

Quantitative research methods are usually used in an attempt to establish general laws and
principles . This kind of approach to science is often termed nomothetic. It assumes that
social reality is objective and external to the individual.

On the other hand, qualitative analysis regards social reality as a creation of individual
consciousness, with meaning and the evaluation of events seen as a personal and subjective
construction this is a naturalistic approach to research and is termed an ideographic
approach.

What we should note is that each of these two perspectives on the study of human
behaviour has profound implication for the way in which research is conducted.

In this section, we are going to discuss the quantitative approach and its implications to
the way we conduct research.

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 7.2 Lecture objectives.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
2. Explain what is meant by a “normal distribution” and a” normal curve”
3. Discuss how to develop a sampling design
4. Discuss the levels of measurements.
5. Explain how to design a quantitative research
6. Describe how to test hypothesis
7. Describe how to measure reliability and validity
8. Describe how a researcher can make predictions using linear regression.

7.3 Descriptive versus inferential statistics

Descriptive statistics consist of graphical and numerical techniques for summarizing data
.It enables a researcher to reduce a large mass of data to simpler, more understandable
terms. This makes it easier for an observer to understand the data.

The major advantage of descriptive statistics is that they permit researchers to describe the
information contained in many scores with a few indices such as the mean, median and
mode.

On the other hand, inferential statistics consists of procedures for making generalizations
about characteristics of a population based on information obtained from a sample taken
from the population.

It is important for us to fully understand what we mean by the terms “statistics” and
“parameters”

 A statistics is an index that is calculated for a sample drawn from a population.

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  A parameter is an indices calculated from the entire population.

Let us also differentiate between quantitative data and categorical data.

 Quantitative data are the data obtained when the variables being studied is
measured along a scale that indicates how much of the variable is present. They
are reported in terms of scores. Higher scores indicate a higher presence of the
variable while lower scores indicate a presence of the variable. Good examples of
such scores are such as weight, height, length and academic ability.

 Categorical data is the data that indicate the total number of objects, individuals or
events a researcher finds in a particular category. In this case, the researcher is
looking for the frequency of certain characteristics in the variables.

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 How do researchers summarize quantitative data?

There are several techniques used by researchers to summarize quantitative data. Let us
look at two main techniques: the frequency distributions and the normal curve
.
7.4 Frequency distributions

This is a tabular method of showing all the scores obtained by a group of individuals. This
is done by listing in a rank order from high to low with tallies to indicate the number of
subjects receiving each score .

Why do researchers use frequency distribution?

Frequency distribution provides researcher with a way to communicate information about
their data to other people.

Here is an example of a frequency distribution sowing the scores of a class of students in

a test.

Table 7.1 Example of a Frequency Distribution

Raw score Frequency

64 2
63 1
61 2
59 2
56 2
52 1
51 2

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 38 4
36 3
34 5
31 5
29 5
27 5
25 1
24 2
21 2
17 2
15 1
6 2
3 1
n=50

In some cases a researcher might find it easier to present the data in a grouped frequency
distribution. The researcher will then group the data into intervals. In our example above ,
we can group the data into intervals of five. In this case, the grouped frequency distribution
will appear in table 1.2

Table 7.2 Example of a Grouped Frequency Distribution.

Raw scores ( Frequency
interval of five)
60-64 5
55-59 4
50-54 3
45-49 0
40-44 0
35-39 7
30-34 10
25-29 11
20-24 4

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 15-19 3
10-14 0
5-9 2
0-4 1
n=50

7.5 Types of graphs used to describe frequency distributions.

A researcher can use graphs to describe frequency distributions. Let us look at the various
types of graphs used to describe the distributions.

Some people find it difficult to red and understand numerical tables. For such people. a
researcher may provide graphical representations as an alternative. Method of displaying
the information organized in frequency distributions. This helps to create a visual
impression of the data that might be more effective in communicating the information.
There are three types of graphs used by researcher: the pie-chart, the bar chart and the
histograph.

(a) The Pie Chart.

The pie chart is used to show difference in frequencies or percentages among categories
of nominal or ordinal data. Such categories of data are displayed as segments of a circle.
The segments are either differently shaded or differently patterned to differentiate among
them and they sum up to either 100 percent or the total frequencies.

Let us look at the examples in figure 1.1. Showing students’ attitude towards a schools
spending on sports and Music festivals as indicated in table 1.3.

Table 7.3 Students’ attitude towards a school spending on sports and music festival

School sports Music

spending festival
Too little 54.7% 23.5%

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 About 41.0% 36.9%
right
Too 4.3% 39.6%
much
Total 100% !00%

(b) The Bar Chart.

Like the pie chart, a bar chart provides a researcher with a tool for displaying nominal or
ordinal data. Bar charts are constructed by labeling the categories of the variables along
the horizontal axis and drawing rectangles of equal width for each category. The height of
each rectangle is proportional to the frequency or percentage of the category. Let us use
the data in Table 1.3 to describe how to construct a bar chart shown in Figure 1.2. Note
that it is important to shade the rectangle representing each variable differently to facilitate
comparisons.

(c ) The Histogram.

Histograms are used by researchers to display frequency distributions of interval or ratio

level data.

This is a graphic representation, which consists of rectangles, of scores in a distribution.

The height of each rectangle indicates the frequency of each score or group of scores. The
histogram looks like a bar graph with no spaces between the rectangles. The rectangles are
constructed contiguously to show that the variable is continuous and intervals rather than
discreet categories are displayed across the horizontal axis.

Let us use table 1.4 showing a hypothetical case of HIV infection by Age..

Table 7.4 Rates of Infection of HIV infection by Age..

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Age Percent of HIV infections
Under 13 1%
13-29 19%
30-39 45%
40-49 23%
50-59 8%
60 and above 4%
Total 100%

7.6 Lecture Summary

7.7 Activity

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7.9 Suggestion for further readings

1.Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

2.ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
3.Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.
4. Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics
5. George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social Sciences.
6. Hunt N and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling
Techniques.
7. Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.).
Newbury.
8. Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage Publications.
[Del Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu
9. Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social
sciences.
10. Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

LECTURE EIGHT

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 UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH DATA
Lecture Outline
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Introduction to Data
8.4 Raw Data
8.5 Defining Variables
8.5.1 Independent variables
8.5.2 Dependent variables
8.5.3 Intervening or Extraneous variables
8.6 Quantitative Data
8.7 Qualitative Data
8.8 Univariate Data
8.9 Bivariate Data
8.10 Multivariate Data
8.11 Computers and Statistics in Data Manipulation
8.12 Data Measurements
8.12.1 Nominal Data
8.12.2 Rank (Ordinal) Data
8.12.3 Interval Data
8.12.4 Ratio Data
8.13 Summary
8.14 References

8.1 Introduction
In this lecture we shall reflect on the data that we use in research. In most cases, research
generates masses of data from which we are able to make sense of our world. The data
comes in different forms depending on the problem, objective and variables of interest
from the target population. We make measurements like colour, age, position and many
other characteristics from the variables of interest. We also decide to use one or many
variables depending on the information being sought. For example, we may be interested
in establishing the relationships between the location of a hotel and the occupancy rates
leading to the use of bivariate measures to determine whether location has an impact on
occupancy.

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When data comes to us from the field, it comes as raw data which does not make a lot of
sense. We need to reorganization it in a way that we can understand and manipulate. This
lecture unravels the ways used to process and classify such data.

8.2 Lecture Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Outline the main characteristics of data
2. Discuss the various measurements of scale
3. Distinguish between attributes and class intervals
4. Outline the importance of computers in data manipulation

8.3 Introduction to Data

Research normally relies on extensive data to establish the characteristics of a population.
The term data comes from a latin word datum, meaning that which is kown. In many
cases, research generates large volumes of raw data which has to manipulated to enable
researchers to make general statements on the population of interest.

We divide data into two main types depending on how it was aquired by the researcher.
The two types are primary data and secondary data. We shall look at each of the them in
the following sub-sections.

8.4 Raw Data

Data comes to us from the field in raw form. Raw data comprises numerical information
that is not organised in any logical form. Often, raw scores do not have a clear relationship
with other data and therefore tell us very little in terms of the population. Data from the
field ussualy comes to researchers in this form. It is therefore the resposibility of the
researcher to process the data and present it in a form that can be manipulated to understand
population characteristics.

8.5 Defining Variables

A varible is a characteristc of interest in research which contains the information of
interest. It is this characteristic which we manipulate to get the relevent information on a
pheneomena. Ideally a variable is a characteristic that has at least two values which can

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be measured like cost, colour or sex. Cost as a variable has values like Ksh.10, 20, 100 and
so on. We consider these values based on quantities to be quantitative.

Attributes are also variable which are based on characteristics like colour, sex or attitude.
Colour has values like black, white, blue and so on. Sex has two values: male and female.
The value of attributes is based on qualities and is therefore defined as qualitative as they
mainly deal with the quality of phenomena or the presence and absence of it.

We can therefore conclude that our population parameters come from variables and
values which are either quantitative or qualitative. We shall talk about quantitative and
qualitative data later. Variables are divided into three main categories as discussed below.

Note that a variable is a concept that has values which can be measured like cost,
colour or sex. As a variable like sex has two values: male and female.
There are three types of variables as follows:
 Independent variable: In a statement like ‘A student’s performance in
tourism is dependent on sex’. Here, sex is independent.
 Dependent variable: In the statement above, performance is a dependent
variable.
 Intervening (or extraneous) variable: If, in the statement above, the
relationship is influenced by the university where the programme is taken,
then university becomes an intervening variable.

8.5.1 Independent Variables

The variable which causes the change that we are interested in. If the image of a destination
influences the type of visitors it attracts, then image is an independent variable. We must
manipulate image to see how it influences visitor decision.

We may also talk of our gastronomic tastes being shaped by the types of food available
locally. The implication is that we may not consider foreign food to be tasty. In a study of
this nature we might interview respondents on their tastes and determine the origin of their
favourite foods. In such a case, we shall be manipulating the independent variable (local

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environment) to see its impact our dependent variable (gastronomic taste). The local
environment will not be changing but help us to explain changes (like taste) taking place
around it.

8.5.2 Dependent Variables

We normally measure dependent variables in research in order to understand the
transformations they have gone through because of the independent variable. Dependent
variables are the ones we wish to explain. They are the ones affected the independent ones.
When we say that travel is dependent on availability of disposable income, disposable
income determines your mobility and becomes the independent variable.

8.5.3 Intervening or Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are the unwanted variables which keep interfering or confounding
our presumed relationships. In the statement I just made on disposable income determining
whether we travel or not, we may find that individual characteristics like age, environment
and working conditions among many others may confuse the straightforward looking
relationship. These extraneous variables need to be considered and if possible controlled
for to avoid spurious or unreal relationships.

Controlling extraneous variable can be achieved by avoiding them if possible; changing

the venue of interview can remove some forms of enviromental inteference like noice. We
can also control them by holding them constant like carrying out observation at the same
time and by ensuring that selection process is completely randomised.

8.6 Quantitative Data

Quantitative data is data that uses mesurements like amount, volume, quantity and so on.
For example, research dealing with the revenue accruing from tourist at a given period of
time will rely on quantitative data which falls within the general area of inferential
statistics. The information used in quantitative research is mainly numerical and it can be
used for deductive explanation and generalisation for application throughout the target
population.

8.7 Qualitative Data

This type of data is based on quality or attributes rather than quantity. Qualities like

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beautiful or old are commonly used. Human behavioural characteristics are usually
investigated through qualitative research. In tourism, for example, we may be interested
in consumer behaviour, site characteristics, motivation and many other aspects which
depend on qualitative characterics or attributes. Research which depends on this kind of
data is known as qualitative research and it rarely depends on numbers other than
frequencies which heps us in description. It is partcularly ideal for case studies, historical
and records research with no possibility for geralization. Inductive results, which apply to
particular situations, rather than deductive ones, which translate into general laws of
human behaviour, are sought.

8.8 Univariate Data

Univariate data is data with one variable like age profile of tourists visiting a destination.
The analysis of this kind of data is simple because one is essentially looking for cluster-
points, like the most frequent age group. These cluster points help us identify the unique
population characteristics. Nominal data like sex with two values, male and female, is also
classified as univariate. In most instances, we are able to distinguish the characteristics
through three sets of methods which are:
 Measures of Central tendency
 Measures of Dispersion
 Frequency distribution

8.9 Bivariate Data

Bivariate data is made up of two variables. In bivariate data, the primary aim is to search
for relationships or co-variation between the two variables. Relationships help us to predict
one variable on the basis of the other if they are proven to be related or to co-vary. An
example is the relationship between age and proneness to diseases. Older members of the
society are more susceptible to becoming sick than the younger members. We note the
existence of an independent variable age and an independent one, disease. On the basis of
the two variables one could make predictive statements like ‘the older one is the more
susceptible to disease s/he becomes.

8.10 Multivariate Data

Data containing more than two variables is usually referred to multivariate data. This data

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is often used in research for prediction. It is mainly used to determining the possible
impact of a third or more variables in a bivariate relationship. It also helps us in the
elaboration of a relationship showing how extra variables would enhance the relationship.

Multivariate data serves three purposes in research:

 Control
 Elaboration
 Prediction

The data discussed in a bivariate relationship can be faulted by ignoring another variable
that could interfere with the direct relationship between the two. For example, in the case
of age and disease, particularly on humans, you may find the medical scheme of a country
will influence the pattern. The environment could also have an influence. We could decide
to these variables as independent or dependent to make elaborate statement like: In areas
where health facilities are poor, the older you are the more susceptible to diseases you
become.

Intext Question
Think about the following examples:
 Life expectancy in Australia is 80 years
 Life expectancy in Kenya is 45 years
 Life expectancy among the !kung is 32.5 years.
 In all cases, women tend to live longer than men
What variables are responsible for all these differences?

8.11 Computers and Statistics in Data Manipulation

Computers have become important human companions in research as they are capable of
handling large amounts of data. They also provide us with basic spreadsheets like excel
and cricketgraph and Wingtz among many others which serve as medium for data
organization and presentation.

By now, I know you have encountered computers and appreciated their capacity. You will

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definitely need them more in research and data analysis. What you also need to know is
that when provided with the right information, computers are able to generate accurate
results in speed that is far much higher than manual computations.

Data can also exported to more powerful statistical packages like SPSS which have data
editing and manipulation capacity. SPSS is an abbreviation of the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences. The package is normally used in the computation of both descriptive
and inferential data. For those of us who have used it for a long time, the most important
asset of this package is its flexibility. The spreadsheet is spacious and user friendly.

Data stored in SPSS is easy to manipulate through coding and recoding and all possible
statistics in the social sciences can be used on the same data. The data is usually stored in
raw form and this make is easy to attempt all forms of informative and relevant
computations.
The strength of SPSS has been dealt with comprehensively by Felbinger and Schwelgien
(2005:503-547). Here, I will only mention that:
 It is available in different versions to suit ones working environment.
 It is well integrated to windows and therefore easy to use
 It allows for data editing, classification, coding and recoding during computation
process.
 It hand multidimensional tables
 It has high resolution graphics
 It has data transformations and capabilities

8.12 Data Measurements

Data analysis is essentially the main stage in research. Analysis helps us in interpreting
data. Many methods of data analysis exist and we decide on the one(s) to use depending
on the nature of problem being investigated, the nature of data, the measurements, like
weight and age, used and the level of precision required among many other considerations.
Here we look and the different data measurements used in tourism research:

8.12.1 Nominal Data

Nominal data is data based on name variables and values like good, bad, male, female etc.

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It is also referred as attribute based. A nominal variable may have numbers which have no
arithmetic value. We could give numbers to attributes like young (2), mature (1) and old
(3) when surveying the age of students in a tourism class. The numbers are mainly used
for convenience and they could be easily replaced with symbols without affecting the
results. It is considered as the lowest level of measurement as the only viable statics are
frequencies and percentages.

8.12.2 Rank (Ordinal) Data

Rank data is ordered data which follows a certain sequence. The best example is the
ranking of pupils in primary or high school where the best student is placed at the top as
number 1 and the rest follow sequentially up to the last pupil. This placement of item in
certain positions in a sequence is known as ranking. One can also rank hotels from 5 star
to 1 star with the latter being much lower in ranking than the former. W can also rank
rivers in terms of the white water rafting challenges. There are many areas where rank data
is used in tourism. Note that in ranking zero does not feature as we are dealing with
positions in a sequence starting from 1, which have no definite measurements. The
statistics used in this case are rank or position statistics and associations are also rank based
like the Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient. Ordinal data is at a higher level than
nominal in terms of statistical manipulation and results.

8.12.3 Interval Data

Interval data is continuous information which has no clear breaks and certain rules have to
be introduced in order to separate it into clear-cut interval estimates or classes. In some
instances, interval data has an arbitrary starting point unlike the case in ratio data where
zero is absolute. A good example is temperature where the 0º in Centigrade is the same as
32º in Farenheight. Zero may be arbitrary but the data can attract more powerful
statistical analysis as the intervals are fixed and measurements are comparatively more
precise than ordinal and nominal measures (also see Kothari, 2003).

8.12.4 Ratio Data

Ratio data with its unique absolute ‘0’ is the highest level of data measurement. It can be
manipulated using a wide array of statistical methods; almost all the statistical methods
available can be used. Most measurements like distance have a zero starting point and
hence the measurements are absolute. Such measures are also good for inferential

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statistics as they have clear-cut inequalities.

8.13 Summary
We have seen that data can be defined in many ways and classified
appropriately for statistical manipulation. We have also seen the role of
computers and statistics data for manipulation which enables us to
provide more orderly and professional information summaries.
Statistics also helps us to present information in pictorial or graphic forms
which are easy to understand from a mass of data.
We also talked about classification of data into measurements like ratio,
interval, ordinal and nominal data. This classification enables us to
decide how to handle data as their manipulation levels vary considerably
due to their inherent characteristics.

8.14 Activity
1. Discuss the characteristics of raw data.
2. Make a clear distinction between qualitative and quantitative data
3. Why are computers important in research?
4. What do you understand by nominal level of data measurement? Cite
5 areas in tourism where you can use this type of data.
5. Make a distinction between ratio and rank data and cite example from
the tourism industry.

8.15 References

1. Nijkamp, P. A. Maltias, and P. Neto. 2007

2. Cukier, J. E. 2009. Tourism research: Policy Planning and

Prospects

3. Palmer, C., P. Burns, Ritchie, B.W. 2005. Tourism Research Methods:

Integrating Theory and Practice.

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4. Felbinger C.L and Schwelgien S.F. 2005Appendix A. Introduction to
SPSS. In

5. Nachmias C.F and Nachmias D. Research methods in the Social

Sciences pp. 503-547).

6. Ritchie, J.R.B and C. Goeldner (eds). 1984 Travel Tourism and

Hospitality: A New Handbook for Managers and Researchers

7. Mick Finn, Martin Eliot-White, Mike W. (2000) Tourism and Leisure

Research Methods: Data Collection Analysis and
Interpretation: Harlow: Longman

8. Kothari, C.R. 2003 Research Methodology

1. Fisher, R.A. 1958 Statistical Methods for Research Workers.

2. Nachmias, D.F. and Nachmias, C. F. 2005 Research Methods in the

Social Sciences

3. Mendehall, W. 1981. Introduction to Probabilities and Statistics

4. Walsh, A. 1990. Statistics for the Social Sciences. San Francisco:

Harper and Row

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 LECTURE NINE

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM, QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Lecture outline
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Lecture Objectives
9.3 Defining a research problem
9.4 Formulating research questions
9.5 Constitutive, operational and conceptual definitions
9.6 Formulation of hypothesis
9.7 Lecture summary
9.8 Activity
9.9 Suggestion for further research

9.1 Introduction

Any good research begins with a research problem. A research problem is the focus of a
research investigation. A research problem is the problem the researcher wishes to
investigate. In most cases, research problems are stated as research questions. In this topic
we discuss the nature of research problem and describe its characteristics.

_____________________________________________________________________

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 9.2 Lecture Objectives.

By the end of this topic you should be able

to:
 Give some example of potential research problem
 Formulate a research problem
 Distinguish between researchable and non-researchable questions
 Name the characteristics of a good research question
_____________________________________________________________________

9.3 Defining a research problem

A research problem is anything that a researcher finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a

difficulty of some sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not
working as well as it might. Therefore researchers involve themselves with areas of
concern in terms of conditions they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate,
and questions for which they seek answers.

9.4 Formulating research questions

Usually a research problem is initially posed as a question, which serves as the focus of
the researcher’s investigation.
Some example of research problem:
 How do parents feel about private schools?
 Do NGOs in Kenya have good governance guidelines?
 Do Kenyans support the governing party?
 Does an increase in salary increase a lecturer’s output?

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One major characteristic of these questions is that we can collect data of some sort to
answer them. This makes them researchable. There are some kinds of questions that cannot
be answered by collecting and analyzing data. Here are two examples:

 Does God exist?

 Should mathematics be included in the school curriculum?
The two questions are not researchable because there is no way to collect information to
answer either question.

The first question is metaphysical in nature. It is beyond physical transcendental. Answers

to this question lies beyond the accumulation of information.

The second question is a question of value .It implies notions of right and wrong, proper
and improper and therefore does not have any empirical (or observable) referents. There
is no way to deal empirically with the verb “should”. However if we changed the question
to read “ Do people think mathematics should be included in the school curriculum”? The
question would be researchable because now we can collect data to enable us answer the
question.

Exercise
Here below are some ideas for research questions. Indicate which ones
you think are researchable or unresearchable.

a) Is God good?
b) Are students happier when taught by a lecturer of the same gender?
c) Does a firm performance influenced by the firm’s corporate strategy?
d) What is the best way of motivating staff?
e) What would be the world today without the September 11 bomb attacks in USA?

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9.4.1 Characteristics of good research questions

It is very important that a researcher evaluates whether the research questions he or she
has formulated are good. To achieve this, the researcher weighs the research question
against the following four characteristics.
 The question should be feasible (i.e., it can be investigated without an undue
amount of time, energy or money.
 The question should be clear (i.e., most people would agree as to what the key
words in the question mean)
 The question should be significant (i.e., it should be worth investigating it because
it will contribute important knowledge to humanity)
 The question should be ethical (i.e., it will not involve physical or psychological
harm or damage to human beings or, to the nature or social environment of which
they are part).

9.5 Constitutive, Operational and Conceptual definitions

It is always important to define the terms the researcher is using particularly in the
research questions. This helps to give clarity to the research questions. There are
essentially three ways to clarify important terms in a research question.

i) Constitutive definition: that is to use what is often referred to as the dictionary

approach.

ii) Conceptual definition: this involves attempts to describe as fully as possible the
terms used in the research question. For example a term “job interest” needs to be
defined conceptually. This involve the researcher showing the relationship
between the two concepts, i.e., “job” and “interest”

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 iii) Operational definition: this requires that the researcher specify the actions or
operations necessary to measure or identify the term.

It is important to note that good research questions frequently( but not always) suggests a
relationship of some sort to be investigated. A suggested relationship means that two
qualities or characteristics are tied together or connected in some way or there is some sort
of association between characteristics.

9.6 Lecture summary

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9.7 Activity \

1. State a research problem that you expect to investigate in you project. ----------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2. State the research questions that you can formulate from your research problem.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. State the key terms in the research problem or research questions that are not
clear and thus need to be defined-------------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4. Write down the constitutive definitions of these terms------------------------------
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5. Write down the conceptual definitions (if any)---------------------------------------
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6. Write down the operational definitions of these terms-------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 9.9 Suggestion for further readings

1.Anderson, B. (1966). The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

2. Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.
3.Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics
4.George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social Sciences.
5.Hunt N and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling
Techniques.
6.Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.).
Newbury.
7.Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage Publications.
[Del Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu
8.Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social
sciences.
9.Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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 LECTURE TEN
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Lecture Outline
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Lecture objectives
10.3The meaning of the term “ Data”
10.4Sources of data
10.5Instrumentation in research
10.6Lecture summary
10.7Activity
10.8Suggestion for further research

10.1 Introduction

The conclusions of any research study are based on the analysis of data collected.
Therefore, data collection is extremely important in all research activities. A researcher
must consider with absolute care the kind(s) of data collected, the method(s) of data
collection used and the scoring of the data. In this lecture, we are going to discuss the
“data” collection methods used in research.
_____________________________________________________________________

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 10.2 Lecture objectives.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
 Explain what is meant by the term “data”
 Explain what is meant by the term “ Instrumentation”
 Describe the sources of data
 Describe the various ways in which data can be collected by
researchers
 Describe the various data collection instruments used in research.

_______________________________________________________________________

10.3 The meaning of the term “data”

The term “data” refers to the kinds of information researchers obtain on the subjects of
their research. An example of data includes: demographic information such as age, gender,
ethnicity, religion; responses to the researcher’s questions in an oral interview or written
replies to survey questionnaire etc. Every researcher must make the decision on what kind
(s) of data he/she intends to collect.

10.4 Sources of data

Sources of information can be classified into primary and secondary types. Primary data
comes from the original sources and are collected specifically to answer the research
questions. Secondary sources of data come from other sources, for example, other studies
conducted by other persons for other purposes.

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10.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data.
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data.
(i) Advantages

The data can be found more quickly and cheaply than primary data. Collecting
primary data can be costly and time-consuming. Data about distant places can
be collected more cheaply through secondary sources

(ii) Disadvantages.

The information may not meet the specific needs of the research in question. This is
because others have collected the material for their own purpose. Definitions will differ,
units of measure are different, and different times may be involved. It is difficult to assess
the accuracy of the information because one knows little about the research design or the
conditions under which the research occurred. Secondary information is often out of date
because of time (time may have elapsed since it was conducted).

10.4.2 Types of Secondary Sources

There are basically two sources of secondary data; internal sources and the external
sources.

 Internal Sources are those sources within the organization itself. In a business
organization this would include, the accounting and information systems, research
and development, planning and marketing functions reports.

 External sources are those sources of data found outside the organization. For
example, published sources, periodicals and special collections.

10.5 Instrumentation in research

Researchers use instruments to collect data. The development of the correct instruments
is very important. This is because if a researcher uses the wrong instrument he or she will
end up with the wrong data that will result in wrong findings and conclusions. Therefore

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the development of the right instruments is critical to the reliability and validity of the
research study. We are going to discuss the meaning of the term “Instrumentation” and the
process a researcher uses to develop research instruments.

10.5.1 Definition of the terms “Instrument” and “Instrumentation”

Any device (such as a pencil-and –paper test, a questionnaire, or a rating scale) a
researcher uses to collect data is called an “instrument”. The process of collecting data is
called “Instrumentation”. This process involves the selection or design of the instruments
and also setting the conditions under which the instruments will be administered.

The following are the questions researchers need to ask themselves in the process of data
collection.

 Where will the data be collected? The researcher must decide on the location of
the data collection.
 When will the data be collected? That is the time the data will be collected.
 How often are the data to be collected? That is the frequency of the collection of
the data.
 Who is to collect the data? That is who will administer the instrument.

These questions are important to be answered before the researcher begins to collect the
data. A researchers’ decision about location, time, frequency and administration are always
affected by the kind(s) of instrument to be used. Every instrument no matter what kind, if
it is to be of value must allow researchers to draw accurate conclusions about the
capabilities or other characteristics of the people to be studied.

An instrument must be valid, reliable and objective. A valid instrument is one that helps
the researcher make defensible inferences. A reliable instrument is one that gives
consistent results. An objective instrument is the one that enables the researcher to make
judgment that is not subjective.

10.5.2 Usability of the Instruments

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A good researcher must also give due consideration to the usability of the instruments. In
this case, he/she must consider the following:

 How easy it will be to use any instruments he /she has designed.

 How long will it take to administer?
 Are the directions provided clear?
 Is the instrument appropriate for the ethnic or other groups to whom it will be
administered?
 How easy is it to score, interpret the results?
 Has any problem been reported by other researchers who have used the
instrument before?
 Does evidence of its reliability and validity exist?

A researcher should have satisfactory answers to these questions. If not so, he /she might
waste a lot of time and other resources doing unnecessary work.

10.5.3 Types of research instruments

There are several types of research instruments. Let us look at them and where they would
be applied in research.

You already know that there are three main ways in which a researcher can obtain
information.
 By collecting it themselves with very little or no involvement of other people.
 Directly from the subjects of the study.
 From others, frequently referred to as informants, who are knowledgeable about
the subject.

Researchers can collect data that require a written or marked response or a more general
evaluation of performance on the part of the subjects of the study. What are they?

 Written-response instruments include objective (e.g. multiple-choice, true-false,

matching, or short-answer) tests, short essay examination, questionnaire, interview
schedules, rating scales and checklists.

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  Performance instruments include any device designed to measure either a
procedure or a product. Procedures are ways of doing things, such as mixing a
chemical solution, diagnosing a problem in a vehicle or solving a puzzle. On the
other hand Products are the end results of procedures, such as the correct chemical
solutions or the correct diagnosis of the vehicle malfunction. Performance
instruments are designed to see whether and how well procedures can be followed
and to assess the quality of products.

Written- response instruments are generally preferred over performance instruments, since
the use of performance instruments is frequently quite time-consuming and often requires
equipment like cameras radio recorders or other resources that are not readily available.

10.5.4 How does a researcher acquire research instrument?

There are basically two ways for a researcher to acquire research instruments:
 To find and administer a previously existing instrument
 To administer an instrument the researcher personally developed or had developed
by someone else.

There are several problems associated with the use of an instrument developed by the
researcher; first, it is not easy to develop it. Secondly, it takes a fair amount of time and
effort to develop it. Thirdly, it requires a considerable amount of skills.

This is the reason why the use of an already developed instrument when appropriate is
preferred. Such instruments are developed by experts who possess the necessary skills.
There exists already developed, quiet good, instruments and they can easily be located by
means of a computer. You only need to go to the relevant search engines like ERIC to get
them.

LECTURE ELEVEN

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 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Lecture Outline

11.1 Introduction
11.2 lecture Objectives
11.3 Survey method
11.4 Observation method
11.5 Experimental method
11.6 Lecture summary
11.7 Activity
11.8 Suggestion for further readings.

11.1 Introduction
A researcher needs to decide which data collection method to use in the study. Many
amateur researchers confuse between data collection methods and data collection tools.
In this lecture we are going to discuss the three main data collection method and the data
collection tools that can be used for each method. There are three main methods of
collecting data. They are:
 The survey.
 Observation.
 Experimentation.

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 11.2 lecture Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Describe what the survey method is
2. Explain the specific tools a researcher can use in the survey method
3. Describe how the observation method is used in data collection
4. Explain the various data collection tools used in the observation method
5. Describe how the experimentation is used in data collection
6. Explain the various data collection tools used in the experimentation method.

11.3 The survey method

To survey is to question people and record their responses for analysis. The survey method
is very versatile particularly in collecting primary data. This is because it is possible to
gather abstract information of all types by the survey method. Survey is more efficient and
economical than observation. Information can be gathered by a few well-chosen questions
that would take much more time and effort by observation.

The major weaknesses of the survey method are:

 The quality of information secured depends heavily on the quality and
willingness of respondents to cooperate.
 The respondents may refuse to be interviewed or fail to reply to a mail survey.
Others may fear the interview experience for some personal reason or the topic
may be too sensitive.
 At the same time, the respondents may not have the knowledge for the topic.
 The respondents may also interpret a question or concept differently from
what was intended by the researcher.
 The respondent may intentionally mislead the researcher by giving false
information.
Not withstanding these weaknesses, the survey method is widely used in research in all
fields. However, the survey responses should be accepted for what they are. That they are

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just statements by others that reflects varying degrees of truth.

When is survey method most applicable? A survey method is most appropriate where the
respondents are uniquely qualified to provide the desired information.

There are three main techniques that can be used to get information using the survey
methods. They are;
 Personal interview
 Telephone interview
 Mail interview/ self-administered questionnaires.

11.3.1 Personal interview

A personal interview (i.e., face to face) is a two-way conversation initiated by an
interviewer to obtain information from the respondent. The main characteristics of
personal interviews are:
 The roles of the interviewer and respondents are very different. They are both
strangers and the interviewer generally controls the engagement.
 The consequences of the interviewing event are usually insignificant for the
respondent.
 The respondent is asked to provide information with little hope of receiving
any immediate or direct benefit from this cooperation.

Advantages:
There are advantages and clear limitations of personal interviewing. They are as follows:
 This technique is more deep and detailed in terms of the information collected.
This is because the interviewer can control the process hence probing more by
adding questions that help to add more information unlike in an observation
method.
 The interviewer has more control than other kinds of interrogation. They can
prescreen to assure the correct respondent is replying and can set up and control
interviewing conditions.
 The interviewer can use special scoring devices and visual materials.

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  The interviewer can adjust to the language of the interviewee because they can
observe the problems and effects the interview is having on the respondent.

Disadvantages:
 It is relatively expensive, particularly if the study covers a wide geographic
area or has stringent sampling requirements.
 Interviewers are usually reluctant to visit unfamiliar neighbourhoods alone.
 The results can be affected adversely by interviewers who alter the questions
asked or in other ways.

How can a researcher ensure success of the personal interview? There are three broad
conditions that must be fulfilled in order to have a successful personal interview. They are:
 Availability of the needed information from the respondent
 An understanding by the respondent of his/her role
 Adequate motivation by the respondent to cooperate.

11.3.2 Telephone interviewing

This is a technique by which the data is collected by telephoning the respondents. It is a

good technique particularly with unusual types of respondents.

Advantages:
 It is relatively cheaper. This is because of saving that comes from cuts in travel
administrative costs (training and supervision).
 Responses are received immediately.
 Unlike the personal interview, the use of telephone brings a faster completion of
the study.

Disadvantages

 The respondent must be available by phone. In cases where such services are
scarce, it can be difficult and even expensive.
 The discussion is relatively limited because of the time one can spend on a

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 telephone line.
 It is not possible to use maps, illustrations or other visuals. The medium also limits
the complexity of the questioning and the use of sorting technique
 In some situations, the response rate is lower than for comparable face-to-face
interviews. This is because the respondents find it easier to terminate an interview.
 Telephone interviews can result in less thorough responses and that those
interviewed by phone find the experience less rewarding to them than a personal
interview.

11.3.3 Mail Survey/ self-administered questionnaires

Mail survey or self-administered questionnaires is a technique of data collection in which

the respondent completes it at his/her convenience. They are usually delivered by mail to
the respondent.

Advantages
 They typically cost less than the personal interviews. The more dispersed the
sample, the more likely it will be the low-cost method.
 Using mail is possible to get to the respondents who can otherwise be inaccessible.
 It allows the respondent to take more time to collect facts, talk to others or consider
replies at length than is possible with the telephone or personal interview.
 Mail survey is perceived as more impersonal, hence providing more anonymity
than the other communication modes.

Disadvantages
 The non-response rate is high. This makes it difficult to know how their answers
might differ from those who do not answer.
 In most cases the respondents do not provide adequate information. Usually, there
are many questions that are never answered.

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How do you improve questionnaire return rate? There are several ways in which a
researcher can improve the rate of return of the mail survey. They include the following:

 Follow-ups or reminders.
 Preliminary notifications by telephone that a mail survey is on the way to the
respondent and request for response.
 Use of Concurrent techniques.
This includes the following:
 Ensuring the questionnaire is not too long
 Using survey sponsorship
 Using return envelops
 Paying for response postage charges
 Personalization of the mail survey by directly addressing the specific person.
 Cover letter which sets the stage for the respondent to respond
 Promise of anonymity to respondents
 Due consideration of the size, reproduction and colour of the mail survey
 Money incentives to those who provide response on time and in time.
 Fixing deadlines for the survey return.

A researcher should attempt to ensure that the rate of return of the survey is maximized.

The main contributing factors to low rate of mail survey return include:
 The wrong address and a low-rate postage can lead to non-delivery or non-return
 The letter may look like junk mail and be discarded without being opened
 Lack of proper instructions for completion leads to non-response
 The wrong person opens the letter and fails to call it to the attention of the right
person
 A respondent finds no convincing explanation for completing the survey and
discards it.
 A respondent temporarily lays the questionnaire aside and fails to complete it.
 The return address is lost so the questionnaire cannot be returned.

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Activity

In the following situations, would you use a personal interview, telephone survey or
mail survey?

a. A survey of the residents of Komorock Estate in Nairobi, on why they

happened to select the estate for habitation.

b. A poll of students in the School of Continuing and Distance Studies of the

University of Nairobi on their preferences among three candidates who are
running for the post of Chairman of SONU.

c. A survey of 78 retailers scattered in the Coast province of Kenya on their

attitude towards the services they get from the companies they buy
merchandize from
d. A survey of bankers in Kenya on their opinions concerning a proposed law
on the control of interest rates by the Central Bank of Kenya.

e. A Survey of head teachers on their opinion on the distribution of the free

education funds to schools.

11.3.4 Developing research survey instruments: Researchers develop good instruments

by following a process through which they move from the general problem,
objective/problem to specific measurement questions. This entails following four steps:

 The general question- the problem the researcher wants answered.

 The research question(s)- the fact-based translation of the question the researcher
must answer to contribute to the solution of the researcher’s question
 The investigative question- those specific questions the researcher must ask to
provide sufficient details and coverage of the research question

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  The measurement question- those questions respondents must answer if the
researcher is to gather the needed information.

(a) Question Construction: It is important to note that a survey

instrument normally includes three types of information. They
are:
 Target data: facts, attitudes, preferences, and expectations about the central topic.
 Classification and analysis: gender, age, family, household social class etc.
 Administrative: They include respondent identification, interviewer identification,
date, place, and conditions of the interview.

The question drafting begins once a researcher has decided on the information needed and
the collection processes to use. There are four major decisions that a researcher needs to
make.
 Question content.
 Question wording.
 Response structure.
 Question sequence.

i) Question content

In deciding on the question content, a researcher should ask themselves the following
questions:
 Should this question be asked?: a good question should contribute significantly
towards answering the investigative question
 Is the question of proper scope and coverage? That is whether the question
includes so much content that it should be broken into several questions. It
important to avoid double-barreled questions ( two questions in one). For example:
have you deposited or saved money in your account in the last two weeks?
 Can the respondent answer the question adequately? The ability of the
respondent to answer adequately is often distorted by questions whose content is
biased by what is included or omitted.
 Will the respondent answer willingly? In some cases the respondent may have the

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 information but they may be unwilling to give it either because the topic is too
sensitive to discuss with strangers or it is embarrassing.

There are three approaches that are used to overcome these problems;
 Motivate the respondent to provide appropriate information
 Change the design of the questioning process, or
 Use methods other than questioning to secure the data.

ii) Question wording

Question wording is a major source of distortion in survey. A researcher should use the
following criteria in evaluating the quality of the question>
 Is the question stated in terms of a shared vocabulary?
 Is the question clear?
 Are there unstated or misleading assumptions?
 Is there biased wording?
 Is there the right degree of personalization?
 Are adequate alternatives presented?

iii) Response structure

Response structure refers to the degree and form of structure imposed on responses. The
options range from open (free choice of words) to closed (specified alternatives). Free
responses range from those in which the respondents express themselves extensively to
those in which their latitude is restricted to choosing one word in a “fill-in” question. On
the other hand, closed responses typically are categorized as dichotomous or multiple
choice.

iv)Question Sequence

A good questionnaire will be designed in such a way that the questions are related to each
other. Therefore, question sequencing is particularly important. The principle used to guide
question sequence decision is; the nature and need of the respondent must determine the

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sequence of questions and the organization of the schedule. To achieve this it is important
to ensure the following:
 That the question process must quickly awaken interest and motivate the
respondent to participate in the interview.
 That the respondent should not be confronted by early requests for information that
might be considered personal or ego threatening.
 That the questioning process should begin with simple item and move to the more
complex and from general items to the more specific.
 That change in the frame of reference should be small and should be clearly pointed
out.

11.3. 5 Pre-testing the questionnaire

It is important to pretest the questionnaire before distributing it to the whole sample.

Pretesting helps a researcher to detect weaknesses in the instrument. A researcher would
usually use colleagues, respondent surrogates, or actual respondents to evaluate and refine
a measuring instrument.

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 Activity
1. Describe a survey method of collecting data.

2. Distinguish between:
a. Direct and indirect question
b. Open and closed question
c. Research, investigative and measurement question
d. Question and response structure

3. What problems do open –ended questions have? How can you

minimize them?

11.4 The observation method

Observation as a method of data collection involves listening, reading, smelling and

touching. When used in scientific research, observation includes the full range of
monitoring behavioral and non-behavioral activities and conditions, which can be
classified as follows:
(a) Non-behavior observation
 Record analysis
 Physical condition analysis
 Physical process analysis

(b ) Behaviour observation
 Nonverbal analysis
 Linguistic analysis
 Extralinguistic analysis
 Spatial analysis

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i) Non- behavioral observation

 Record analysis. This involves historical or current records and public or private
records. They may be written, printed and sound-recorded photographed or
videotaped.

 Physical condition analysis: it involves analysis of say, inventories, financial

statements plant safety compliance etc.

 Process or activity analysis includes the analysis of processes like traffic flow,
distribution systems banking system etc

ii) Behaviour observation

 Nonverbal behaviour: It includes body movement, motor expressions. And

exchange of glances.

 Linguistic behaviour: It refers to the manifest content of speech and various

attributes of verbal communication. It involved the interaction processes that occur
between two or more people. The main focus is the language used in the interaction
processes.

 Extra- linguistic behaviour: This includes the communication attributes like the
vocal (pitch, loudness etc); temporal (rate of speaking, duration of utterances, and
rhythm); Interaction (tendencies to interruption dominate or inhibit); verbal
stylistic (vocabulary and pronunciations dialect and characteristic expression)

 Spatial relationships: It refers to the attempt of individuals to structure the physical

space around them. This includes how a person relates physically to others.

11.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of observation method

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Advantages

 Observation is the only method available to gather certain types of information like
records mechanical processes and lower animals
 It enables the researcher to collect the original data at the time they occur.
 It helps to secure information that most participants would ignore either because it
is so common and expected or because it is not seen as relevant.
 It is the only data collection method that can capture the whole event as it occurs
in its natural environment.
 Subjects seem to accept an observational intrusion better than questioning.

Disadvantages

 The observer must be at the scene of the event when it takes place, yet it is often
impossible to predict where and when the event will occur.
 It is slow and expensive process that requires either human observers or costly
surveillance equipment.
 Its most reliable results are restricted to information that can be learned by overt
actions or surface indicators to go below the surface, the observer must make
inferences.
 The research environment is more suited to subjective assessment and recording of
data than controls and quantification of events.
 Observation is limited as a way to learn of the past. It is similarly limited as a
method by which to learn what is going on in the present at some distant place.

11.4.2 How to conduct an observational study

We have two types of observational studies:

 Simple observation: its practice is not standardized because of the discovery nature
of the exploratory research where it is often used.
 Systematic observation: It employs standardized procedures, trained observers
schedules for recording and other devices for the observer that mirror the scientific
procedures of other primary data methods.

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11.4.3 Data collection using observation method

In the observation method, we need to answer the following question if we are to gather
the required data:

 Who are the targets? That is who qualifies to be observed?

 What is to be observed? The characteristics of the observation must be set in terms
of elements and units of analysis.
 When is the observation to take place? That is whether the time of the study is
important or whether the study can take place any time.
 How will the data be observed? If there is more than one observer, how shall they
divide the observation task? How shall the results be recorded for later analysis?
How shall the observers deal with various situations that may occur?

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 Activity

1. Assume you wish to analyze the car traffic that passes the University of Nairobi gate
along the University Way. You are interested in determining how many vehicles pass
by the gate and you would like to classify them on various relevant dimensions.

 What other information might you find useful to observe?

 How would you decide what information to collect?
 Devise the operational definition you would need.
 How would you sample the vehicle traffic?

11.5 The experimental method

Experiments are studies involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for
measurement. This intervention involves the manipulation of some variables in a setting
and observing how it affects the subjects being studied. The researcher manipulated the
independent or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesized
dependent variable is affected by the intervention.

The number of variables in an experiment is determined by:

 The project budget;
 The time allocated,
 The availability of appropriate controls, and
 The number of subjects being tested

The selection of measures for testing requires a thorough review of the available literature
and instruments. The measures must be adapted to the unique needs of the research
situation without compromising their intended purpose or original meaning.

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11.5.1 Levels of treatment

The level of the independent variable is the distinction the researcher makes between
different aspects of the treatment conditions. The levels assigned to an independent
variable should be based on simplicity and common sense.

There are two main levels: the control group and the experimental treatment group.

 The control group: it provides a base level for comparison. It is composed of

subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable. No treatment is provided
to this group.
 The experimental group: This is the group to which treatment is provided. That is
the independent variable is manipulated.

11.5.2 How does a researcher control the experimental environment?

The experimental method has a problem of controlling the effects of the extraneous
variables. They have the potential for distorting the effects of the treatment on the
dependent variable and must be controlled or eliminated. More so the researcher needs to
control the physical environment of the experiment. The introduction of the experiment to
the subjects and the instructions would likely be videotaped to assure consistency. The
arrangement of the room, the time of administration, the experimenter’s contacts with the
subject, etc. must all be consistent across each administration of the experiment.

There are other forms of control that involves the subjects and the experimenter. They are:
 When subjects do not know if they are receiving the experiment, they are said to
be blind.
 When the experimenter does not know if they are giving the treatment to the
experimental group or the control group, the experiment is double –blind.

The two approaches helps to control unwanted complications such as subject’s reaction to
expected conditions or experiment.

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11.5.3 Experimental designs

A researcher must be judicious in selecting the experimental design to employ. There are
several designs that can be used. They are:
 Pre-experimental design
 True experimental designs
 Field experiments
Let us look at each one of them in more depth.
(a) Pre-experimental designs: In this category we have three types:

 The one –shot case study: In which case there is treatment or manipulation of
independent variable and observation or measurement is done on the dependent
variable.
Example: A company would like to initiate a health and safety campaign about
improving working conditions without prior measurement of the knowledge the
employees currently have. The experiment would only reveal the knowledge the
employee would acquire but it would be difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of the
campaign. The lack of pre-test and control group makes this design inadequate for
establishing causality.
 The one-group pretest-posttest design: In this case we have a pretest
(O),manipulation(X),post-test(o)
 The Static Group Comparison: This design provides for two groups: one which
receives the experimental treatment while the other serves as a control.

(b) True Experimental Designs (laboratory experiment): the essential ingredients

of a true experimental design are that subjects are randomly assigned to treatment
groups.
There are three main sources of bias in experiments
 Demand characteristics: when individuals know they are part of an experiment and
try to respond in the way they think the experiment wants them to.
 Experimenter bias: occurs when an experimenter unintentionally communicates his
or her expectations to participants.
 Measurement artifacts: occurs when measurement procedures may give participants

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 hints about what is really going on in the experiment. Measurement instruments such
as cameras or test schedules can also affect participants and bias results.

(c) Field experimental designs: The major difference between laboratory

experimentation and field experiment is the setting. In laboratory experiment,
researchers introduce controlled conditions into the environment that stimulates
certain features of a natural environment. IN the Field experiment, on the other
hand, the research takes place in a natural situation and the investigator
manipulates one or more independent variables under conditions that are carefully
controlled as the situation permits. If an experimental study was to be conducted
in the field, we often cannot control enough of the extraneous variables or the
experimental treatment to use a true experimental design. In this case we use the
field experiment.

The main advantage of the field experiment is that they permit the investigation of
complex interactions, processes and change in natural settings.

Their main weakness is the fact that experiments cannot control intrinsic and extrinsic
sources of validity as systematically as in laboratory experiments.

The main issue to consider in field experiment is the ethical issues: In most cases, the
individuals are not aware that they are participating in research. Therefore, the researcher
has to ensure that the privacy of the affected individuals is not violated and that they will
be protected from undue embarrassment or distress.

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 11.6. Lecture Summary
In this lecture, we have learnt that:

 An observation is considered the easiest method of data collection.

However, one need to be sure of what to observe, where and when to
observe, and how much to infer when recording observations.
 One needs to be clear on what type of behaviour to be observes:
nonverbal, spatial, extra-linguistic, or linguistic.

 In experimental designs, the researcher should be aware of the

systematic bias, which might be introduced in the experiment as a result
of demand characteristics, experimental bias, and measurement
artefacts.

 The main challenges in the field experiment involve difficulties in

controlling the setting (the natural environment), participant’s selection,
and the manipulation of the independent variable.
 Ethical issues are also a major concern because the participants are
unaware that they are involved in an experimental situation.

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11.7 Activity

a. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of laboratory versus field

experiments as modes of observation
b. List the advantages and disadvantages of field experiments.
c. What are the main limitations of laboratory experiments?
d. Briefly describe the three main experimental research designs

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 LECTURE TWELVE

11.8 Suggestion for further reading

1.1 Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

1.2 Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.

1.3 Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics

1.4 George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social Sciences.

1.5 Hunt N. and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling

Techniques.

1.6 Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.).
Newbury.

1.7 Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage Publications.

[Del Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu

1.8 Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social

sciences.

1.9 Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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 DATA PROCESSING AND PRESENTATION
Lecture Outline
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Editing
12.4 Coding
12.5 Tabulation
12.6 Classification
12.6.1 Attributes
12.6.1 Class-Intervals
12.7 Presentation
12.7.1 Percentages
12.7.2 Tables
12.7.3 Histogram
12.7.4 Bar Charts (Bar Graphs)
12.7.5 Frequency Polygon
12.7.6 Pie Chart
12.8 Summary
12.9 References

12.1 Introduction
Data comes to us in a complex, usually incoherent, form. It has to be organized and
presented in a computer friendly mode for manipulation purposes unless the information
was directly recorded in the computer. Data processing involves data conversion involving
four primary methods. C. R. Kothari in his book, Research Methodology (2008) has
given a detailed description of the processing methods. In this lecture, I will cover the main
processing methods which are editing, coding and re-coding, tabulation and classification.
I will also discuss the basic methods of data presentation.

In this lecture, I shall discuss data processing and presentation. This important stage
usually follows the data collection process. At this stage, we go through the data gathered
and organize it for manipulation through a computer package like SPSS. It also involves
extensive editing of the data so that mistakes that we often make in the field are rectified

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or eliminated. Such mistakes could easily influence the final results negatively.

We also look at our data afresh and decide on appropriate codes to be used depending on
the statistical package chosen. In most cases, we code our data during the data collection
stage but depending on the data collected, one may need to recode the information afresh.
We also deal with classification, tabulation and the various methods of presentation.

12.2 Lecture Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the methods used in editing research data
2. examine the importance of data coding and recoding
3. Distinguish between attribute and class-interval based classification

12.3 Editing
Data editing involves some level of proof-reading which eliminates common mistakes. It
can be done in the field or in a more centralized environment like the researchers office
when field work is complete. At this stage, it is possible to eliminate common problems
like duplication of information, vague responses and other information that might interfere
with the outcome of computer analysis.

Another aspect of editing is data cleaning which is a variation of proof-reading which

also helps in ensuring consistency in data and coding processes. This process is crucial
because errant values can be arrested long before they interfere with the results.

12.4 Coding
Coding is the process in which variables are noted in the form of symbols or numeric
characters. This helps to reduce the amount of data entry required particularly where the
information sought comprises attributes. An example is sex of animals in a given animal
species which is either male or female. One could use numerical values to represent
observations like 1 for male and 2 for female. In entering this information into the
computer, the researcher would record only 1 and 2 for the observations made. However,

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these numbers have no arithmetic value, that is 1 is not better than 2 as zero is not
absolute.

Take Note
Coding is the act of assigning numbers or symbols to variables and values for
convenience.

12.5 Tabulation

Tabulation involves organization of data into tables in preparation for computer

manipulation. The tables will take different shapes reflective of the nature of data.
Frequency and cumulative tables are usually developed in order to display the
information in readiness for the next stage of analysis.

12.6 Classification
Classification is the organization of similar objects into same classes in order to maintain
cohesion. If we are dealing with hotels as our source of data, we could classify them
according to facilits or according number of stars. When dealing with gender, we could
make two broad classes: one of males and another of females. Classifications in the social
sciences are based on attributes and class intervals.

12.6.1 Attributes
This is classification of categorical variables and values. For example, we may be
interested in the height of students in LDP 603. We have a choice of measuring the height
of students and giving exact measures but we could to use terms that describe their height
like: short, medium and tall. The latter terms are referred to as attributes or descriptive
characteristics. If we are to classify them, we would put all the tall students together, the
short ones together and so on. We can also do the same for colour, taste, opinion, age
(young, mature and old) and so on. Such classes are based on shared characteristics of
quality.

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 Age Frequency %
Young 50 50
Mature 40 40
Old 10 10

12.6.1 Class-Intervals
When we use continuous values like weight of students, we can decide to break the values
into convenient classes and compute the occurrence of each class. Let’s assume that the
weight of students in kgs is as flows:
45.5, 50, 55.4, 57, 60, 67.7, 77.2, 80.1, 85.2

Classification of this kind of data into class intervals will make it easier for us to compute
general variations in the population.

The class could be:

WT Number
41-50 Kg 2
51-60 Kg 3
61-70 Kg 1
71 Kg and above 3

12.7 Data Presentation

Data presentation is a tool through which observed data can be summarized to give a
visual impression of the distribution. This makes it easy for the reader to see the
differences more clearly. Visual data representation can take many different forms but the
most common forms are: Percentages, tables, Histograms, bar charts, frequency
polygons, and the pie chart. We shall look at each one of the in the remaining part of this
lecture.

12.7.1 Percentages
In percentages, data is computed with a common base of 100 for comparative summaries.
For example, if you had 100 hotels and 40 of them are classified then we argue that 40/100

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0r 40%are classified and the remaining 60 which are not classified make-up the remaining
60%. Percentages help us to compare the occurrence of variables.

12.7.2 Tables
Tables also represent summary information in an organised form which is easy to
visualise. The table can be made up of percentage or row data in rows and columns. For
Example, we can classify 5 hotels according to their number and type (domestic
/international) of tourists as follows:

Hotel Occupancy Domestic International tourists

tourists
H1 20 (11.1%) 10 10
H2 40 (22.2%) 15 35
H3 70 (38.9%) 25 45
H4 30 (16.7) 10 20
H5 20 (11.1%) 5 15
Totals 180 (100%) 65 115

The table gives a visual summary of the data on different types of visitors. From this table,
one can easily conclude that hotel H3 is popular than others and, like H2, it attracts a large
no of international tourists. On the other hand, H5 registered the lowest no of domestic
tourists.

12.7.3 Histogram
A histogram represents data in visual blocks with the frequencies being provided on the
‘y’ axis or vertical axis and the categories (observation variables) on the ‘x’ or horizontal
axis. The units on the horizontal size are similar in size with variations being observed on
the vertical axis.
The information on occupancy presented in the table above can be converted into a
histogram as follows:

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 OCCUPANCY IN FIVE HOTELS
80

60

40

20

0
occupancy

H1 H2 H3 H4 H5

Figure 1

12.7.4 Bar Charts (Bar Graphs)

Bar charts are normally used when the measures are categorical or attributes with
qualitative information. Gaps are normally used to separate the equal bars representing
each independent observation. The same width is maintained in the horizontal axis as is
the case in histograms.

An example a one week occupancy rate of HI tabulated below is represent in a Bar Chart
below:

Hotel mon tue Wed thur fri sat sun

HI 20 25 10 50 70 30 5

70
60
50
40
30 HI

20
10
0
mon tue wed thur fri sat sun

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 Activity
The performance of 10 students in CTO 301 is: 60%, 78%, 90%, 73%, 68%,
60%, 71%, 56%, 75% and 85%. Visually present this information in a bar
graph.

12.7.5 Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon can be described as a line graph constructed by placing coordinate
points at the intersection of horizontal and vertical axis. The points are then connected
with a straight line. The same information above can be represented as follows:

80
70
60
50
40 HI
30
20
10
0
mon tue wed thur fri sat sun

12.7.6 Pie Chart

A pie chat is a representation of data as a proportion of a circle or 360º. The different
frequencies of the variables or values of interest are divided into proportions of the circle.
The data is in the form of frequencies or percentages and the proportions add up to the
total frequency or 100%. Hotel (HI) occupancy for three days, Friday to Sunday can be
represented as follows:

Hotel fri Sat sun

HI 70 30 5

fri

sat

sun

The methods given above are quite good for visual representation. They are however,

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accused of simplifying interpretation to a point where some important data characteristics
are missed out. It is with this in mind that research move to the next stage of measures of
central tendency to get a clearer description in the form of cluster points. In the next
lecture, we shall talk about the measurements of central tendency and measures of
dispersion.

12.13 Summary

We have seen that data must be processed in order to ensure that the
succeeding stages of analysis are smooth. It is particularly important to
ensure that thorough editing of the data is a continuous process in order to
eliminate spurious information which could impact our results.

We have also seen that data presentation is an important way of condensing

and visually presenting information. It is however important to note that data
presentation is a prelude to serious analysis in some kinds of research while
it may be an end process in nominal data.

We must capture important information which could be masked in the

presentation through the measures of central tendency and dispersion which
we shall explore in the next lecture.

Activity
i) Why is editing of research data important?
ii) What differentiates class-interval from attribute based classification
iii) Outline the methods of data presentation in research.
iv) Why is coding important in data collection?

12.14 References
1. Bohrnstedt, G. and Knoke D. 1988. Statistics for Social Data Analysis.
2. Walsh A. 1990. Statistics for the Social Sciences.
3. Durkheim, E. 1964. The Rule of the Sociological Method.
4. Freedman, P. 1960. The Principals of Scientific Research

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5. Kothari, C.R. 2003 Research Methodology
6. Miller, D.C. 1991 Handbook of Research Design and Social Movement.

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 LECTURE THIRTEEN
DATA ANALYSIS I
Lecture Outline
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Analytical Methods
13.3.1 Measures of Central Tendency
13.3.1.1 Arithmetic Mean
13.3.1.2 Mode
13.3.2 Measures of Dispersion
13.3.2.1 Range
13.3.2.2 Mean Deviation
13.3.2.3 Variance
13.3.2.4 Standard Deviation
13.3.2.5 The Normal Distribution
13.7 Summary
13.8 References

13.1 Introduction

Data analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exists among data-groups. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis
should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data
can be said to indicate any conclusions.

Data analysis is essentially the main stage in research. Analysis helps us in interpreting
data, drawing conclusions and making decisions. In descriptive statistics, we are able to
present our finding in a concise manner and in inferential statistics we are able to develop
generalisations from the sample to the population.

Many methods of data analysis are available and our decision to use any of them depends
on the nature of problem being investigated, the nature of data, the measurements used and
the level of precision required among many other considerations.

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Broadly speaking, data analysis falls into two categories namely descriptive and inferential
analysis. Descriptive analysis describes the phenomena in statistical terms as it happens or
in an ex- post-facto sense. No attempts are made to make predictions or inferences. It
helps us summarise data and manipulate with ease.

Take Note
The term descriptive statistics stands for the procedures used in the
description of data.

Inferential data analysis moves a notch higher by drawing implications from hypothesis
testing and making estimations or inferences in terms theory. The ultimate aim is come up
with general laws that explain the phenomena of interest on the basis of a sample. What
happens to the sample can be applied anywhere else on earth where the population bears
the characteristics of interest.

Data comes to us as ratio, ordinal, nominal and interval. These measurements have an
impact on how data is analysed and the reliability of the conclusions reached. Ratio data,
with its absolute ‘0’, can be manipulated using a wide array of methods while nominal
data is comparatively weaker as we saw in the previous lectures.

In this lecture, we shall look at the different methods used in the manipulation of univarite
statistics in the search of differences within attributes. Bivariate analysis and relationships
will be explored in the succeeding lecture.

13.2 Lecture Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Outline the main methods used in univariate data analysis
2. Apply measures of central tendency in research
3. Discuss measures of dispersion in data analysis
4. Distinguish between analytical methods

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13.3 Analytical Methods
In this lecture we shall deal with very basic methods of data analysis which are
associated with the distribution of univariate data. They are measures of central
tendency, which deal with single value summaries, and measures of dispersion, which
computes the spread of values relative to their mean, mode or median.

13.3.1 Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency comprise mean, mode and median. These are single
summary points also known as cluster points which reduce data into single values. The
single values are supposed to give us the whole story. They normally ignore the
distribution of individual values.

13.3.1.1 Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean is also referred to as arithmetic average. In this module, and unless
specified, the term mean has been used interchangeably with arithmetic mean to mean the
same. It is the value that results from dividing the total value in a distribution by the total
number of items. In this section, we shall compute the mean for grouped and ungrouped
data.

Ungrouped data

The formula is: Sum in Set same as ∑y

Number in Set n

For examples if you had a sample of 5 students in a class of tourism aged: 17, 17, 20, 21,
30 the arithmetic mean is: 17+17+20+21+30 = 105 =21
5 5

Grouped data

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In most cases, data comes to us grouped into class intervals or attributes and the calculation
of a mean is adjusted accordingly. In this case we are normally interest in class frequencies
and mid-points of class distributions
Example
Class interval Frequency(f) Midpoint(x) fx
15-19 5 17 85
20-24 10 22 220
25-29 20 27 540
30-34 2 32 64
37 909

steps
1 Obtain the midpoint of each class
2 Multiply midpoint by its frequency
3 Sum up frequency (f)
4 Sum up fx
5 Compute as follows

Formula x= ∑fx
n
Where
x = the mean,
n = the number of observations,
x = the midpoint,
∑ = the summation notation

Now x = ∑fx = 909 =24.57

n 37

13.3.1.2 Mode

Mode represents the highest value or most frequent value in a distribution. It usually

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contains a higher concentration than other values in the distribution. In the example given
above, the value with the highest concentration is 17. It appears twice in the distribution.
However, if the number of students was increased to six and the extra student is 20 years
old, then there are two modes, which are 17 and 20. This kind of distribution is described
as bimodal (also referred as Bactrian hump in reference to the two humped camel) and if
more than two it is referred to as multimodal. In grouped frequency data, mode is the class
with the highest value. The example below supports this observation.

Age Number in each Category Position

31 11 4th
20 10 5th
21 40 2nd
22 50 1st
24 32 3rd
32 9 6th
18 2 7th

In this case, the age of 22 years represents the modal frequency.

13.3.1.3 Median

The value of the middle item in a sequential distribution is normally known as a median.
Median normally divides the distribution into two equal parts; one part being higher than
the median and the other lower than it. If you are to arrange the ages of students in a
sequential descending order, it would appear like this: 31, 21, 20 17 and 17.
The middle value (median) in the distribution is 20. However, if the observations are even
like: 33, 31, 21,20, 17, 17 and, then the median is determined as follows:

( n+1)th Position = 7 (th) = 3.5th Position between 21 and 20 or

20.5
2 2

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Computing the median of Grouped data

Class interval (ages) Frequency(f) Cumulative Cumulative %

frequency(cf)
17-19 4 4 18.2
20-22 6 10 45.5
23-24 2 12 54.5
25-27 3 15 68.2
28-30 7 22 100
Total 22

Note
1. The median has a value of 22(.5) =11
2. The cumulative frequency shows that it lies between the intervals 20-22 and 23-24.
3. There are only 10 observations preceding class interval 23-24 (fbelow)
4. The class containing 11 is 23-24

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Formula Md = L+ n(0.5)-fbelow i
f

Where
Md = median
L = Lower Limit of interval containing the median
f= frequency of the interval containing the medium
n = total number of observations
i = class interval range
fbelow= cumulative frequency below the class interval containing the median)
We obtain L=23
i=3
n=22
fbelow =10
f=2

Computation:

Md = L + n(0.5)-fbelow i = 23 + 22(0.5)-10 3 = 23+ 11-10 3 = 23.5

f 2 2

It is important to note the following strengths of the measures of central tendency

1. They give easy to compute cluster points which summarise the population
2. Mode can be used with nominal data where other are methods are not possible
3. Mean is considered to be a more stable data representation and it is therefore
frequently used as a measure of central tendency.
4. Due to its stability mean is also used in the measures of dispersion and
hypothesis testing as we shall see.

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13.3.2 Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion deal with variations in the distribution of data i.e. they measure
variability within data. Measures of dispersion vary considerably from the measures of
central tendency. The latter depends on single cluster points while in the former, each
value is weighted against the mean, mode or median to determine its distribution from the
centre either negatively or positively. Most researchers compute deviation from the mean.
The most commonly used measures of dispersion are:
 Range
 Interquartile range
 Mean deviation
 Standard deviation
 Variance
In the following sub-sections we discuss each one of these measures using examples
from tourism to illustrate how they work.

13.3.2. 1 Range

Range computes the spread of data from the lowest to the highest number. It is essentially
the difference between extreme values.
Formula
Range = H-L
Where H=Highest value and L= Lowest value
The distribution of conference rooms among five hotels is:
1, 2, 5,10, 22
Compute the range:
The range is H(22)-L(1) =22-1=21

This method is simple but in its simplicity, the method misses a lot on the dynamics of
data. At times, Researchers avoid this measure as it may not add value to analysis.
In class interval distribution, the formula (H-L)+1 is used. For example, the interval

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distribution of exam scores by 56 students in a tourism course is as follows:
51% -60% = 10
61%-70% = 15
71%-80% = 11
81%-100% = 20

Calculate the range

R = (H-L)+1 = (20-10) + 1 = 11
Range gives us a quick measure of variability which may not tell us much about the spread
or variations in the data. In filling this gap, the interquartile range is considered to be more
dependable.

Interquartile range is centred on variations within the middle 50% of the values which are
more stable than the extreme values. Consider the following set of marks (out of 10): 4,4,6,
7,8,8,9 and 10
 The range is 10-4=6.
 The cumulative frequency of the values is 56.
 The two quartiles are:

Formula
Q¹ The lower quartile (n+1) th value where is the cumulative frequency
4
Q² The upper quartile 3(n+1) th value or 3(n+1)/4th
4

We need to establish the cumulative vales

Age Distribution Cumulative frequency
4 4
4 8
6 14
7 21
8 29
8 37

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9 46
10 56

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Upper quartile = 56+1 = 14.25th
4
Lower quartile = 3(56+1) = 42.75th
4
The interquartile range is 42.75-14.25 = 28.5

13.3.2.2 Mean Deviation

Mean deviation is made up of deviation of sum of scores from the mean arrived at by
subtracting the mean from the observed scores. Because the summation of such values, as

we shall see, is zero we normally use absolute figures i.e. |x- x |.

 Where | | allows one to treat figures as absolute
 x = observations
 x = mean

In mean deviation, every score set is utilized and the overall variation from the mean is
computed. The deviation scores i.e. difference between the individual score and the

mean (x- x ) are considered.

For heterogeneous population the difference between the mean and the actual score is
large.
A combination of the deviation scores is indicative of the spread of scores which is a
stronger measure than the cluster points characterising the measures of central tendency.
The sum of deviations from the mean is zero hence the need to take absolute scores
using the symbol│ │ meaning that│-1 │ and │1 │ are the same i.e. negatives values
are considered as positives.

Example
In a course assessment test (CAT) marked out of 10, the performance of 8 students is given
below and organised in a sequence from the highest to the lowest. What is the spread of
the scores? Use mean deviation, standard deviation and variance to support your answer.

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 OBS (x) Mark out of 10 x- x | x- x | | x- x |2
S1 8 3 3 9
S2 7 2 2 4
S3 6 1 1 1
S4 6 1 1 1
S5 5 0 0 0
S6 5 0 0 0
S7 2 -3 3 9
S8 1 -4 4 16
N=8 N=8 N=8 N=8
x̄= 40/8=5 Sum=0 Sum=14 Sum=40

From this distribution, we shall compute the mean deviation, the standard deviation and
the variance.
In mean deviation, the difference between each value and the mean is computed and all
the differences are summed up and divided by the number of observations. This difference
varies from the earlier measures in that all the values are computed independently and then
included in the final computation.

Formula ∑| x- x |
N
=14/8=1.75

Where
x = each observation
x̄ = arithmetic mean
N= the total no of observations
∑= notation of summation

In this formula, all the variations of values from mean have been considered and divided
by the total number of observations.

13.3.2.3 Variance

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Variance is the average square of the deviation of measurements about their mean. It is the
square of the standard deviation it is noted by S2.

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 Sample variance = S2=∑(x- x )2
n
In the illustration of above S2= 40 = 5
8

Always remember that variance is the square of the standard deviation

and standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

13.3.2.4 Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is a widely used measure of dispersion. It is defined by Mendenhall

(1981) as follows: ‘The standard deviation of a set of n measurements y1,y2,y3-------yn is
equal to the positive square root of the variance’. Its formula is given below:

S= ∑(x - x )2 s= 40 = 5 = 2.24
n 8

Where
s= standard deviation of the sample

We should note here that the standard deviation is generated by squaring the mean
deviation and computing the square root. The figure generated gives us an indication of
the variation between observed values.

13.3.2.5 The Normal Distribution

The standard deviation is an important measure in the computation of parametric data,

where values of a univariate variable are assumed to take a particular shape known as a
normal curve or bell shaped curve. The number of observations from the variable of
interest conforming to this curve is conceived as infinite and the sample survey only gives
part of the larger picture. At the same time the mode, mean and median coincide at the

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peak of the normal curve where the measurements are concentrated. This gives it a
symmetrical distribution or bell-shaped curve showing the centrality of data is shown
below.
The bell shaped or normal curve is believed to be reflective of natural behaviour of living
organisms. Our performance normally takes this form with many individuals falling in the
average performance (or mode) and a few on the extreme tail ends. In other words,
extremely good performers and extremely poor performers are proportionally fewer in
nature. Another example is the shoe sizes of adult men and women. There is quite a high
concentration on certain sizes like o9 in men and 7 in women. This forms the peak of the
symmetrical bell curve. This information can be represented as follows:

94.56% of values

13.6% 34.13% 34.13% 13.6%

-3s -2s -s Md/ x +s 2s 3s

Note: There are standard proportions of fixed values between the mean and units of the
standard deviations as shown above as follows:
 34.13% of the values are represented within one standard deviation from the mean –
right (+s)
 34.13% of the values are represented within one standard deviation from the mean –
left (-s)
 Merging the two statements indicates that 68.26% of the distribution falls within the
mean ± 1s (± means plus or minus)
 95.46 falls within the mean ± 2s
Example:
Assuming that the student performance discussed earlier takes a normal curve, we noted
that the arithmetic mean was 5 and the standard deviation was 2.24. Therefore, 68.26%
of the population lies between ±1s of the mean (5) where 1s =2.24. The Implication is that
68.26% of the all the scores fall between 5±2.24. Using the plus and minus most of the

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 scores fall between 2.76 and 7.24.This information can be computed using standard scores
using the formula:

Z =x- x
s
Where
Z= number of standard deviation units
x = observation
x = arithmetic mean
s= standard deviation

In a distribution with a standard deviation of 2.24 and a mean of 5, a score of 8 is expressed

as:

Z=x- x = 8-5 = 3 =1.3

s 2.24 2.24

13.4 In this lecture, we have looked at two primary methods of data analysis. In the first
Summary case we talked about the measures of central tendency which gave us single measures
explaining the relationship between data. But this misses out the underlying
differences.
This shortcoming is addressed in the measures of dispersion which looks at data
variations around the arithmetic mean, median and mode. The variation takes
cognisance of the sum of average deviation of each value. The lecture also looked at
the standard deviation and variance which are frequently used.

13.5 i) What do we mean by univariate data analysis?

Activity ii) What are the main characteristics of the measures of central tendency?
iii) Cite three cases where you would use the measures of central tendency.
iv) Why are measures of dispersion considered to be more informative than the
measures of central tendency than?

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v) Temperatures (in centigrade) in Eastern Africa during the first week of July were
as follows: 9,11, 7, 13, 14, 12, 10,15.
(1) Compute the mean, mode and median
(2) Compute the temperature variations using: range, mean deviation,
standard deviation and variance
(3) Comment on each of the results
(4) Discuss the strength and weaknesses of the measures.
(5) Based on the results what would you advice a tourist coming to the
region on variations in temperature?

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 LECTURE FOURTEEN

DATA ANALYSIS II: MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP

Lecture outline
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Measures of Relationship
14.3.1 Regression Analysis
14.3.2 Spearman’s Rank Correlation
14.3.3 Pearson’s Moment Product Correlation
14.4 Multivariate Relationships
14.4.1 Control
14.4.2 Interpretation
14.4.3 Prediction
14.4.4 Cross-Tabulation
14.5 Summary
14.6 Activity
14.7 References

14.1 Introduction

In this lecture, I wish to take you through bivariate and multivariate data analyses. I will
particularly concentrate on the methods that are commonly used in research. I also wish to
mention that the number of methods used in statistical analysis is large. We cannot cover
everything in this lecture alone. For those of you who may have done a statistics course
unit, I believe that you have an advantage but the course unit, as a research method, is
aimed at equipping students with a good understanding of the range of information
available without necessarily converting them into a statisticians. You do not need to have
an excellent background in mathematics either to cope with the computations used in this
lecture. I will, however, emphasise that you need to familiarise yourself with a user
friendly statistical package like SPSS for basic statistical computation. This is however

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optional.
I wish to also mention that we shall lay more emphasis on the working principles of the
main methods used in the search for relationships or correlation in both bivariate and
multivariate data.
Some of the popular methods are:
o Regression Analysis
o Pearson’s Moment Product Correlation
o Spearman’s Rank Correlation
o Cross-tabulation

In addition, I will mention hypothesis testing by highlighting some of the key concepts
directing inferential research.

14.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Outline the main measures of relationship
2. Discuss linear regression analysis
3. Explain the working principles of the Pearson’s Moment Product
Correlation
4. Compute data on the basis of the Spearman’s Rank Correlation
5. Explain the meaning of a hypothesis

14.3 Measures of Relationship

Measures of relationship represent a higher level of analysis compared to the preceding

measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
The characteristics of this kind of analysis are primarily meant to establish co-variation
i.e. change and direction of the change in variables of interest. The assumption is that for
every measurement (value) in one variable (y) there is a corresponding value for the second
variable (x). However, the direction of change will take different forms as illustrated
below:

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The figures (A, B, C, D) given below show the relationship between the performance of
students (y-axis) and the scatter of their scores according to their IQ ratings (x-axis). In
practical sense, one would assume that the relationship would take many forms as shown
in the figures.
Hypothetical Observations
A = strong negative correlation (students performance declines as their IQ increases).
B = A strong positive correlation (the performance increases as the IQ increases).
C = No correlation (an increase in IQ does not change performance).
D = Weak positive relationship (the impact of IQ on performance is low).

Y axis Y

B
A
X axis x

Y Y

D
C
x x

Key
Outliers
Xy coordinates
Best fitting line through the x,y coordinates

These kinds of relationship are common in research. In this study we shall concentrate on

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relationships of this nature. In some instances, a measure ranging between -1 and +1 is
computed to express the existing relationship. +1 indicates a very strong positive
relationship and -1 signifies a strong negative relationship. All the other types of
relationship fall in between.
Other Examples:
 We may want to know whether the time spent in the library is related to a
student’s performance in school.
 Or whether an individual income corresponds to the number of years that s/he
has worked for the organization.
 We may also want to know whether the maintenance of an attraction is
related to its age.
The questions that we are asking are:
 Is there an association/relationship between the two variables?
 Is there a cause and effect relationship between the variables?
 What is the strength and direction of the observed relationship?
To answer the question on association, we normally use:
 Cross-tabulation
 Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlations
 Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation
To answer the questions on cause and effect, we use:
 Simple regression analysis or
 Multiple linear regression

14.3.1 Regression Analysis

The cause and effect relationships can be measured using the linear regression analysis.
Predictions can also be made.

Application
 The relationship between the age of hotels and their daily maintenance.
 The relationship between age of a person and their IQ.
 The relationship between salary and service in years.
 Relationship between economic decline and disposable income.

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Illustration
A maintenance officer employed by the Star hotels in Mombasa wanted to establish the
relationship between the age of hotels and their daily maintenance expenses. This would
help the company in making a decision to purchase a 70 year old hotel which had been
advertised for sale in the local press. The question in his mind was what it would cost to
maintain such a hotel per day. Since there were hotels belonging to the same company,
they were analysed to determine the relation between age and maintenance cost as
illustrated below.
Because the relationship between the age of a hotel and its maintenance costs are likely
to be linear, a decision to use the simple linear regression was made using the formula
below:

Formula
y=a+bx

b = n∑xy - ∑x ∑y
n∑x2 - (∑x)2

a= ∑y - b∑x
n n

Hotel X(age) Y (Shs. Per XY X2

day)
1 5 190 950 25
2 10 240 2,400 100
3 15 250 3,750 225
4 20 300 6,000 400
5 30 310 9,300 900
6 30 335 10.500 900
7 30 300 9,000 900
8 50 300 15,000 2,500
9 50 350 17,500 2,500
10 60 395 97,650 3,600

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 TOTALS 300 2,970 97,650 10,050

Critical information
N = 10
∑x = 300
∑y = 2,970
∑xy = 97,650
∑x2 = 10,050

Computation
(i) Lets find b

b = n∑xy - ∑x ∑y = 10 x 97,650 – 300 x 2,970

n∑x2 - (∑x)2 10 x 10,050 - 3002

= 976500 – 891,000
100,500 – 90,000

= 85,500 = 2.8033
30,500

B = 2.8033

(ii) Lets find a

a = ∑y - b∑y
n n
a= 2970 - 2.8033x300
10 10

a = 297 – 84.099
a = 210.90

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Therefore
The line of regression is
Y = 210.90 + 2.8033x
If a hotel is 70 years old (x), what is its repair cost (y) per day.
Y = a + bx (equation of a straight line)
Y = 210.90 + 2.8033 (700)
Y = 409.131
This means that it will cost 409.131 to maintain the hotel per day.

14.3.2 Spearman’s Rank Correlation

Spearman’s rank correlations is normally used by researchers to determine the strength of

association between variables of interest
It measures the strength of association using a value, Rs, which lies between -1and 1 where:

o -1 = strong negative correlation coefficient

o 1 = strong positive correlation coefficient
o 0 = no relationship

Formula
Rs = 1 – 6∑d2
n(n2-1)

Where n = number of items ranked

d = differences in rank

Example 1

If two Judges were to rank 8 hotels, how sure are we that the results are consistent? This
problem can be solved by ranking their results and subjecting them to rank difference
computation as shown below:

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 Contestant Judge 1 Judge 2 Rank difference (d) d2
1 4 4 0 0
2 3 1 2 4
3 1 2 1 1
4 2 3 1 1
5 8 8 0 0
6 7 5 2 4
7 6 7 1 1
8 5 6 1 1

Critical Information

N=8
d2 = 12

Computation

Rs = 1– 6∑d2
n(n2-1)
Rs = 1- 60 = 1- 72
8(64-1) 504

Rs = 1-0.1429 = O.857

Rs coefficient = 0.857 (strong positive correlations)

Example II

Student performance in two subjects (Cultural Tourism and Eco-Tourism)

Student Registration X (C-Cultural Y Rank Rank d d2

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 tourism) (Ecotouris (X) (Y)
m)
001 65 52 8 8 0 0
002 88 57 4 7 3 9
003 83 78 5 3 2 4
004 92 76 2 4 2 4
005 50 30 9 9 0 0
006 67 67 7 5 2 4
007 100 96 1 1 0 0
008 73 65 6 6 0 0
009 90 87 3 2 1 1

i) Compute Rs
ii) Comment on the strength of association
iii) Are the students consistent in their performance in the two course units

14.3.3 Pearson’s Moment Product Correlation

In the Pearson’s product moment correlation, we are interested in the degree of scatter in
a relationship and its strength. The less scattered the variables, the stronger the
relationship. We use r to represent the product moment coefficient.
As we mentioned and demonstrated earlier, the value of r lies between -1 and +1. If the
correlation is positive and the points lie in a straight line with a value of 1, then we call
this a perfect positive correlation.
Formula:

By looking at the formula we can see that we need the following items to calculate r using
the raw score formula:

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 1. The number of subjects, N
2. The sum of each subjects X score times the Y score or summation XY
3. The sum of the X scores, summation X
4. The sum of the Y scores, summation Y
5. The sum of the X2 scores, summation X2
6. The sum of the Y2 scores, summation y2

A typical example in the application of this method is given below.

A researcher aims at establishing the degree of relationship between the performance

students in Cultural Tourism and Eco-Tourism exams. This helps to determine whether
the performance of in the two course units is consistent. A sample of 12 students was used:

STUDENT CULTURAL-T ECO-TSM ∑X2 ∑y2 ∑Xy

(X) (Y)
001 65 52 4225 2704 3380
002 88 57 7744 3249 5016
003 83 78 6889 6084 6474
004 92 76 8464 5776 6992
005 50 30 2500 900 1500
006 67 67 4489 4489 4489
007 100 96 10000 9216 9600
008 100 74 10000 5476 7400
009 73 65 5329 4225 4745
010 90 87 8100 7569 7830
011 83 78 6889 6084 6474
012 94 89 8836 7921 8366
N - 12 X = 985 Y = 849 ∑X2=8346 ∑Y2=6369 ∑Xy=72268
5 3

Critical Information

N = 12 (Number of students)

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X = 985 (Overall Score in Cultural Tourism)
Y = 849 (Overall Score in Eco-tourism
∑X2 = 83465
∑y2 = 63693
∑Xy = 72266

Formula

Substitution using critical information

r= 867192-836265
1001580-970225 764316-720801

30927 = 30927 = 30927

r= 31355 43515 1364412825 36937.959

r = 0.8373 or 0.84

This shows a strong positive correlation in the performance of students in the two course
units and it indicates consistency in the teaching and examination of the two course units.

14.4 Multivariate Relationships

Multivariate relations are sought for three main reasons:

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  Control
 Interpretation and
 Prediction.
Here, we look each one of these relationships and their computation. It is also important
to note that each of the three goals can be achieved through three main methods:
 Cross-tabulation – control and interpretation
 Partial correlation- control and interpretation
 Regression – predictions (discussed earlier)

14.4.1 Control

Control is better achieved in the natural sciences than in the social sciences. However,
some extraneous variables are controllable in the social sciences. Control is usually
achieved through comparing different sub-groups and using cross tables to determine the
contribution of the extraneous to the main group. A good example would be the
relationship between the occupancy rate of a hotel and its geographic location. The
reputation of the hotel could interfere with the expected relationship.

Independent variables Dependent variables

Poor reputation Low occupancy rate

Good location

Good reputation High occupancy rate

The methods which we normally use to deal with this anomaly are known as control
methods. Control methods help us against spurious results. For example, in the relationship
between occupancy and location one could still get results without considering reputation.
Given its serious impact, a research should ensure that it is considered like other variables.

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This helps a researcher to determine whether its inclusion makes a difference and hence
control it appropriately. This helps in reducing information assumed to be the direct result
of occupancy and location. This relationship can be computed through Cross-Tabulation
and Partial correlation (same as multiple cross-tabulation). We could also create
conditions which eliminate the influence if all the hotels picked have a good reputation.

14.4.2 Interpretation

In multivariate analysis, we are usually interested in the contribution of each variable in

order to give account of the stability of the observed relationship. This is mainly achieved
through elaboration method involving the identification of variables which may impact the
relationship. Such variables are then added into an existing bivariate relationship and
computed as independent variables to determine their impact on any relationships. This
helps us to interpret the conditions under which a certain relationship occurs and its
validity. An interpretive statement would look like this:
Students in rural areas perform better than their urban counterparts in national
examinations when their non-academic responsibilities are reduced.

14.4.3 Prediction

Prediction is the ability to foretell how relationships will be under different conditions. Do
you remember the example we used in the regression analysis? We were able to predict
the cost of maintaining a 70 year old hotel daily based on projection from other similar
hotels. Predication takes many forms depending on our observations

In multivariate data, we are able make statements like:

 Remote destinations attract international travellers if they are considered
to be secure and easily accessible.
 Hotels which serve traditional cuisines attract more travels if they are
located in affluent areas of urban centres.

14.4.4 Cross-Tabulation

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Cross-tabulation is an excellent method for dealing with explanation, control and
prediction in both bivariate and multivariate data. One of its strength is that already
existing data can be separated into experimental group and control group and appropriated
statistically when necessary. Cross-tabulation can also be used in the form of partial
correlation when dealing with complex multivariate data.
The unique characteristics of cross-tabulation are that it can:
 Handle most types of data
 Compute variables and values concurrently
 Cross-classify categories
 Search for interactions
 Determine causal relationships
 Accept elaborations
 Establish conditional relationships

14.5 Summary We have looked at the various methods used in the computation of bivariate
data. I have particularly mentioned that the characteristics of a variable will
determine the suitability of the method used in its analysis. However, it is
also important to note that some methods are multipurpose.
At this point, I would also like to think that each one of us has a method
which s/he can use to get through statistical data analysis.
Most of the computational methods are better done in the computer through
an appropriate package like SPSS. But you must keep the principles of each
method at your fingertips in order to ably interpret the computation. This
was the main importance of this particular lecture.
I have also mentioned hypothesis testing which is a more advanced level of
data manipulation which you may not need at this stage. The aim was to alert
you to its existence. I will continue with it in the next lecture.

14.6 Activity (1) Jumia has been working for a nightclub for 5 years and his salary
increment is shown below:
Year (x) 1 2 3 4 5
Salary (y) in Ksh 600 1200 1800 2400 3000

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 (i) Determine the spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson product
correlation coefficient?
(ii) What is the nature of relationship between years under employment and
salary increment?
(iii) Using the linear regression analysis, predict Jumia’s salary in 20 years.
(iv) Plot a line of best fit through the cluster points
(v) Suggest variables which could interfere with this prediction.
(1) Outline the differences between Ho and Ha.
(2) What do you understand by control, interpretation and prediction? Why
are they important in multivariate data?

14.7 References Cooper, C.P. Faulkner, B. Fredline, and L. Jago. 2003. Processing
tourism research.
Freedman, P. (1960) The principles of Scientific Research.
Mendenhall W. (1981). Introduction to probability and statistics
Chase C.I. (1984). Elementary statistical procedures.
Fisher, R.A. (1958) Statistical Methods for Research Workers.

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 LECTURE FIFTEEN
LITERATURE REVIEW
Lecture outline
Value of literature review
Steps to follow in conducting research review
Types of sources of literature review
Doing of literature search
Computer methods of literature review

15.1 Introduction

Before a researcher engages in the details of their study, they usually search for the
literature to find out what has been written about the area or topic of their study. The
researcher will look for what experts in the field of study have found out. This kind of
reading is referred to as a “review of the literature”. In this lecture we are going to discuss
the steps a researcher goes through in conducting a literature review.
_______________________________________________________________________
15.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1’Describe briefly the value of literature review.
2 State and describe the steps a researcher goes through in conducting a literature
review.
3.Explain the difference between a primary and a secondary source of literature
review
4. Describe and conduct both a manual and a computer search of the literature.

15.3 The value of literature review

A literature review is important to a researcher in two ways:

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  It helps the researcher to see the ideas of others interested in a particular
research question
 It lets the researcher see what the results of other similar or related studies have
been.
This enables the researcher to weigh information from a literature review in light of their
own concerns and situation. Therefore, researchers conduct a literature review in order to
locate other works in the same area of study and also to be able to evaluate the reviewed
research work in terms of its relevance to the research question of his or her interest.

15.4 Types of sources of literature review.

There are three main sources of literature review; the general references, the primary
sources and the secondary sources. Let us describe each of them.

i) General references: the general references are the first type of source a researcher
refers to. Such references help the researcher to know where to look for other
sources i.e. articles, monographs, books and other documents- that deal directly
with the research question. Such references are either indexes, which list the author,
title and place of publication of articles and other materials, or abstracts which give
a brief summary of various publications, as well as their author, title and place of
publication. For example, Psychological Abstracts is an index commonly used in
education.
ii) Primary sources: They are publications in which researchers report the results of
their studies. Most of the primary sources are journals, which are usually, published
monthly, quarterly, bi-annually or annually. The articles in them typically report
on a particular research study.
iii) Secondary sources: Secondary sources refer to publications in which authors
describe the work of others. The most common secondary sources are textbooks,
encyclopedias, research reviews and yearbooks.

15.5 Ways of doing literature review

There are two ways to do a literature search; manually and electronically. Let us look at

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each of them.

15.5.1 Doing a Manual Search

There are several steps involved in a literature review. We are going to look at each one
of them:
i) Define the research problem as precisely as possible
A researcher should state the research question so that it focuses on the specific issues
for investigation. This will help the researcher to focus his search for the needed
information.
ii) Look at relevant secondary sources
After stating the research question in specific terms the researcher needs to look
through one or two secondary sources to get an overview of the previous research that
has been done on the problem.
iii) Select and pause one or two appropriate general reference works.
Once the researcher has reviewed the secondary sources to get a more informed
overview of the problem, he or she should have a clear idea of exactly what to
investigate. If the researcher is satisfied he or she can select one or two general
reverences to help identify particular journals or other primary sources related to the
problem.

There are very many general references a researcher can consult. However, it is also
important for the researcher to be very clear on the broad area of interest, for example,
education, psychology, economics etc.

Each academic discipline has its general source of information. Examples are: current
index to Journal in Education (CIJE); Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature; Social
Science Citation Index (SSCI); Psychological Abstracts; Resources in Education
(RIE); Sociological Abstracts etc.

iv) Formulate search terms (key words or phrase) pertinent to the problem or
questions of interest.
Once a researcher has selected the general reference, it is important to formulate some
search terms (words or phrases they can use to locate primary sources). Such words

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are called descriptors. These are the most important words in the problem statement.
It is important to note that a researcher will conduct a literature search to find out what
other research has been done in regard to and what others think about the research
question.

The researcher should list the key words alphabetically and then consult the general
reference work to see what articles are listed under these descriptors. The researcher
would then select the article that is relevant to the research topic.

v) Search the general references for relevant primary sources

The search in the general reference for the primary sources involves a process, which
has the following steps:
 Find the most recent issue of the publication (journal) and work backward.
 Look to see if there are any articles listed under each of the descriptors in the
current issue.
 List the bibliographical data of pertinent articles on bibliographical cards. That
is the author, title, page, publication date and source of the publication. A
separate card should be used for each reference listed. The bibliographical data
should be recorded completely and accurately.
 The researcher should continue looking in other issues of the publication using
the descriptors. If a descriptor fails to yield any results, it should be dropped.

vi) Obtain and read relevant primary sources, notes and summarize key points in
the source.
Once the search in the general reference has been done, the researcher will have
generated a pile of bibliographic cards. The next step is to locate each of the sources
lists on the cards and then read and take notes on those relevant to the research problem.

There are two major types of primary sources: journals and reports. Journals may be
specialized or general. Specialized journals publish articles of a specific specialization
in the field. For example, in the field of education, we have specialized areas of, say,
distance education; web-based learning etc. An article on distance education will most
probably be published in a distance education journal while an article in a web-based

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 learning will be published in an e-learning journal. However, there are education
journals that will publish any article from any area of educational specialization.

Reports are also an important primary source. Many research projects produce a final
report of their activities and findings. These, reports may not be published, but are a
valuable source of information.

15.6 How do you locate and read the primary sources?

You will find out that most primary source materials are located in journal articles and
reports. If you are looking for them in a library, then it is important that you go to the
section dealing with journal articles in the library.

After you have gathered all the articles you want to refer to, then the literature review
process begins in earnest. It is good to begin with the most recent article and reports
backwards.

15.7 How do you read an article?

Though there is no perfect way of reading an article, the following are the basic steps you
should follow:
 Read the abstract or the summary first to ascertain whether it is worth reading
the full article.
 Record the bibliographical information at the top of the note card.
 Take notes on the article or photocopy the abstract or the summary.
 Be as brief as possible in taking notes. Note the most important points only.

In reading the article, note the following about the article:

 Problem of investigation: State it clearly.
 Hypothesis and objectives: List them exactly as stated in the article.
 Procedure: List the research methodology used, the number of subjects and
how they were selected and the kind of instruments used. You should note any
unique techniques used.

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  Findings: List the major findings. Indicate whether the objectives or the
hypotheses were supported.
 Conclusions: Describe, briefly the author’s conclusions. Note your agreements
and disagreements with them. Also note the strengths and weaknesses of the
study.

15.8 Doing a computer literature search

Computers can be used to search for literature so long as internet connectivity is available.
A computer search has a number of advantages over a manual search. Firstly, it is much
faster than a manual search. Secondly, in most educational institutions, it is free or
inexpensive. Thirdly, it enables the researcher to printout the materials together with the
source. Fourthly, more than one descriptor can be searched at the same time.

15.8.1 The Process of a Computer literature search.

A computer literature search has almost the same steps like in a manual search. The
following are the steps:
i) Define the problem as precisely as possible: Like in the manual search, one
should state the research problem as specifically as possible so that the relevant
descriptors can be identified.

ii) Decide on the extent of the search: It is important for the researcher to decide
on the desired number of references to obtain. The level of the article being
prepared will determine this. For an ordinary journal article, a review of 20 to
25 articles would be adequate. For a master’s degree, 30 to 40 articles will do.
But for a very exhaustive review for Doctoral dissertation, one may need as
many as 100 references.

iii) Decide on the Database: There are many databases available for literature
search. The most commonly used in education is ERIC. For effective use of a
database, one need have clear descriptors.

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 iv) Select the descriptors: The descriptors are the words the researcher uses to tell
the computer what to search for. Too general a descriptor may lead to too many
references, many of which may be irrelevant. Too narrow a descriptor may lead
to too few references.

v) Conduct the Search: After you have determined which descriptors to use the
next step will involve entering the descriptors into the computer. The computer
will give very many references and it is upon you to decide the number you
want.

15.8.2 Researching the World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (www) is part of Internet and it is a vast reservoir of information
on all sorts of topics in a wide variety of areas. A researcher can use a Web browser (the
computer program that lets you gain access to the www.) to find information on almost
any topic with just a few clicks of the mouse button. You will find that some of the
information on the web has been classified into directories, which can be easily searched
by going from one category to another. There is also the search engine available.

i) What is a directory?
Directories will group websites together under similar categories such as Universities,
Pharmaceutical companies etc. The result of a directory search will be a list of websites
related to the topic being searched.
Directories often provide an excellent starting point for a review of literature.

ii) What is a search engine?

Search engines help a researcher when he/she wants more specific information. However,
for one to get good results one should know what to ask for and how to phrase the request
to increase the chances of getting what is desired.

iii) Advantages of searching the WWW

Many resources on the Internet are updated very rapidly and therefore, they represent the
very latest information about a given topic. It provides access to a wide variety of materials
The materials can be availed in varied formats i.e. text, video, sound or animation. The

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Internet is open all the time so long as one is connected to an Internet service provider.

iv) Disadvantages of searching the WWW

Unfortunately, much of the information on the Web is not well organized. This
disorganization makes it an absolute necessity for researchers to have good online
searching skills. Searching for information in the WWW is usually time –consuming
information on the www sometimes lacks credibility because anyone can publish
something in the Internet. It is easy to publish information on the Internet that it is often
difficult to judge its worth. That it is easy to obtain material form the Internet, there is
greater temptation to use the materials without citation or permission hence violating
copyrights. The amounts of material on the Internet continue to grow rapidly. This can
mislead researchers to think that they can find all the information they need from it. They
may ignore some of the traditional sources of information that might not be on the Internet.

15.9 How to write the literature review

After a researcher feels that he/she has read and reviewed enough of the literature, it
becomes imperative that a final review is prepared. The format will typically involve the
following:
The Introduction: It briefly describes the nature of the research problem and states
the research question. The researcher will state what section of the literature review
led him/her to investigate the problem, and why it is an important question to
investigate
The body: This section reports what others have found out or thought about the
research problem. It is good to discuss all the related studies together under sub-
headings. In most cases, several studies that reported similar results are grouped
together.
The Summary: This section ties together the main issues that has been revealed in the
literature and presents a composite picture of what is known or thought to date.
The conclusion: This section includes any conclusions that the researcher feels are
justified based on the state of knowledge revealed in the literature. It is also
important to indicate what the literature suggests to be appropriate courses of action
to take to try to solve the problem,
The bibliography: A full bibliographic data of all sources mentioned in the review

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should be listed. The recommended format of preparing the list of references is by
using the American Psychological Association (1983) format.

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15.9 LECTURE SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have discussed the following points: That there are six (6) essential
steps involved in the literature review:
 defining the research problem as precisely as possible
 perusing the secondary sources
 selecting and perusing an appropriate general reference
 formulating search terms
 searching the general references for relevant primary sources
 obtaining and reading the primary sources and noting and summarizing key
points in the sources.
There are three basic sources of information: general references, primary sources and
secondary sources. “Descriptors” are the key words researchers use to help them locate
primary sources.
There are five essential points that researchers should record when taking notes:
 Problem
 Hypotheses
 Procedures
 Findings
 Conclusions
The literature review report consists of:
 An introduction
 The body of the review
 A summary
 The researcher’s conclusions
 A bibliography

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15.10 ACTIVITY

1. Which of the general references, would you consider on each of the following?
 Marriage and family counselling
 Secondary school management
 Small school discussions
 PhD thesis dissertations
2. Which of the secondary sources would you recommend for the following topics?
 Recent research on the integration of ICT in education.
 A brief overview on poverty eradication in Korogocho slums in
Nairobi.
 A survey of students’ attitude towards mathematics.
3. List down the steps you would take to review an article in a given journal
publication.

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15.11 Suggestion for further readings

1. Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An

Introduction to the ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

2. Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca,

Spain.

3. Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics

4. George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social

Sciences.

5. Hunt N and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability

Sampling Techniques.

6. Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods

(2nd ed.). Newbury.

7. Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage

Publications. [Del Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu

8. Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in

the Social sciences.

9. Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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 LECTURE SIXTEEN
ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Lecture outline
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Lecture objectives
16.3 Ethics in research
16. 4 Ethics in Research
16.5 Deception in research
16.6 Summary
16.7 Activity
16.8 Suggestion of further readings

16.1 Introduction
Ethics in research should be an integral part of the research planning and implementation
process, not viewed as an afterthought or a burden. There should be increased
consciousness of the need for strict ethical guidelines for researchers. Some of the ethical
issues touch on deception and invasion of privacy.

There
are
three
main
16. 2 Lecture objectives ethical
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
i) Define the term “ ethics”
ii) Describe how you would deal with deception in research

principles that need to be considered:

 Beneficence: Maximizing good outcomes for science, humanity, and the
individual research participants and minimising or avoiding unnecessary risk,

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 harm, or wrong.
 Respect: Treating people with respect and courtesy, including those who are
not autonomous (e.g., small children, people who have mental retardation or
senility)
 Justice: Ensuring that those who bear the risk in the research are those who
benefit from it; ensuring that the procedures are reasonable, non-exploitative,
carefully considered and fairly administered.

There are six norms of scientific research. They include:

 Use of valid research design: faulty research is not useful to anyone and it is not
only a waste of time and money but cannot be conceived of as being ethical in that
it does not contribute to the well-being of the participant.
 The researcher must be competent to conduct the research
 Consequences of the research must be identified: procedures must respect privacy,
ensure confidentiality, maximize benefits, and minimise risks
 The sample selection must be appropriate for the purpose of the study,
representative of the population to benefit from the study, and sufficient in number.
 The participants must agree to participate in the study through voluntary informed
consent- that is, without threat or undue inducement (voluntary), knowing what a
reasonable person in the same situation would want to know before giving con
sent(informed), and explicitly agreeing to participate(consent).
 The researcher must inform the participants whether harm will be compensated.

16.2 Deception in Research

Most professional associations prohibit the use of deception unless it can be justified and
the effect of the deception “undone” after the study is completed. The “undoing” of
deception is supposed to be accomplished by the following:

 Debriefing the research participants after the research study, which means that
the research explains the real purpose and use of the research
 Dehoaxing the research participants in which the researcher demonstrates the
device that was used to deceive the participants. The researcher’s responsibility

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 is to attempt to allay a sense of generalized mistrust in educational and
psychological research.
 Guarding the privacy and confidentiality of the research participants
 Obtaining fully informed consent.

You will note that the emancipatory paradigm emerged because of the dissatisfaction with
research conducted within other paradigms that was perceived to be irrelevant to, or a
misrepresentation of, the lives of people who experience oppression. There are three
characteristics of the emancipatory paradigm with ethical implications for methodological
choices:
 Traditionally silenced voices must be included to ensure that the groups
marginalized in society are equally “heard” during the research process and the
formation of the findings and recommendations.
 An analysis of power inequalities in terms of the social relationships involved
in the planning, implementation, and reporting of the research is needed to
ensure an equitable distribution of resources (conceptual and material)
 A mechanism should be identified to enable the research results to be linked to
social action: those who are most oppressed and least powerful should be at the
canter of the plans for action in order to empower them to change their own
lives.
When the research is cross-cultural, it is important that cross-cultural ethical standards are
developed to guide researchers while conducting research in other communities. Cross-
cultural ethical principles require collaboration between the researcher and the host
community. It also requires that the researcher communicate the intended research agenda,
design, activity, and reports with members of the host community. The research should be
designed in such a way as to bring benefits to the host community and to foster the skills
and slf-sufficiency of the host community scientists.

The paradigms considered here are certainly not exhaustive. New paradigms might come
in the future. However, what is crucial is that researchers should be aware of their basic
beliefs, their view of the world (their functional paradigm), and the way they influence
their approach to research.
16.Lecture summay 16. Summay

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In this lecture we have discussed the following:
 Ethics in research refers to a code of conduct or expected societal norm of
behaviour while conducting research.
 Ethical issues apply to the organization and the members that sponsor the
research, the researchers who undertake the research and the respondents who
provide them with the necessary data.
 Ethical behaviour must be observed at each step of the research process: data
collection; data analysis; reporting and dissemination of information.
 A researcher should mind on how the treat the subjects and how the confidential
information is safeguarded.

16.Actvity
Have ever participated in research as a subject or a researcher assistant? If so what
ethical behaviour did you like from the researchers? List down some behaviour that you
think did not conform to ethical standards of research? If you were to be the principal
researcher of the project what specific ethical behaviour would you observe?

16. Suggested further readings:

1. Frankfort-Nachmias and David Nachmias(1996).Research Methods In Social
Sciences. 5th edition.St. Martins Press Inc. Great Britain. Chapter one pp 1-23
2. Frankel ,R. Jack & Norman E. Wallen (2000). How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education, 4th edition. McGraw –Hill Higher Education, USA.
Chapter One pp2-25.

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 LECTURE SEVENTEEN
FORMAT OF WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS AND REPORTS

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Now that you have learnt about the concepts and procedures of conducting research, you
need to go a step further and prepare a research proposal and eventually, a research report.
In this lecture we are going to discuss the various components or sections of a research
proposal and research project. A research proposal is nothing more than a written plan for
conducting a research study.

____________________________________________________________________

17.2 Lecture objectives.

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
 Describe briefly the main sections of a research proposal and a
research report.
 Write a research proposal
 Critique a typical research proposal and a research report.

_______________________________________________________________________

17.3 Purpose of a research proposal

A research proposal is a document that communicates the intentions of the researcher. It

indicates the following:
 The purpose of the study
 The importance of the study
 The steps followed in conducting the study.
 Problem statement
 Research questions and hypothesis
 The subjects of the sample
 The research instruments
 The research design
 The data analysis methods

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  The research findings

A research proposal, therefore, spells out in details what the researcher intends to do. It
helps the researcher to clarify what needs to be done and avoid unintentional pitfalls or
unknown problems. The main differences between a research proposal and research report
is that a research report states what was done rather than what will be done. It includes the
actual results of the study and the associated discussions.

A research proposal and a research report follow the same structure/ format of
presentation. Let us now look at the components of each section of the research proposal.

17.4 Prefatory terms

This section deals with items that have no direct bearing on the research itself. Instead,
they assist the reader in using the research proposal/report.

i) Letter of Transmittal
The letter refers to the authorization for the project and any specific instructions or
limitations placed on the study. It should briefly state the purpose and the scope of the
study.

ii) The Title Page.

The title page includes four items: the title of the report, the date, to whom it is prepared
and by whom it was prepared. The title should be brief but include the following three
elements:
 The variables of the study
 The type of relationship among the variables, and
 The population to which the results may be applied.

iii) Authorization Letter

If the research study is sponsored by a public organization or any other sponsor, it is
important to include a letter of authorization showing the authority for undertaking the

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 research.

iv) Executive summary/ Abstract.

This is a concise summary of the major findings, conclusions and recommendations of
the study. It contains a high density of significant terms since it repeats the highlights of
the report.

v) Table of contents
This section lists the main sections and their respective page number(s) in the report. It is
useful because the reader can see at a glance what is contained in the document and where
to find it.

vi) Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the various parts of the
project. These include:
 The problem statement- the main focus of the investigation.
 The purpose of the study - It states very clearly what the researcher proposes to
investigate
 The research objectives - they address the purpose of the project. They may be in
the form of research question(s) and state clearly the variables of concern, the
relationships among them and the target group being studied.
 Research questions or hypothesis; The particular question to be investigated
should be stated. They are more specific form of the problem in question form.
 Justification for the study: A researcher must make it clear why this particular
subject is important to investigate. The researcher must make a case for the “worth”
of the study.

 Definitions: all key terms should be defined. This includes the variables of the
study. The researcher should attempt to make his or her definitions as clear as
possible. It is in this section that the researcher will also provide the operational
definitions for the study. Operational definitions helps to clarify how certain terms
will be used in this current study.

vi) Background and literature review

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In this section, the researcher tries to show that he or she is familiar with the major trends
in previous research and opinions on the topic and understands their relevance to the
current study. This review may include theoretical conceptions, directly related studies,
and studies that provide additional perspectives on the research question. The researcher
should avoid citing references without indicating their relevance or implication for the
planned study.

vii) Research Methodology

The methodology section includes discussions of:
The research design
The sampling design
Instrumentation
Procedure details
Data analysis
Limitations.

 Research design: The research design must be adapted to the purpose. If it is an

experimental study, the materials, tests, equipments control conditions and any
other device should be described. In descriptive or ex post factor designs, it may
be sufficient to describe them. Rationale for using one design over the others.
 Sampling design: The researcher should explicitly define the target population
being studied and the sampling methods used. It is crucial to give an explanation
of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters. The calculations
should be placed in an appendix instead of in the body of the report.
 Data collection Methods/ instrumentation: This part describes the specifics of
data gathering.
 Data analysis: This section describes how the data will be organized and analyzed.
It should specifically describe how the data will be handled, the preliminary
analysis, statistical tests, computer programmes, and any other technical
information. The researcher should give a rational for the choice of analysis.
 Limitations: This section should be a thoughtful presentation of significant
methodology or implementation problems. All research studies have their
limitations and a sincere researcher should recognize that the reader need aid in

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 judging the study’s validity

ix) Findings
This is a very important section and its objective is to explain the data rather than to
draw interpretations or conclusions. It is important that the findings are presented in
numbered paragraphs. Use of tables, charts, and graphics is encouraged.
x) Summary and Conclusions and recommendations:
The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. In cases where findings are
presented in sections, it is also important to present the summaries in sections. Conclusions
may be presented in a tabular form for easy reading and reference. Recommendations or
Further study suggestions: These are usually few ideas about corrective actions. In
academic research recommendations become the suggestions for further research. In
applied research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action rather than
research action.

xi) Budget

A research study requires resources. It is important for the researcher to indicate the
expected budget for the study. The budget should include such items such as:
Salaries.
Materials
Equipment costs
Secretarial and other assistance,
Expenses such as travel, postage and overheads.

xii) Appendices
This section deals with complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies of
forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of methodology, instructions to field
officers and any other evidence important to the report.

xiii) Bibliography
If secondary sources of information have been used, then a bibliography is very important
.In this case, proper citation, style, and format are unique to the purpose of the report.

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 17.5 Summary
In a nutshell the final report is organized as follows:

Introductory Section:
Title page
Table of Contents
List of figures
List of Tables
Declaration
Abstract
Acknowledgement
Dedication
Acronyms
Abbreviations

II. Main Body

Problem to be investigated
-Purpose of the study
Justification of then study
Research question and hypothesis
Definition of terms

Background and review of related literature

Theory is, appropriate
Studies directly related
Studies tangentially related.

Procedures:
Description of the research design
Description of the sample
Description of the instruments
Explanation of the procedure followed (the what, when, where, and how of the study)
Discussions of internal validity
Description and justification of the statistical techniques or other methods of analysis

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 used

Findings:
Description of findings pertinent to each of the research hypothesis or question

Summary and Conclusions:

Brief summary of the research question being investigated, the procedures employed
and the results obtained
Discussion of the implementation of the findings (their meaning and significance
Suggestion for further research

III. References (Bibliography)

IV. Appendixes

17.6 A standard structure of a research proposal/report

Every institution has its own preferred structure of a research proposal of report. The
standard structure followed by most universities would take the following format.

Preliminaries
Cover page
Declaration
Acknowledgement
Dedication

Abstract
Table of contents
List of figures
List of tables
Acronyms
Abbreviations
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
Background to the study
Statement of the problem

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 Purpose of the study
Objectives of the study
Research questions/ Research hypothesis
Justification of the study
Significance of the study
Scope of the study
Assumptions of the study
Limitations / Delimitations of the study

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review

Introduction
Review of literature according to the study variables
Knowledge gaps
Conceptual frame work/theoretical Framework
Summary of the literature reviewed
Definitions of key terms
Operational definitions of terms

CHAPTER THREE: Research Methodology

Introduction
Research Design
Target population
Sampling design
Data collection methods and procedures
Data analysis methods and justification

CHAPTER FOUR: Data Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis

Introduction
Reliability and validity test results of the research instruments
Descriptive data presentation as per research question/objectives/variables
Summary

CHAPTER FIVE: Summary of Findings Discussions and Conclusions

Introduction

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Findings as per research objectives/ research questions
Hypothesis tests
Summary of findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
Suggestions for further research

REFRENCES

APA format for all citations in the study

Should be done alphabetically
For MA not less than 40 citations and for PhD. not less than 100 citations

APPENDICIES

The research instruments

Letters to research participants
Any supporting document related to the study
Any table used and could not be in the text.

BUDGETS
A budget provides the activities and their estimated costs.

TIME FRAME
A timeframe provides each activity and the estimated time it would take to complete.

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 Suggestion for further readings

Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the

ScientificMethod. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Epiet, (1996) Introductory Course: Lazereto de Mahon, Menorca, Spain.
Fred C,( 1989): Success in statistics
George W (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social Sciences.
Hunt N and Tyrrell S (2001) Coventry University Probability Sampling
Techniques.
Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.).
Newbury.
Park, CA (1992): Fundamental Applications of Statistics Sage Publications. [Del
Siegel,Ph.D. del.siegle@uconn.edu
Snedecor, W. George (1997) Design of Sampling Experiments in the Social
sciences.
Valeric J and John H (2000): Statistics and Design Models

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196

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