SS121 ETHICS

LESSON 1

Introduction to Ethics
Key Concepts
1.1 Definition of Ethics
1.2 Importance of Studying Ethics
1.3 Moral vs. Non -Moral Standards
1.4 Moral Dilemma
1.5 Freedom

FIRST SEMESTER 2022 -2023

DAVAO DEL NORTE STATE COLLEGE

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Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics
Learning Outcomes:
• Define what Ethics is
• Distinguish moral from non-moral standards
• Identify the different levels of moral dilemma on actual events
• Explain why only human beings can be ethical
• Create a personal belief on freedom

Activity:
In the table below, identify whether you consider a certain act as “always good” in all
circumstance, “always bad” in all circumstance, or if “it depends” on the circumstance. Put a
check on the box if your answer is either of the first options above. If your answer is the latter,
instead of putting a check, identify which of the possible factor/s given below may affect that
judgment.
Possible factors affecting judgment:
- Culture
- Religious belief - Tradition
- Law of the land
- Others (specify your answer)

ACT ALWAYS GOOD ALWAYS IT DEPENDS

BAD
Lying
Euthanasia or
mercykilling
Donating to charity
Child-marriage
Stealing
Preserving natural
resources
Rape
Suicide
Polygamy
Abortion

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Analysis:
Having already an idea of right and wrong, and good and bad, we may have refreshed our
previous understanding of the basic principles and concept of ethics. With this prior
knowledge, how do you reflect to the following question below? State your opinion in short
but concise manner.
1. How do you think does social norm affects a person’s judgment and perception of what
good and bad is?
2. Would it be possible for a society to exist peaceably without a unified standard or
basis of right and wrong? Explain your answer briefly.

Abstraction:

WHAT IS ETHICS?

Have you asked yourself, what does it mean to think ethically? What makes a moral life
moral? What makes an action good or bad? These questions are not only practical ones, but
they are also concerned with ethical reflection grounded from our personal experience. It
refers to our freedom, our capacity to live according to what we consider as good, and what
composes these considerations of ours. Our different historical and cultural backgrounds and
different manners of upbringing means that we adhere to different forms of the norms which
determines what is good or bad, what is right or wrong. This course will help us to explore
how philosophers and thinkers have tried to solve the natural intuition of the good and how
they understood the various paths of living a life according to the good.
According to Pasco, et al., (2018), ethics originated from the Greek word ethos, which
means custom, characteristic, or habitual way of doing things, or action that is properly
derived from one’s character. Furthermore, they added that the Latin word mos or moris
(plural mores), the origin of the adjective moral is equivalent to ethos. Therefore, by
etymology, ethical and moral are synonymous. It is also connected with another Greek word
ēthikos, which means characteristic, customary, or habitual.

DEFINITION OF ETHICS FROM VARIOUS AUTHORS:

For Lilie(1957), ethics is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in
societies. It judges conduct as right or wrong, good or bad. (p.2)

For Mackenzie (1901), ethics is concerned about men’s habits and customs. It seeks
the underlying principles behind these habitual acts, and investigates what constitutes
the rightness or wrongness of these principles, the good or evil of these habits. (p.1)

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 For Montemayor (1994), ethics is both a normative and a practical science that is
based on reason. It studies human conduct and provides norms for its natural integrity
and honesty. (p.8)

For Pasco, et al., (2018), ethics for Filipino students is philosophy of human action that
enables them to learn the art of living. (p.19)

BRANCHES OF ETHICS

As a branch of philosophy, ethics can be divided into Normative, Metaethics, and Applied
ethics. The first branch, normative ethics, is concerned on the various theories that serves as
the basis of moral rules that governs behavior. Its scope of inquiry includes asking the reasons
behind as to why or why not a particular act should be committed. It is followed by
metaethics which attempts to answer non-moral questions about morality. Its primary
concern is the study of meanings and the various epistemological foundations of moral
statements. Lastly, applied ethics is the field that deals with clear and specific moral questions.
It is the branch of ethics that primarily deals with ethical situations and questions regarding
abortion, cloning, and other moral issues.

To better understand the interrelationship of the three, let us use a football analogy provided
by Mark Dimock and Andrew Fisher. They compared an applied ethicist to that of a football
player. When he kicks the ball, there is a possibility that he might score a goal. In this sense,
an applied ethicist can score a goal by offering sound and rational arguments. If he is able to
convince someone to change his moral perspectives, then it counts as a goal. The normative
ethicist serves as the referee. He is concerned with setting up the rules to be followed in
playing the game. The last character, the metaethicist, serves a role quite similar to a football
commentator. Instead of playing the game themselves, they provide comments and
judgments as the game is being played. For example, a commentator might point out the
appropriateness or inappropriateness of a tactic being used by a player. Similarly, a
metaethicist remarks on the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the ethical language
being used in dealing with ethical situations.

WHY STUDY ETHICS?

The moral situation of today is very confusing and difficult to resolve. Our sense of morality,
which stems from traditionally accepted and established ethical norms are being questioned,
scrutinized, and undermined. The ethical problems that we encounter are very relevant
because they affect our day to day lives. Because of this, there is an urgency to not only know
what or how it is to think morally, but to actually live it. A truly moral life both requires a
deep understanding of the basic principles that govern and guide human action, and living a
life that is responsible for everyone’s welfare. Ethics attempts to find out the truth about the
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rightness or wrongness of human conduct. Although vast knowledge about ethics does not
necessarily guarantee living a morally upright life, a student of ethics is more likely to be
correct in his application of moral rules to a specific situation compared to a man who has
knowledge about the particulars of the case but has no knowledge of ethics. In this light, we
are challenged to be responsible not only for ourselves, but also for each of our fellowman
and the entirety of the world. This is why human responsibility and respect for human
dignity is at the forefront of studying ethics.

The problems confronting humankind can be traced to our irresponsibility and neglect
for the most basic human value, our dignity as a human person. Today, humans are being
viewed not as a unique end in itself, but as a mere means to an end. The contemporary world
has reduced the value of a human person to his functionality and usefulness. Hence, this
challenges each one’s responsibility to recognize and respect the inherent and universal value
of every human person, our dignity. Respecting the human person means to respect each
one’s uniqueness. In this sense, ethics is a basic respect for every men’s right to profess and
practice his faith, to pursue and achieve the good life, and to nourish himself to reach the
fullness of his potentials.

Everyone is responsible in ensuring that respect for human dignity and its inherent
rights. Although people has the right to do activities that leads to their advancement, or the
achievement of the goals of the society, they must act responsibly to ensure that it will not
harm or endanger others, and will not violate the dignity of the human person. It is because
without dignity, a human is less than human, it becomes less than what it truly is. Ethics helps
us in considering what is worthy for us, as a human person. This means that to live rightly is
not only about seeking our own happiness, but to live as a human person ought to live.

MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

MORAL STANDARD
Moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or
beliefs (Lynn, 1997). It deals with matters that the person thinks have serious consequence
and is based on good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-interest.

Characteristics of Moral Standards

1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being. (it
can injure, or benefit them)
2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards, including
self-interest.
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but in how the person
perceives the reasonableness of the action. (no one is telling you it is right or wrong
but you just believe the action is right or wrong)
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal.
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 5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. (not based on personal opinion)
6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings.
(When you hurt someone you feel guilty.)

NON MORAL STANDARDS

Non-moral standards can be considered as relative standards by which something or
someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary because
these rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular group.

Etiquette
It is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society. Table
manners such as the proper use of utensils and the proper manner of eating are examples of
etiquette.

Policy
It is a clear, simple statement of how an organization plans to handle its services,
actions, or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with decision making. Example is the
wearing of school uniform and ID.

Law
Law is a rule created and enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain
order, resolve disputes, and protect a person’s liberty and rights.

Commandment
It is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by a divine entity
such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009).

MORAL DILEMMA

In the academic and practical pursuit of ethics, encountering a moral dilemma is an inevitable
reality. A moral dilemma is characteristically defined as a situation wherein a moral agent has
two choose between two actions with two conflicting moral situations, none of which nullifies
or overrides each other. A moral dilemma is a situation where: a. there are two or more
actions that you can possibly do, b. there is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions, c. you
cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose one.
Jean Paul Sartre, a renowned existentialist, gave a famous example of a moral
dilemma, whose resolution is quite obscure to ethicists. Sartre tells a story of a student whose
brother died during the attack of the Germans in 1940. The student, who wants to avenge the
death of his brother, wants to join the army in order to fight the German forces which he
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regards as evil. However, the student’s mother was living with him, and he is the only one
who can support and console her in life since his brother is already dead. Sartre describes the
student as torn between two kinds of moral obligations: personal devotion to his mother or
contributing to the effort to defeat an evil aggressor. The former can be described as having
limited scope but certain effect, while the latter as having a wider scope but uncertain effect.
In Sartre’s example, none of the two cases clearly overrides each other. In this sense, it
represents a genuine moral dilemma. A situation wherein one of the two choices obviously
overrides the other is only called a conflict, not a moral dilemma.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

1. Personal Moral Dilemma – is when your decision in a situation where there is moral
conflict is the cause of either your own; that of another person; or a group of people’s
potential harm.

2. Organizational dilemma – is when a member or members of the organization is in a

situation where there is moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either
some members of the group or organization.

3. Structural moral dilemma – is when a person or group of persons who holds high level
positions in the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire social
system is affected.

FREEDOM

Why only human beings can be ethical?

According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental difference between animal and human
ethics is that animals behave instinctively while human behaviour is rational.

Rational Behavior
It is a decision making process where the person acts in ways that best achieve his or her
needs in accordance with his or her set preferences, priorities, and principles.

The Human person as free being

A human person is a being with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or
her own development toward self-fulfillment. One of the inborn properties of the human
person is freedom.

Perspectives in Freedom 1. Gabriel Marcel

Freedom is a gift from God. It is the ability to make significant choices, and not
just arbitrary (not important) choices.
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 Freedom is defined by Marcel in both a negative and positive sense.
Negatively, freedom is, “The absence of whatever resembles an alienation from
oneself,” and positively as when, “The motives of my action are within the
limits of what I can legitimately consider as the structural traits of my self,”
(TF, 232). Freedom, then, is always about the possibilities of the self,
understood within the confines of relationships with others. As an
existentialist, Marcel’s freedom is tied to the raw experiences of the body.
However, the phenomenology of Marcelian freedom is characterized by his
insistence that freedom is something to be experienced, and the self is fully free
when it is submerged in the possibilities of the self and the needs of others.
Although all humans have basic, autonomous freedom (Marcel thought of this
as “capricious” freedom), in virtue of their embodiment and consciousness;
only those persons who seek to experience being by freely engaging with other
free beings can break out of the facticity of the body and into the fulfilment of
being. The free act is significant because it contributes to defining the self, “By
freedom I am given back to myself,” (VII vii). At first glance, Marcelian freedom
is paradoxical: the more one enters into a self-centered project, the less
legitimate it is to say that the act is free, whereas the more the self is engaged
with other free individuals, the more the self is free. However, the
phenomenological experience of freedom is less paradoxical when it is seen
through the lens of the engagement of freedom. Ontologically, we rarely have
experiences of the singular self; instead, our experiences are bound to those
with whom we interact. Freedom based on the very participation that the free
act seeks to affirm is the ground of the true experience of freedom towards
which Marcel gravitates.
https://iep.utm.edu/marcel/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20defined%20by%20Marcel,% E2%80%9D
%20(TF%2C%20232).

2. Aristotle

Freedom is Complementary to Reason – freedom without reason is not freedom

at all. Freedom to achieve one purpose in life needs reason to fulfill it, in other words,
self-direction.
In Book III of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle says that, unlike
nonrational agents, we have the power to do or not to do, and much of what we
do is voluntary, such that its origin is ‘in us’ and we are ‘aware of the particular
circumstances of the action’. Furthermore, mature humans make choices after
deliberating about different available means to our ends, drawing on rational
principles of action. Choose consistently well (poorly), and a virtuous
(vicious) character will form over time, and it is in our power to be either
virtuous or vicious. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/

3. Jean Paul Sartre

Freedom is Absolute – we are so free that even “not choosing” is a choice.

Freedom demands responsibility
For Sartre, existence precedes essence, freedom is absolute, and existence
is freedom. It has been made clear that Sartre does not believe that any essence or
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 substance can be attributed to individuals prior to their existence. Individuals first
of all exist, and there is no ‘human nature’ which exists outside or inside beings.
Freedom is therefore limitless, but the physical limitations of the world are taken
into consideration. Sartre writes “no limits to my freedom can be found except
freedom itself or, if you prefer, that we are not free to cease being free”[20] (1943,
439). However, individuals are born into the world or into a ‘situation’ – this is
what he calls ‘facticity’. The facticity of the human condition involves the limits
imposed on the individual by the world. For example, I can choose to jump off a
cliff and fly, but I will probably crash because I do not have wings. This does not
mean that I am not free – I am still free to choose to fly, but I will have to deal with
the consequences of my actions. Sartre writes that freedom means “by oneself to
determine oneself to wish. In other words success is not important to freedom”
(1943, 483). It is important to note the difference between choice, wish and
dream. Following Sartre’s example, it would be absurd to say that an imprisoned
in individual is free to leave prison when he wishes to. It would be futile to say that
the same individual can always dream of being liberated one day. But what is true
and indicative of his freedom is that he can always choose to attempt an escape
(Ibid). A critique of this point was made by McGill, who asserted that choice cannot
be the only guiding principle of freedom (Natanson 1973). As I wrote in the
second paragraph of this section, this indeed could be seen as potentially
dangerous. However, as Natanson argues, “McGill desires nonontological criteria
of freedom; and with these Sartre is not concerned”[21] (Ibid, 80). Another
possible critique is that such an extreme form of freedom leads Sartre to return to
a philosophy of essence (Desan 1960). This critique is understandable in that if
freedom is the ‘stuff’ our being, then freedom is an essence. However, if one accept
Sartre’s premise that existence is freedom, then one cannot conclude that freedom
is an essence. Individuals are not free before they exist, and they do not exist
before being free.
https://www.e-ir.info/2013/01/23/jean-paul-sartre-existential-freedom-and-the-
political/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20therefore%20limitless%2C%20but,%5D%20(1943%2C%2043
9).

Why is ethics connected with human actions?

In a simplified way, ethics is all about determining the morality of human conduct.
Morality is the standard upon which we base the rightness or wrongness of a human action.
Ethics seeks to investigate the motive, the circumstances and the very nature of the act itself
in order to judge a human action as right or wrong. It is also important to note that the human
acts that concerns ethics are those that are freely and willfully committed. In this sense, the
scope of ethics only covers human actions insofar as they are free acts.

Concluding Remarks

Amid all the technological, technical, and moral advancements of today, ethics remains to
be perennial as an academic subject and as a way of life. It seeks to provide a just and
appropriate guide to navigate the moral ills, issues, and questions prevalent in the
classroom setting, in the social media, in the families, and in the world. It provides
questions which seeks to clarify our moral standpoints as well as answers that might
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 satisfy our moral hunger. As a 21 st century learner, a moral life should not only be
confined in academic discussions and social media posts. Instead, a truly moral life is a life
of integration between learned and lived values and moral principles.

References:

Printed Books

Maboloc, C.R. (2010) Ethics and human dignity. Rex Book Store.

Montemayor, F. (1994) Ethics: The philosophy of life. National Book Store.

Pasco, M.O., & Rodriguez, A.M., & Suarez, V. (2018) Ethics. C & E Publishing. Ebooks

Dimmock, M., Fisher, A. (2017) Ethics for a-level. (eBook edition) Open Book Publishers.

Lillie, W. (1957) An introduction to ethics. (eBook edition). Methuen & Co. LTD. London.

Mackenzie, J. (1901) Manual of ethics. (eBook edition). Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc.

Seth, J. (1911) A study of ethical principles. (eBook edition). Charles Scribner Sons.

Online Source

Heimbach, D. (2015, May 11). How the Term “Ethics” Has Evolved. The Ethics & Religious Liberty Comission.
Retrieved from: https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/how-the-term-ethics-has-evolved/

Hernandez, J.G. Gabriel Marcel in Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy

https://iep.utm.edu/marcel/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20defined%20by%20Marcel,%E2%80% 9D
%20(TF%2C%20232).

Manzi, Yvonne. (2013, January 23) Jean-Paul Sartre: Existential “Freedom” and the Political in EInternational
Relations

https://www.e- ir.info/2013/01/23/jean-paul-sartre-existential-freedom-and-the-
political/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20therefore%20limitless%2C%20but,%5D%20(1943%2C%20
439)

Moral Dilemmas. (2018) In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/moral -dilemmas/

O’Connor, Timothy and Christopher Franklin, "Free Will", The Stanford Encyclopedia of
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Philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/

Application:
Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________________ Course & Set:
_____________________________________

Question Guide: (For Regular Program)

Using the question guide below, make a quick interview of your family members to
identify how the role as played by each of the family members have been a conscious or
unconscious expression of their set of moral/ethical principles as members of the smallest
unit of society called family.
1. Who provides and sustains the family’s financial and material needs? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________.

2. How important is it for Filipino family to always look after the welfare of each of the
family members especially at times when someone is sick to the point that he cannot
work anymore to provide for his/her own daily needs?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________.

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 Grading Rubric for Essay
4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate and Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) all required information some required but some required Information is not presented,
is presented. information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally easy presented, making it
to follow. difficult to follow.

Organization of Thoughts flows well and Thoughts flows well but Thoughts flows well. Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts logical. is slightly illogical.
(30%)

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors substantially
(20%) errors, spelling & are rare and do not spelling, or interfere from reading the
punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors paper.
the paper. interfere with
reading the paper.

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 Name: _____________________________________________

Date: __________________________
Course & Set: _____________________________________
Question Guide: (For DJAL)
1. Identify at least five moral norms/standards in your culture like, “you shall not kill” or
“you shall not lie”.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

2. Evaluate these standards whether their moral basis and arguments in saying that this
action is good or bad are rational, impartial, and objective. Elaborate your answer.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
_
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
_ ________________________________.

Grading Rubric for Essay

4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate and Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) all required information some required but some required Information is not presented,
is presented. information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally easy presented, making it
to follow. difficult to follow.

Organization of Thoughts flows well and Thoughts flows well but Thoughts flows well. Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts logical. is slightly illogical.
(30%)

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors substantially
(20%) errors, spelling & are rare and do not spelling, or interfere from reading the
punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors paper.
the paper. interfere with

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 Name: _____________________________________________

reading the paper.

Date: __________________________ Course & Set: _____________________________________

Question Guide: (For SETBI)

1. Give at least 3 circumstances of a genuine moral dilemma. a.
b.
c.

2. Are legality and morality the same? If one commits illegal acts, does it
mean that he/she is immoral? Support your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
_ ________________________________.

Grading Rubric for Essay

4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate and Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) all required information some required but some required Information is not presented,
is presented. information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally easy presented, making it
to follow. difficult to follow.

Organization of Thoughts flows well and Thoughts flows well but Thoughts flows well. Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts logical. is slightly illogical.
(30%)

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors substantially
(20%) errors, spelling & are rare and do not spelling, or interfere from reading the
punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors paper.
the paper. interfere with
reading the paper.

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 Name: _____________________________________________

Date: __________________________ Course & Set: _____________________________________

Question Guide: (For DNLI)

1. Give at least 3 moral dilemmas you encountered in your workplace. a.
b.
c.

2. What course of action did you take to resolve these dilemmas?

__________________________________________________________________________________________
_
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_ ________________________________________________.

Grading Rubric for Essay

4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate and Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) all required information some required but some required Information is not presented,
is presented. information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally easy presented, making it
to follow. difficult to follow.

Organization of Thoughts flows well and Thoughts flows well but Thoughts flows well. Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts logical. is slightly illogical.
(30%)

Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors substantially
(20%) errors, spelling & are rare and do not spelling, or interfere from reading the
punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors paper.
the paper. interfere with

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Name: _____________________________________________

reading the paper.

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