Stars: The’ Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram infer the properties of stars Srom their gp in bulk Sor fh stra. Shi foination born and spread out for lapter deals youth the veallhy of an ilar species, Faeot we consider ellar atmenpheses, for here the stellar speetea onygpnale. Ven we tell the story of spectral obset- valions—bw hwy have been made, coreelated, and interpreted. Finally, we present that famous and crucial synthesis —the Lertesprung,ftussel di gran and pore of its implications. This discuy- sion will Iead (a an understanding of the stars thenvielves (Chapter 16) 3-1] ' STELLAR ATMOSPHERES The spectral energy distribution of starlight is de- termined in a star's atmosphere, the region from which radiation can freely escape. To understand! Ntellar opectra, we first discuss a model stellar at- mosphere and investigate the characteristics that determine the specteal features @ Physical Characteristics The stellar photosphere, a thin, gaseous layer, shields the stellar interior from view. The photo. sphere is thin relative to the stellar radius, and so we regard it as a uniform shell of gas. The physical Properties ofthis shell may be approximately spec- ified by the average values of its pressure P, tem- Perature T, and chemical composition u (chemical abundances). } We make the reasonable assumption that the number density n (number/m’) of aS particles (molecules, atoms, ions, and electrons) is high enough so that thermodynamic equilibrium holds This means that particles collide So frequently that both the Boltzmann and the Saha equations apply 25)syuars: Hw Htoatespnins Be vay ec trapter EY Ver asus stmt UAE EE he boys the perhid sits 7 peat an coe Ls attenanin s constant the parte team MA Monaaty ty ttt to Dot the mage dlewslly veka an bagel the commpossitiany (Qe MEAT maloculir Cede) gy he tt cy fe tintion OF . Vacs nana (2) Aeon sie = RO? NWO 27 Aggy the miags ab a NY Ahrogen atom Far ad stir ob pare atone hyaltogen. TW the hyslragen ts completely tonized 1 2 because electrons andl protons (hydrogen nat electrons ate Lar uineledd ane equal wn number Jess massive than protons. In general, stellar inte dior pases are tonicedt and Peavey tag = Le where \ is the mass traction of hyetnagen. V6 that dat hetin, andl 2 fs that ot all heavier elements, The nase traction is the perventage by mass aL ane SPE cies relative fo the total We alsn assnme a steacdyestate atmosphere: Al though the indivielual gas particles move about rapaly, nothing changes with time on the macrs are ho Mass mations) This im plies hudrostatie equilibrium, wherein a typical vel ime of gas experiences no net fore We have aloauly derived this relationship in Chapter and Simply repeat the equation here abide (CMR we scopic scale (there (3-9) where gis the gravitational acceleration (m™ S)or at the photosphere, Note that the pressure Wy the at raw dlecreases. continuously outward throu mosphere af a star As we did in Section 4-5(0), dletine Hu as the scale height, Then, tor a stellar atmosphere ve can also apply the barometric equation: nu) Agr ~ constant Pog exp“ W/E) whore fr is any height above a reterence level iy. It applies te regions in stellar atmospheres where the temperature and mean molecular weight do change mapidly. Recall that H! has: the units ot length, and itis the distance to move up an the atmosphere tor the pressure to decrease by Lc By parameterizing the pressure in terms of op- soll Dlagihant Nl tical depth ¢ Cheeta’ HO) instead) of paths + arte (mis the atopic set akon the useril for an where dt aby) Haquation LU anid = gin ty oy undone appresimnation hen, We IMERENE Vquation I be (yale (us) Av that the atmonpherte yas presse alopendls por eeaml y We take eas the atmospheric level Where special features are formed because this opacity as the miimunt teededt tor fine formation As for the Sun, this level defines the photosphen’ obastar, Abr = E(at S00 nny ity the Sun, the dew Site teabout 10 hye an? ant the presstre only tw Sat @ Temperatures From the pressure and conapasition of the stellar atmosphere, we now turn to the temperature, We have already noted (Section 8-0) that the contintt ‘ods spectrum, oF continuum from a star may be approximated by the Planck blackbody spectral-en ergy distribution. Por a gave star, the cantina detines a temperature by fitting the appropriate Planck curve We can also detine the temperatin’ trom Wiens displacement lave Ayal 288 S10 Smee (6) which states that the peak intensity of the Planck curve occurs at a wavelength Ajay that varies ins versely with the Planck temperature T, The value of Amas then defines a temperature Also note here that the hotter a star is, the greater will be its he minous flux (in W/m’), in accordance with the Stefan-Boltzmann law (3-7) where o = 3.67 KA Then the relar tion Ls daa! detines the effective temperature of the photo- sphere A word of caution: The effective temperature of a star is usually nef identical to its excitation of ionization temperature because spectral-line for mation redistributes radiation from the continuum. This effect is called line blanketing and becomesimportant when the m spectral lines are large tot numerous, | wumbers and strengths of When spectral features are we can detect the continuum b 7 cn them and obtain a reasonably accurate value for the star's effective surface temperature. The line tanking alters the atmospheres blackbody char- * @ Spectral-Line Formation Sections 8-2 and 8-3 describe how spectral absorp- tion features are formed when the molecules, at- oms, and ions of a gas absorb continuum photons and re-emit fewer of these photons toward the ob- server. The composition of the gas determines which species dre available to absorb the photons, and the temperature and pressure determine which spectral features are formed. For example, molec- ular spectral features can originate only in a cool 225, for molecules are easily dissociated by colli- sions with other particles; neutral atoms and their spectral lines predominate at intermediate temper- atures; at high temperatures, all species are ionized so that only the spectral features arising from ions are seen. Before we take the plunge, we will review and elaborate on the astronomical concepts relevant to spectral lines. Let’s use an absorption line as an example (Figure 13-1). The central part of the line is called the core, which extends into the continuum and merges with it at some intensity level Icon, which is usually set equal to unity in relative units. These extended parts of the line are called the wings. The line has a measured intensity or depth Continuum Relative Flux m Wavelength figure 13-1 Profile of spectral lines. Parameters that characterize an absorption line: continuum level, le = 1.0; depth at any wavelength is I(A). 13-1, Stellar Atmospheres 253 Wavelength Figure 13-2 Equivalent width of a spectra line, where the line width is AA and the equivalent width WO). (A) as a function of wavelength. The central depth is |,. Astronomers use the equivalent width EW(A) to define the depth and so the strength of the line in a consistent way (Figure 13-2): fron ~ 10) 4 Teon EW() = if tine where the integration actually takes place over a short interval in wavelength covered by the extent of the wings of the line. So the equivalent width typically has a very small value, usually given by astronomers in milliAngstroms (mA), The level to which EW(A) can be measured depends on the dis- persion of the spectrograph; at a dispersion of 40 A/mm, we can typically measure EW(A) ~ O.1mA. Note that when we write about “line strengths,” we are really dealing with equivalent widths. Now let's discuss spectral line formation on a more quantitative basis. Take a cubic meter of gas in which the number of particles of each elemental species is specified by the composition y.. Now con- sider the particles of a particular element (such as hydrogen). Continuum photons at discrete wave- lengths are absorbed when the particles (neutral at- oms or ions) are excited from one atomic energy level to another—the equivalent width of each ab- sorption feature is essentially proportional to the number of particles populating a given energy level. The relative number of atoms in energy levels B(Ng) and A (Na), where B > A, is determined by the Boltzmann excitation-equilibrium equation (Gection 8-4): Ng/Na & exp{(E, - Eg)/KT] —(3-*254 Chapter 13 where E is the energy of the level and T is the gas temperature. At a given temperature, the higher levels are less populated than the lower levels, but the relative number of ions in a given ionization stage i (i = the number of electrons lost by an atom) is determined by both the temperature and the electron nuinber density by the Sala ionization equilibrium equation (Section 8-4): Nyar/Ni & ((KT)97/Ne] exp(—xi/ KT) where ; is the ionization potential from stage i to stage i + 1. To express Equations 13-8 and 13-9 in loga- rithmic form, we take the base-10 logarithm of both sides of each equation. Noting that logige = 0.4343 and expressing T in kelvins and all energies in electron volts (eV), we have, from Equation 13-8, log (Na/Na) = (—5040/T)[Ea — Es} + constant and from Equation 13-9, log (Nisa/Ni) = (8/2) log T — (5040/T)x: — log Ne + constant’ (13-11) In this way, the dependence upon each parameter is clear. Because the electrons also constitute a per fect gas, we may write Equation 13-11 in terms of the electron pressure P, (where P, x N,T) as log (Niai/Ni) = (6/2) log T - (5040/T)y; — log P, + constant” (13-9) (13-10) (13-12) The Boltzmann and Saha equations must be com- bined to deduce the population of every energy level and thence the spectral-line strengths. Figure 8-13 shows that the temperature behavior of the combination is the following. At low temperatures, the atoms are all neutral and in their ground states. As the temperature rises, the higher energy levels of the neutral atoms become more populated until T ~ xo/k, when single ionization produces a sig- nificant number of ions (depleting the number of neutrals), At still higher temperatures, these ions predominate, but when T = y;/k, double ioniza- tion (two electrons lost) becomes important. At the top of the ionization stages, the temperature is so high that only bare nuclei and free electrons re- main—the atoms are fully ionized—and no more spectral-line absorption can take place. You should remember that this sequence depends strongly upon the exact energy-level structure of each atomic species, so that the spectral features pro- Stars: The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram ducdd at any temperature uniquely characterize the species. The following conceptual flow chart expresses the spectral-line behavior to be expected of a given stellgr atmosphere. Denoting the strength ofa spec tral feature by its equivalent width EW, we have the functional dependence EW = EW(n,T) because the rate of absorption is determined by the number density n of atoms and the intensity of the continuum, which relates to the temperature However, the equation of state of the gas (Equatien 13-1) and the composition of the gas (Equation 13- 2) imply that n=n(P, Tp) Hydrostatic equilibrium (Equations 13-3 and 13+) determines the pressure P = P(M,R,«) The opacity x is clearly a function of number der- sity, gas composition, and ionization-excitation state determined by T: = Ta) while the star’s luminosity L depends upon its tem perature and radius through the relationship L = 4nR°oT* (13-13) If we combine the dependences of these five equ tions, then in general EW = EW(L,T,M, p) (13-1) For stars of a given compésition, Equation 13-14 reduces to EW = EWI(L, T, M) and if we consider, for example, only stars with unique mass-luminosity relation, we have EW = EW(L,T) (319 Equation 13-16 is the theoretical justification fer seeking temperature sequences and two-dime sional Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams in the r mainder of this chapter: Equation 13-14 cover those cases in which stellar luminosity is not r lated to stellar mass and those in which compes tional differences are important. We note, howeve that Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams were first : (3-19)The Evolution of Stars Ss play the central role in cosmic evolution. ‘The observational characteristics of stars were our primary concern in Chapters 10 through 13; here we discuss the physical laws that govern the structure and evolution of stars. By suitably com- bining these laws into theoretical stellar models, we can understand the equilibrium configurations of stars, theit evolution in time, and the astrophysical basis for cluster H-R diagrams. We will concentrate upon normal stars, which are in the vast majority, and return later (Chapter 418) to rare peculiar stars with their fascinating, var iability. These are stars at distinct episodes in their evolution, for a normal star generally exhibits sev- tral brief phases of peculiarity during its lifetime, If ve lived a billion years, we would see this, but at this instant of cosmic time we happen to catch ost stars in their sedate states—only a few are in active or violent phases now. By its very nature, a normal star is so hot that st must be entirely gaseous. Let's use the physical precepts applicable to stellar-sized masses to see how this comes about (also refer to Chapter 5 of the Prelude). 310 THE PHYSICAL LAWS OF STELLAR STRUCTURE Hydrostatic Equilibrium (A star is held together by its selt-gravitation and supported against collapse by its internal. pres- cuves, The simplest stellar model is a static, spher- ically symmetric ball of matter; any parameter of physical interest depends not upon time oF angle gut only upon the radial distance r from the star’s center. Hydrostatic equilibrium ensues when the inward gravitational attraction exactly balances the rutward pressure forces at every point (7) within the star (Figure 16-1). As we approach the center of the star, the pressure steadily increases to courrFigure 16-1 Hydrostatic equilibrium ina sta. A spher- {Gi Sars divided into a seis of shelf thickness oy, cach of whichis in equilibrium between the outeae Pressure and weight ietbalance the increasing weight of the material that les above. The star isin hydrostatic. equilibrium: Par = ~GM(yp(oy/r2 (16-1) ' Equation 16-1 appears to have three independent Variables: Ptr), o7), and Mir), but Mie) incresses by the amount (Figure 16-1) AM(0) = 4227240) dr when we add the i indicated spherical shell (fromyr ‘or + dr). So Mr is determined from p(t) by AM iar = der2p(r) (16-2) our second fundamental equation, one of mass cone tinuity, Ifthe star's outer radius is R, then its total mass is mR Me=dr i olny dr We have added together the masses of all the onion-like shells in the model star. Hence we need know only p(t) to determine first M(r) by Equation 16-2 and then P(r), the pres- Sure profile within the star, by Equation 16-1 Given the star's radius, we also find its total mass using Equation 16-3. Note the broad applicability of the hydrostatic equilibrium (Prelude P5-2): ets to atmospheres to stars. (16-3) concept of from plan- 16-1 The Physial Laws of tear Stacy The Sun’s Central Pressure To exercise our physical intuition, et’s roughly cal. XN Culate the pressure at the center of our Sun vein the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, We knoe that C = 667 x 10-7 'N- m’/kg?, Mo = 1.989 x 10 kg, and Ro = 696 x 108m; therefore, the mean solar density is (pp) = 3Mo/4aR53 = HHO kg/m. Taking the surface pressure a5 2er, leting r= dr = Ro, and using Mo) = Mp in Equation 16-1 yields Po= GMslps)/Ro = 10! Nim? Since 1 atm = 1.01 x 10° N/m’, then the aS pres sure P: = 10° atm; it supports the weight of the Sun's mass, (See also Prelude P5-6,) Our computed mean solar density is slightly Breater than that of water (1000kg/m*), but be- cause the Sun is centrally ci ondensed, the actual central density is more like 1.6 x 105 kg/m?, and 0 the actual pressure is greater. The tremendous Pressures supporting stars imply very high interior res—high enough to maintain the eous state. gas @ Equations of State Tosolve ou stellar model requires the density pro file (0, so the composition and local state of the stellar materials must be examined in detail. tn will see that quantum liquids and solid Ttties of atomic nuclei become important when we consider stellar corpses (such as white ron stars); in the vast majority of cases, however, stars are gascous throughout. For normal stars, we assume that the material "sa perfect gas, which obeys the perfects law PUr) = nneTir) (16-4) Here the pressure P(r is related directly to the gas Particle number density at r in n(r) (particles /m’), Boltemann’s constant k = 1381 x 10 )/K, and (1). Now m(r) can be ex- (7) = phe) /ulr)myy where my = 1.67 x 10-7 ky drogen atom. Recall that, in tions of hydrogen (X), heli elements—“metals”—(2), (16-5) g is the mass of a hy- terms of the mass frac- jum (Y), and all heavier the composition ex-12 Chapter 16 The Evolution of Stars pressed as the mean molecular weight is w= RX + BMY + (1/221 = 1/2 So the perfect-gas equation of state becomes PE) = aT (rh falrnanr ‘As you will se2, (7) is usually specified for a stellar model, so that only T(7) remains to be determined. In massive stars, the gas pressure is significantly augmented by radiation pressure: Pia(") = (a/3)T 0), where a = 7.564 x 10°" J/m? + K* is the radiation constant. (16-6) (16-7) The Sun’s Central Temperature By inverting the perfect-gas law of Equation 16-7, using the P. and (9) values found in Section 16- 1(A), and making the same rough but simplifying approximations, we estimate the required central temperature T. of our Sun: T. = Peni /hpodk (16-8) Taking 1 as 1/2, we have T. » 12 x 10°K (16-9) which is close to the computer-determined value of about 14.7 million! At these temperatures, the gas is dissociated into ions and electrons—a neutral mixture termed a plasma. Our earlier statement that stars are gaseous spheres is consistent and true The gaseous state persists throughout the star be- cause p(r) decreases approximately as rapidly as T(r) outward through the star. Modes of Energy Transport To determine T(r), consider how energy is trans- ported from the stellar interior to the surface, where it radiates away into space. The star's self- gravitation forces the stellar center to be at a much higher temperature (roughly 15 million K for our Sun) than the stellar surface (about 6000 K for the Sun); the heat energy must flow from the higher- temperature regions to the Jower-temperature re- gions (the second law of thermodynamics) Three processes transport energy: conduction, convection, and radiation, Conduction occurs when energetic atoms communicate their agitation to nearby cooler atoms by collisions; this mode works extremely well in solids (especially metals) but poorly in gases because ofthe low thermal con- ductivities. (The atoms are too far apart.) Convec- tion transports heat energy by means of mass mo- tions ia fluids, When T(r) varies rapidly enough with distance (that is, a steep temperature gradient dT/dr), the fluid becomes unstable and boils. This process takes place in limited regions of most stars with hot fluid masses rising, releasing their heat energy, and sinking again to pick up more energy, The top of such a convective zone is observed at tite base of the Sun’s photosphere (Section 10-2) Unfortunately, no completely adequate mathemat ical theory of convective transport has yet been de sed. However, a useful and reasonable formula tion of convection has been applied to stars The third mode, radiative transport, is an im portant means of energy flow in sections of most spats. Here high-energy photons flow outward from the star’s interior, losing energy by scattering and absorption in the hot plasma of the radiative Zone. At the extreme temperatures of stellar inte iors, the most important sources of such opacity (Chapters 10 and 13) are (1) electron scattering the scattering of radiation (photons) by free elec: trons and (2) photoionization—the use of radiant energy to detach electrons from ions (Section 8-3) Let's now derive the equation of radiative transport. At the base of a thin shell, the spherical surface is essentially a blackbody emitter at tem perature T(r) so that by Equation 8-40, we have the Pitward radiative flux (J/m?- s), Fir) = oT) where o = 5.67 X 10-8 )/m? « s « K*is the Stefan- Boltzmann constant. Atr + dr, the temperature is T + dT, however, and the outward flux is F + dF = off + dT)! ~ o(T* + 41° dT). Now dT is negative because the exterior of the shell must be cooler than its interior, so that the flux absorbed within the shell is AF = 4oT?(0) dT This absorption is from the opacity x(7) of the shell’s material and from Equation 10-1 dF = —K(r)p(nF(r) dr Combining Equations 16-10 and defining the lr minosity (J/s) by L(n) = 479°F(r), we find that the total energy flow per sétond through a thin spher ical shell is : Lp) = [-16car®T¢ry/x(rp(N(aTidr) (6-41) The complete machinery of the theory of radiative transfer introduces an additional factor of 4/3 into (16-102) (16-100) eee16-1 Equation 16-11, so that the rigorous equation of radiative transport is Up) = [-64 mor? TA(NI/[3m(r}pAN|(e Tar) (6~12a) When the opacity is high enough, convection raiher than radiation transports the energy through most of the star. The mode that operates depends on which is more efficient, If we let y = the ratio of the specific heats at constant pressure and vol- ume (=¢p/¢y = 5/3 for a fully ionized, ideal gas), then for convective energy transport we have dTfdr = (1 ~ W/>){T(°)/ POM] dP/dr vente) Either equation is used depending on the physical conditions in the star. Solar Luminosity from Radiative Transfer For our Sun, most of the interior conveys energy by radiation. A rough estimate of dTidr is ~T./ * Ro, which equals a gradient, -2 x 10K/m. Use Equation 16-12 to estimate the solar luminos- ity. Setting r = Ro, T(r) = Tc, and p(t) = po, we have Lo = (~6470Rg?T2/3kp5)(-Te/Re) (16-13) ‘ = (95 X 10%x) J/s where we have yet to deterthine a reasonable opac- ity (m?/kg). From its dimensions, x is the interac- tion area per gas particle multiplied by the number of particles per kilogram of the stellar material; a mass of 1 kg of completely ionized hydrogen con- tains 6 x 10% protons and the same numiber of electrons. For electron scattering, the interaction area per electron is approximately 10% m%; for hydrogen photoionization, this area per atom is near 10m’, In the solar interior, the latter opacity source domirlates, so that (very approx- imately) 10°? < «= 10’, Our prediction for the solar luminosity falls in the broad range 102 < Lo « 10/5; a mean value of 107 J/s is very close to the measured value of 3.90 x 10% J/s, implying an opacity value of about 24 x 10°, © Energy Sources Because stellar luminosity represents energy loss, no star is perfectly static; a stellar model is, how- ever, an excellent approximation for times that are short relative to stellar evolution time. In fact, stars The Physical Laws of Stellar Structure must evolve because they lose energy to space. How long will the star remain in essentially steady state, and what energy source maintains this sta- bility? Geological and paleontological evidence in- dicates that our Sun has been radiating energy at a fairly steady rate for a few billion years; such energy generation takes place in stellar interiors. The rate of energy production per unit mass of stellar material (J/s « kg) is denoted by e(r). (In fact, the energy production rate also depends on tem- perature and density; we write e(r) as a shorthand for the temperature and density at r.) Now, € = 0 except in stellar cores and in certain localized spherical shells. For our Sun, we estimate the av- erage value of € needed to maintain the solar lu- minosity to be €@ ~ Lo/Mo = 2.0 X 1074 J/s + kg. We can find out how such energy generation within our thin spherical shell augments the stellar luminosity (Figure 16-1). The luminosity L(*) enters the bottom of the shell while the greater lurninosity L + dL leaves the top—from the energy produced in the shell's mass 471rp(?) dr. The additional lu- minosity is aL = 4mr*p(rje(r) ar (16-14) Equation 16-14 expresses the balance between net energy lost from the shell dL and net energy gen- erated within the shell, an energy, or thermal equilibrium. In a quasistatic gaseous star, energy may be generated only by gravitational contraction and/or thermonuclear fusion reactions. Each process is im- portant at some stage in a star’s evolution. Let's consider these energy sources in detail. Gravitational Contraction Gravitational potential energy can be transformed to kinetic energy of motion (as when a rock is dropped near the Earth’s surface); the bulk form of, Kinetic energy is heat. Consider a very slowly con- tracting star. The heat energy of its igterior pro- vides the pressure—from the random motions of the gas particles—that supports the star against its self-gravitation. When the star contracts to a smaller radius, the self-gravitation increases so tha the internal pressures (and hence temperatures an heat energy) must also increase to maintain a proximate hydrostatic equilibrium. The graviChapter 16 The Evolution of Stars tional potential energy decreases about twice as fast as the heat energy increases, however, and so to conserve the total energy of the system, approx- imately half of the potential energy change must be radiated into space—the star’s luminosity. This energy-conversion process may be illus- trated by a-himple analogy. A small satellite of mass m moves in a circular orbit of radius r at ' speed v about a greater mass M. From Equation 1-32, the satellite's kinetic energy is mu?/2, and its gravitational potential energy is ~GMm/r. Because the centripetal acceleration v/r maintaining the or- bit is provided by the mutual gravitational attrac- tive acceleration GM/r? = v2/r, the kinetic energy mv?/2 = GMm/2r, or half the magnitude of the po- tential energy. If we now move the satellite to a smaller (stable) orbit at r - dr, the increase in ki- netig energy is certainly only half the decrease in potential energy (which becomes more negative) To conserve total energy (potential plus kinetic), the other half of the potential energy change must be transmitted to the agent that alters the satellite's, orbit—in the case of a star, this energy is radiated away. This result applies generally and is called the virial theorem. It implies that the gravitatfonal con- traction of a mass results in the conversion of half of the gravitational potential energy to thermal en- ergy and half to radiative energy. that is, U = KE + PE = ~2Ey,, where Ey, is the total thermal energy. (See Prelude P5-5.) What is the gravitational potential energy for a spherical mass? Consider a star dispersed to infin- ity, Bring in one shell of material, mass dr, at a time, to add to the mass M(r) at distance 1’, Each shell adds to U by the amount = GMC AM) r du = so that if we integrate over all shells until the mass ‘Mis reached, -f oe an) A r = ~q(GM?/R) where the value of q depends on the mass distri- bution in the sphere. For one of uniform density, 9 = 4/5; for most main-sequence stars, q ~ 15, Let's apply these concepts to our Sun, For each Kt- Jogram of solar material the average gravitational potential energy available for radiation is roughly GM./2R, = 954% 10" f/ky (16-13) Comparing this with ¢, we sev that gravitation contraction can sustain the Sun at its present lum nosity for only 15 million years; some other energy source must be sought if,we are to account for bil lions of years of sunshine. In Section 16-3, you will . see when gravitational contraction is important in stellar evolution. Thermonuclear Reactions Only after about 1938 did astronomers understand the thermonuclear fusion reactions that provide the long-term energy source of stars, In fusion light atomic nuclei collide with such violence and frequency in the high-temperature, high-densty stellar interior that they fuse into heavier nucle and release tremendous quantities of energy (such as in a hydrogen bomb). We say that the lighter elements “burn” to form heavier elements in this. process of nucleosynthesis + Tn atomic nuclei (Section 8-2), the strong nu clear force overcomes the electrostatic repulsion of the positively charged protons and binds from one to 260 nucleons (protons and neutrons) in a region about 107! m in diameter. Two nuclei will fuse to form one_larget nucleus if they approach within 10m of one another, but their mutual cleto- static repulsion—all nuclei have a positive charge Amounts to a 1-MeV potential barrier. In contrast, at 10K the thermal energy of a proton is only TkeV. Classically, protons cannot fuse be imbic barrier. Fusion dis happen, however, because quantum physics allows the protons to tunnel through the barrier_ralhet than go over it. The easiest fusion reaction involves two protons (hydrogen nuclei); such reactions be come: significant at temperatures around 10 mik lion K. (For details, see Prelude P5-7.) The great abundance of hydrogen makes it he key constituent in stellar nuclear reactions. The ext stable nucleus is helium, “He, with atomic weight 4. The atomic weights do not exactly match because the more exact atomic weight of a proto 5 1.0078, and four of them add to 4.0312, while th weight of *He is 4.0026, leaving, a mass defect ¢ (0.0286, This mayg is converted to an amount of eergy given by Evnstein’s equation far the equiva: (16-16) where cis the gpeed of light. Basause a unit atemtic weight is Leo S10" kg. the energy: released. by the conversion of four "HL ucla to one “He mucous A2SO(L.6 NOYES 10) saa 1?) We ean also use Equation 16-16 to the total ener, ‘ass liberated in the form of energy in this ther- Vo The Physiol Laws 0 we | wr Sm ; we} 3 AC Te chain f Aft 1 bo tot to Sw sys Wea s Teanperate (10°) Figure 16-2. Enengy-generation rates. The rates for the DP chain and CNO evele ane compart as a funtion of temperature for Population I stars, Note the erassower at about 18 million K. monuclear conversion is the {faction (.0286/ i, ou = 0.0071 of the available mass_of original ‘hystrogen. Boeause only in the epre are the temper ature and pressure high enough to permit nuclfar reactions, about 10% of the mass ofthe Sun is avail+ able for energy conversion. So the total thermo- nuclear energy available in the Sun is id Ejauat = md "H ~ #Hey(c?)(0.1Mo)/m(d "H) = (00719 X 10!*)O2 x 10%) ~ 10") whieh, at the present solar luminosity of 390. 02 J/s, would last about 10 billion years. The best catimates of the age of the Solar System yield fig- ures around 5 bill 0 this reaction will sustain our Sun for another § billion years. ‘Two different fusion processes lead to the con- version of hydrogen to helium: the proton-proton (PP) chain and the carbon (CNO) evele. The LP chain dominates at temperatures Tower_than 2X WK, and the CNO cycle is prominent at higher temperatures (Figure 16-2). In the Sun, for in- stance, bath processes take place, but the PP chain is the more important. The CNO cycle plays a small role in stars Jower on the main sequence than the n but predominates in stars Rotter than F stars The main proton-proton chain (called PP) gonsists of the following reactions (the energy that js released in each step is given in parentheses): Ha HH SH + 1H jHe > y (G49 MeV) Spe ¢2He > He +H =H (298) * a es]. a eye SJraruc \rvekss hao WAP = (MMe: Sonte es where 7H is heavy hydrogen (deuterium), whese nucleus contains one proton and one neutron; ¢* is 2 positron; ¥ is a neutrino; andy is a photon. A positron has the same mass as an elgsteon, but its charge is positive. Neutrinos have no (small?) mass ‘or change, only energy and spin, and are therefore difficult to detect. Conservation of charge is main tained in the first reaction by the emtssion of the positron, Note that the first wo s occur teviee before the last can take plage and that a total of six protons are involved even though fo are | in the final step. Other revetions ‘may instead of the last stop of this chain— for example, SHe + tHe 7Be + y CHA) Then there are two posible branches from “Be, both resulting in *He. All three chains operate si- multaneously in a star, but the PP Tis the most im- portant; it occurs 91% of the time in the Sun, ac- cording to theoretical models. On the average, the neutrinos carry off 0.26MeV from each reaction. The other PP reactions occur less frequently and so contribute a minor amount to the Sun's lu rminosity. The PP 11 chain is, : We HstH + & ty (Ad MeV) WW tHotHe + y G49Me) He + He = Be = y (159M) - (G86 MV) (73M) weak Perce or % y They cles bom four tresWa tanto be Ele ba aahtint ah Mau watt hoe ayatnae GARE, INL ANREP Wi Ha PREAIE uai @icahier Me anne Hat Alive foyer TR TENE HOE yn att a Whe te ey HM MWe en me WHEW Me (UE Mey rh the wouatues eseapslngy willy 42 Ate Vive aneaitentoce ptvatuvedd by the PIE ehaty shoviht escape the Sat avithourt dates netting, WARE oy sash agaterial Stee Wag, Reread Chava hae a twnypted foe atotict yaglh energy awkae nuttin (noe PET Ly mtgttir at an elaborately alitetet ath downto! far unitengnandl ty the Eaneatabe vovaye At Sots Pivhavtad tilfecL ety 102.0 gatlans cat tythachtocaethivtene (VCH) Although neater ties: teste Lonly veuy weatkly with matter, they trantnete saan ab the PEP tn the tank to Ab There tadie active angio atoms ate thon cotleeted and eountedt The mewmmed nating (he. matty front the Dorangt decay: te anly anethted te ene fouth that predicted by current theoretical salar motels. This Aliscropaney te galled the sake neutrons prvblem Ut has been contin by ubyervations by the Ka niokante JE detector (4 Japan whiclt vestelted in Ao Linvey the stanton anoatel Huy, Neither of these lotectors cane serine the layer energy qemteines tron, PR J, avtiie ate thought to prodtiice about OC athe Suns nortttne fay. The SAGE Soviet Amer fean Gallium: Uypertient) cane tetoct these mote: abundant neutiiios bat iC aletecte arty about ols af those expected trom thoototteal miealets: Hgcatase earl af those thie eaperlitente capttttes ditterent Parts of the Stun'a neutrino eneray mpectiane eae poses a problem for the “natestiyy” nvettr aie att anlar phyales, The atarnlant aakir uvadtel that takes those netitrino ux predictions be well aupported by: helioxolamological mieamutementa, fa the ey pertawental dlsetapartetes ave pushin, people to HW: notlans about wouteinas, The working con egypt so fae be that neutrinos change their chat acter in thy salye taterlor andl tranetorn Kind of nowtelie that cartent eyperinients eainet ulotect The ENO eyele abu converte hyaigen to helium, but it requires a eaibon auelets ae a catalyst Ws ME Me UN aM 4 a Meh ON Wy hy Myre he OT tite Aeivety atege tan Tye ctiate ened ee A TY Gata ee (Vert tet poration Ge ane atti eae ttee Cloth eine at lvl, HL oan tunel ANULY adage Qt yin: tne yaa PONE et UE ata quay tatapan wth hall Hive af satya foay titan (Utell Hat ll fev: bho Glan: yc tc 1 aah a HDs tn ATA oF aay faatagoe aon aUdstaytoyye ate nite Hi aise ah eh fouye feat fanane) Hue ey teeta ay ds Abe (ane tT Tae Uwoots cartons aut fayette Rn ecto ay tHe I a ewe ext ane flonan «ant ve foun Ute TC ach 8y eatatyat Mdtiauyghe Uys deren atanies anna Be att fielomtty: Ingle tte CNUY eye he canine cqaeyate HO a star ations eartaany ts avatlatile Tiyghor tonnroratites ave oe fae (ho at Fran evete Brannan tho ccatangatite factor at the ett one aut aitiaygon ngetel ate tniyhue thane thie ef overtone nial froltunnae tielot Am a Comet, Winer tite alepandouge gue rauygtay aw 2 fon tho EI yo ae ttt avn as Eto the eaarbiant evel (Eigitnas 10 Startingy at very Wigte femipenatianes, canaatinnl AOS. thao cesac aaron Uoogyt tt aannnuatingy toetiaane We Treswtor elornenty anew otha pantie lees (He tate AWdotanteatly beens cattogt ave abba paartie fe vl fatne carbon Ay) Mle ee Me ty "He Mle (ie th En y ‘Ants toes tv Ravanvat ve the tripple tpt (sen the that atage of heli burnt, He Anntorinnetiate * bocyirnnctt fe att very table, and the buoeh (wtetto cicetife toadlily. Newwrthiotons, ae expr teria te ee ablated! wor mone As takew part (thw: xevonit + atop Light efemonts other than hyaltagen, belies cant cantons abe: date: leepe treaty state Lyset ete elommente (ateuterinnnt, Litt, tury tttaiin, an Daron) qiiekly committe with pation at tempord 1 turer of analy a fee aniltion ceygtees to Lorine atte tivo heliun auetet for esannple, Te Me MeThe triple-alpha and other helium-burning re- actions play a major role in the evolution of stats The advanced nuclear burning stages, which op- erate at higher temperatures and densities, involve complex reaction networks. The general sequence 's carbon, neon, oxygen, and magnesium burning, These reactions make it possible to start with stars {16-17} of pure hydrogen and eventually produce mdst heavy elements up to iron, which has the highest ce to con- binding energy per nucleon. Further fusion thus re- lium nu- quires the input of energy. place be es, with that half. 5 quantity o re stable THEORETICAL STELLAR MODELS ction be: > 9 Recapitulating the Physics C acts as The physical principles basic to stellar structure are be suf hydrostatic equilibrium, the perfect-gas equation of ate ina state, the various modes of energy transport, and the gravitational and thermonuclear sources of stel- the car- lar energy. These are the tools used by astrophys- the car- ‘cists in computing stellar models—theoretical hose of stars in which physical parameters and their rates erature of change throughout the star are described. These eaction mutually dependent parameters include tempera- 2), ture T(r), mass M(r), density p(r), pressure P(r), lu- around minosity L(7), rate of energy production ¢(r), and ium to chemical composition in terms of the mean molec- ular mass yr). Their interdependence is given by the basic equations of stellar structure: Te has II form Hydrostatic equilibrium 16-18) dP/dr = ~GM(np(r)/r? (16-1) Mass continuity orm dM/dr = Arr2p(r) (16-2) diate ction Energy transport (radiative and convective) cond Tr = (Bed pn/odmor*T MIL) a6-128) ium, afar = (1 Vy) (TPC dPfar (16-126) such and Energy generation (thermal equilibrium) oe dL far = Arr7p(r)e() (16-44) e oF Equation of state Por) = kplr)T(/a(ymy (16-7) 16-2 Theoretical Stellar Moulels These equations describe how the parameters vary through the star only if we know their values at some particular points (or shells) in the star, such as at the center and the surface, These values con- stitute the boundary conditions. At the center, for example, where r = 0, the boundary conditions for the mass and luminosity must be M(r) = 0 and L(P) = 0. So that the theoretical models bear Some relationship to real stars, we use observed stellar characteristics for the boundary conditions at the surface. At r = R, the radius of the star, M(R) = M, L(R) = L, T(R) = Ter, the effective surface tem- erature (or photospheric temperature), and both p(t) and P(r) approach zero, In addition to these equations, we require en- ergy generation relations, ¢(p,), which will alter- nate between gravitational and nuclear; opacity re- lations, x(p, 7), which will depend on the chemical composition (and changes with time as the star progresses in its fusion reactions), and the chemical composition, X (hydrogen), Y (helium), and Z (met- als), ot expressed as u. Chemical composition plays 2 central role in stellar structure. The equation of state shows that P(?) depends on js; because the hydrostatic equation indicates that p(r) is strongly dependent on P(), it follows that p(r) depends on 1. Note that p(?) appears in all the other equations, The difficulty lies in knowing how the composition varies through the star. We must relate x(p, 7) to the temperature, den- sity, and composition. This relation will be differ- ent for different processes that provide the opacity. 'n general, the calculation of the exact opacity is complex and best done with large computers to handle all the necessary relationships. But one ap- Proximate formula, applicable to the range of tem- Peratures and densities found in many main- Sequence stars, is known as Kramers’ law and is given by « = constant x Z(1 + X)(p/T35) Where X is the fractional abund: and Z is the fractional abi elements. The quantity € is different for different nu clear reactions, but in general it will depend o1 temperature, density, and chemical compositior For example, at temperatures around 14 mi lion K, e(p,7) for the PPI chain is given by t ance of hydrogen’ undance of heavy318 Chapter 16 The Bvelution of Stars eyprston € > onnstant S X3prt where X is the fractional abumdanoe by mass of hydrogen, : Many theoretical models hawe been comp for our Suulior it is the peels , S2r888 a8 a prototype for others These models if fer in the relative abundances of hydrogen, helium, and the heavy elements assumed for the newly: formed Sun and in the degree of mixing of the el ements and theit participation in thermonuclear re= actions in the solar interior. Compositional mixing becomes mone thorough as the extent of the eon veetion zone inensases, Current solar models that best fit various observations indicate that a lange traction of the hydrogen at the center of the Sun has alroady been converted to helium (the cor position is about 40% H, 60% He), so that there a conteal heliumentiched core. Its energy’ gene tion, hydrogen burning by the PP chain, still occurs primarily in the core. Energy transport is radiative for most of the interior, but beyond about O7Ro, the temperature gradient becomes sufficiently: step ti) maintain convection, The solar granulation is direct evidence for stich a convection zone, ® The Physical Basis of the M-L Relation ‘The empirical mass-luminosity relation has a phys ieal basis in the equations of stellar structure if they are correct. Start with hydrostatic equilibrium (Equation 16-1) and let dP —* AP and dr —» Ar; then AP = P,- Pp=0- Py where Py = pressure at the surface, Pe = pressure at the center, and Ar = R, so that P.& Mp/R For a perfect gas, Pe pt and 0, pT. « Mp/ and T. © M/R. We follow the same approximation arith the radiation transport equation (16-12) so that Lx RUT Yep \(Te/8) & RTEY8p Now px MARY anal so Ls RUT MRM into which we substitute 7 from hydrostatic equ librium: Ls RYAI/RYYeM MY Which is elose to the observed relation, Lx AL" ‘The difference les inthe dependence of the opacity oon temperature and density +The value for the exponent depends on the mass range coversd and the type of stats. IE we write the MeL relation as fo AU, then a general value is 33; for stars with mass less than OAM: ; for those with greater mass, 1¢ = 4, These ply to mainesegwence stars only. STELLAR EVOLUTION ‘The study of the physicat changes that take place in stars as they alter their composition becaltse of thermonuclear reactions is the heart of stellac ev olution, Stars follow the same general sequence in their evolution: protestar, presmnin sepuentce, main quence, and post-main sequence, Basically, a star's ev olution is determined primarily by its mass. Chen ical composition plays a secondary rote, so that Population | and Population TH stars of the same mass follow somewhat different histories. Stellar evolution aims to understand how the Luminosity and surface temperature (two observables) change vith time, A plot of the points representing dif ferent evolutionary stages with time on an HR diagram is called a star's evolutionary track, This section examines theoretical evolutionary tracks calculated from the basic equations of stellar structure, The Birth of Stars: Protostars and PMS Stars Stars are*born from the’ gravitational eontraetion of interstellar clouds of gas and dust. Chapter {9 peor Viules observational evidence for this process here te concentrate on the basic physies. Be warmed that we do not yet understand the complete process ‘of star formation, but the basic theme is cleat: as an interstellar cloud contracts, gravitational poten__ lah emmrgy i6 converted in * stony wil in yonet (HA) ty + Wualy, the core hats Up ta the fanition temnigarature 2 fision reactions, anda star ts truly born, Prior otha event, the star gps ten Ptotindar a He matn sequence stayor, ‘Tue com neting, Aonud 6 © A protoatar before it ostattiohan Talon eauilitys ~ [lm As hycrostatic equilibrium develops bot be fore a ition of care fusion renctiona,it callgs * fle-nalnenequence (PRB) atar, ‘Tha teack, Wea un the 1 diagram before the star hits the main sequence Is called iis PMY evolutionary tad; ye {ore that, its protostar track “The evolutionary tracks for Prodentars of dif. ferent mawsen differ. Dewpite detailed differences, the theoretical ealcuslations f have the floraing, com. Ion fentuen: (1) the cllapoe start out In fafa Pilih conte only by gsaviy uth nerf ble reste fre fall mene, at te nat the particles in Ma cod do not coNide a8 the clon Mapes, that Ne interna H pressure is Zen0); (i grorsody Wey unevenly, for thw central seyjons Napre mone rapidly than the outer parts derisations in fy and 9 stiall cone yyrostatie equillibriuen forms at the comer, (3) after the core forsns, i aed tebe eiaberial Arn thes infallin, evvelopes (4) the star becnmes DIED Us either by accreting, al the surrounding, Material onto Hell or by samehura divaipating it Part (46) ta Marnal tniative energy. Mere Solar-Mass Protostellar Collapse Now let's ook at one model for the formation of a Sunelike stor, Imagine a huye interstellar cloud of dust and yas, mostly in the form of molecular hydrogen Hy, with sufficient mass to contrart pyar Mtationally, We arsume that the collapse large. 'y takes place under free-fall conditions {Sertion WAY). and lated by / Collisions with molecules, the dust istho, As long as Space, the Kinetic pains radiate at infrared wavelen this heat radiation can esxape into energy i» dissipated, the cluud stays cool, the pres une stays low, and the collapse continues in free fl At some time, however, the density of the core seaches a critical value, at which Point the cloud becomes opaque (optical depth & 1) and traps in- fared radiation. Then the core’s collapse slows down dramatically as hydrostatic equilibrium is ex lublished. The star slowly contracts as a PMS star, The total evolutionary time from the start of col- lapoe to this stage is on the order of 1 million y' os Wn can tren tha serhastenty 6804 A 9 oy MSA GALANT Om AYE Ginga IiZhe8 1, W165), The premninecaysaren oy muitnca Uernigaratinw tears Wh on) fow ganien, tuk Mw trv io Up, Wty, 9 HA Mulan men, 00 tial tom umineriby ia win, Nip than o0ih bw vin thu sat qwaher 0 nmin actanen (ee tht 1, = havi %, Sat lenin atune 84 YEH tak bs opps 10 atively Win (even thuniyp iv tery fo ort, Cops wction tees tee tadintens ty yy ten: tas 4 well mized. I rwcrty Sinteed o ati compel corre ane the ethective tanipont Y Waites the stan wry Soy 16-9), Vie star actierves 9 D thes the any Sor sara, cre ono the cane, AW stat sce ty Sori ss cretinny, the contin won ervthi4es, bis See VINE shag oh Vemnperatuse tA first dey ten anid the lurinanity decsuates, Ws yirt on & hess sae Luminosity Sun = 18) uw B a Elect Teperarae ) Figure 16-3 Premainsequence evlationary tack oka ‘plas arase stax. The tenes alo fre track are ‘ears the start at (A), winch indicates the formation ftom an interstellar dod. The wexoeze is indicated at the let. (Based on Boeret 1H, Winkler and MA. Norman A te one pee20 Chapter Tue Hivation of stain aliagtane moves ctownivatt (halt Cle Figure Jo... Meaneeltte the cane continues to heat up, Aw Halows itv opactiy deeteame Eventially, the opae fly drops enough for radiation rather than con veotlon te ttansport energy mast efflelontly, The ove a ratiagjre teanaport arti al the core qn lovely ereopy autwwant ae the Inawe layers Heat up. Wow a mtbatantal fraction. oF the star's tnterloe ‘eaelo energy outivard by ealiaion, is patt an the UU lagen Kl: wba to the fot (pote te Figure toed). Eventually: the core Feats ayy to a few llton Aelvting, high enough to start thermonuclear reve tions. When the PMS stor gota nvost of te energy trom thermonuclear reactions (01 reaetlons ta the ‘cane of the Sun) rather than geavitatlonal contiae: Hon, Hachleves fullfledged stardom, It no longer contracts to provide energy; the beat (rent fusion reaetlons keeps IE in hyeltostatle egaaibriam, The star ts now called a zerorage malnsrequence (ZAMS) star (polnt ta Figure 16-3). 1 gettes clown 10 the longest stage {i Its life, ealraly eon: vertlng hyetrogen to fetta tn tty core. Most of the: interior tranaports energy by radiatton; only the: ‘outer region of the envelope fy conveetive, The total time elapsed front tatial catlapse to arrival as a star ‘ou the main sequtence Is only’ 20 milion years (front polnt to pont £ ln Figure 16-a). © Evolution on and off the Main, Sequence Like the Sun spends about 8D". oF ity total 1 care to As litetime slowly transforming. ils hydrog helium, via the PP chain, As the hydrogen abuns lance decreases, the temperature andl density: must rise to maintain at least the same rate of nuclear fusion, During this tine the temperature in the core ineveases gradually and the stor eypancls slighty. This results in a greater flow af energy to the sur> face, andl the star’s luminosity increases. Note: We call the entire phase of eore hydrogen burning the ‘main-sequence phase, The ZAMS is the phase at which a star first gets all its energy from hydrogen fusion, before it has converted any substantial amount of its hydrogen to helium, As hydrogen ts converted to helium, the composition and therelore the mean molecular weight change, altering. the structure of the star, These changes are gradual at fitst, and then more rapid Votic Fook nt ae ntan’s Metin quantitative yon the overall wigs funninvviy relation fo Anaieaegtovie tars (ere bE 2) Ai (WM A atar'e lifetime Falepeudts on Ube xlore oF ent (ov) nl on tye vate a awl ei that em ‘ergy Caimatnoaity) So relative to the Sun, tly = (MMM Ld (MAM IAL ZAM (AL /ALa So the more mavaive Hepat, the morte te ike fine, The exnet power leper en the rae: Fang but the general statement holes tre for all tela ase. A Population | Star of 1 Solar Mays We first tun to a star having the some nk Stun to see wha pastaainesequenee evolutionary Track the Sun might follow, The star reacties the ZAMS when the PP chain dominates energy’ pe luetion, After about 10 billion years, the ait sequence phase ents avten atanost all the hydroget Uy the care haw been converted! to helium. Purl this tine, the temperature tthe gone teres aat-exparals slightly. Uis canal the sptadually, ant the sults (na greater production of ener s Iuitosity increases (Pigure (0-4), stat Note: Figure toot isthe main figure for this chapter, perhaps for mest of asteeplystea! I his the theoretical evolutionary tracks tor 1, HAL stars. (For this tiest time through, you ot ijgnore the labels “First Droge-Up” andl “Sev Dredge-Up’s they avill be explained ins to, Wien the tayatroyger an the coves ts are ap, the iu thermonuclear reactions gease there He they keep going, in a shell arourid the core, where fresh hydrogen still exists, With the end of tision reactions in the care, the core ecateaets, This be up the layer of burning hydrogen, and the 16 tions produce more enengy, but the layer of but ing hydrogen heats wp the surrounding envelope and causes it to expand, So the radius of the it increases, and its surface temperattire decreases The temperature drop increases the opacity, an convection carries the energy outward in the sues envelope, Note that convective energy transport becomes effective at high opacities and that the convective outflow causes the star's structure —Tr—C—Cntilatively Figure 16-4 Theoretical tracks for onship for 1,5, and 25Mo stars. Major phases af fusion burning are Indicated (ticker parts of the tracks) as well as important evolutionary SL Atte Supernova? + sages. Dashed lines show unces pmo of energy tain phases. (Adapied fram a la, s that en 7 ‘ram by I. Then, Jr) ToWhite Dwatt (1 34M0) Ne4€+0__CoreColnpse,Supemovar C8o ano ermal Pulses)! | Begin) ace 4 Second Dredge-Up Begins —_/ py, a <—__Second Dredge , To White Dwarf (16540) [,Fection e [\ Thermal ] woe )—Poss ; 4 | Begin its life. 9 Hone | \ 25 S range, g smo a | saan 3 I stellar 7 woof li : a 2 7 Horizontal Branch q Z eerie as our Heac vo onary L i es the Reo 2 nan Hote . First i : Dredgetp 50 ring we cases te: the his ws nd wn id ehange. The radius of the star increases, and its sur- face temperature decreases. The temperature fall increases the opacity, so that at some Point conbvec. ton carries most of the energy outward in the stor envelope. The luminosity then increases greatly; it moves up the red giant branch (RGB) on the H-R diagram A ted giant has a strikin, from a main-sequence star. Most of tts mass is con- centrated in a dense core only a few Earth radii in See, at temperatures of some 50 million K. The red. Bian! core is so dense that the electrons in the core become a degenerate 2s. In this state, they pro- duce a degenerate gas pressure, which depends only on density, not temperature, and this enables lent to balance its fusion reactions ‘ ily different structure the core to attain a Pressure suffici gravitational force even though no are going on in it, corsa aetiiaa Log Tey (Kk) AS the bloated star attains its red-giant status, the core temperature—which has beer: steadily in- Creasing as the core contracts—hits the minimum necessary (T ~ 105K) to start helium burning by the triple-alpha process. This helium core is degen- erate. Once part of it ignites in the triple-alpha re- action, the heat generated by the fusion spreads Tapidly throughout the core by conduction, The rest of the core quickly ignites. If the core were an ordinary gas, this explosive ignition would expand it as a result of the Tapid increasg'in temperature and pressure, The core is degenerate, however, and increased temperature does not increas2 Chapter 16 The Evolution of Stars is called the helium flash, When the core temper ture finally waches about 350 million K, the elee- trons become nondegenerate, Then the core ex- ponds anal cools Why a helium flash rather than slow igni- tion? One property of degenerate matter is that it has a very high thermal conductivity, so that heat flows through Ht very quickly. Hence, when the he- liu ignition temperature is reached in one part of the core, the turn-on spreads throughout the core ina flash (by astrophysical standards) —perhaps in just a fow minutes! ‘After the helium flash, the star’s radius and lu- rinosity decrease a little and its point on the H-R diagram moves slightly downward and to the left. ‘The star quietly burns helium in the core and hy- drogen in a layer around the core. This phase is the core-helium-burning analog of the star's main-se- quence phase (core hydrogen burning). Eventually the triple-alpha process converts the core to carbon, The reaction stops in the core bout continues in a layer around it, This stage—the core is shut down but thermonuclear reactions are going on in a layer—resembles that when the star first evolved off the main sequence. The physical processes force the same evolution; the burning layer makes the star expand. The star again be- comes a red giant. The electrons in the core—this time carbon-rich—become degenerate again. The star moves up the asymptotic glant branch (AGB) ‘on the HER diagram, Because the rate of the triple-alpha reaction is very sensitive to changes in temperature, the he- lium-burning shell causes the star to become un- stable, Here's how: Suppose the star contracts a lit- tle, The temperature and energy production in the layer increase; the-pressure also increases. How- ever, the inerease in pressure more than compen- sates for gravity, and so the outer parts of the star expand. The expansion leads to decreases in tem- perature, pressure, and—most dramatically—en- ergy generation rate. The star contracts, the energy generation increases, the star expands, and the cy- cle repeats. These bursts of triple-alpha energy pro- duction are like small thermonuclear explosions in the shell; they have the prosaic name of thermal pulses. The explosions occur about every few thou- sand years and cause the luminosity of the star to rise and dip rapidly by 20 to 50% in a few years or teas of years! The explosions cause the star to pulsate as well as vary in luminosity Each blast generates a rush of energy; to move it out eff Fently, the region becomes convective and. the buling gases carey outward elements fused in each explosion. Meanwhile, the star has developed 2 very strong outflow of mass from its surface, sometimes called a superwind to distinguish it from the nor- mal stellar wind of a red giant. The superwind is triggered by the pulsations of the star and blows in gusts that quickly (in about 1000 years) rip off the envelope of the star. A hot core is left behind, The expelled material forms an expanding shell of gas heated by the hot core. Astronomers call this @ planetary nebula, for historical reasons. (It looks like a Jovian planet viewed with a small telescope) ‘The hot core appears as the central star of the neb- ula. The nebula keeps expanding until it dissipates in the interstellar medium. For a star of roughly IMs or less, the core never reaches the ignition temperature of carbon burhing because it has become degenerate and can not contract and heat up to ignite carbon burning. In about 75,000 years, such a star becomes a white dwarf, composed mostly of carbon. Without energy soutces, the white dwarf cools to a black dwarf in a few billion years. A Population | Star of 5 Solar Masses Let’s follow the evolution of a Population I star with a mass five times that of the Sun. We have chosen a SMg star as an example because of its more rapid evolution compared to a IMs star; on the main sequence, it will appear as a B-type star The start of the evolutionary track (Figure 16-4) represents the main-sequence position of the star in the H-R diagram at age zero, when hydto- gen burning started at the center of the star. Ini- tially, only temperatures at the very center are sul- ficiently high for the CNO cycle to operate, and fresh hydrogen is supplied by convective mixing throughout a core. Conditions in the core change in a rather complex fashion. When only a small fraction of all the material in the core is hydrogen, first the core and then the whole star contracts. Eventually the core hydrogen is exhausted. As a result of the gravitational contraction of the core, material just beyond the core is pulled into higher temperature regions and hydrogen burning statrounding the (prisnarily) helium ere taiey thick ot first, but a9 ¢ larger frac Inve sill ou 1 is concentrated inte Wy bast Te sell Is ell nid the ont af the fotal miss: of the sti teed Ith the core, Ht narrows: ‘The core Is 60 dense that, 0a hie extent, 1H supports the weight of material 1 very Ham We Une egulbru ces te Sore cre valnc Etats mult more rapidly and heats up. When this @ nut: happens, energy generation ft Ue shell is aceeler- ind Metin the outer envelope expand Such an ex: blows anaion i» accompanied by lowering the surface ip off Fenperatre, and the position of the star in the H-R Julnd. diageairi moves Lo the right, ell of Houring te inst part of the expansion phase, i convection develops In the envelope and changes utionary track from de- the direction of the evol sha pe) owing, to increasing, Juminoslly by carrying 2 nls wean ort of the energy outward to the star's sur tea Tite boyine the redeglant phase of the star's the interlor continue to rise life, Temperatures In wing, to core contraction; finally a point Is reached {abut 10K) whore the triple-alpha process can be ‘Helium burning at this stage pinat the ntar’s center, fe shortlive. Gncv again gravitational contraction takes over snl eryperatures are sufficiently high to reignite satu The balance between helium burning in the doe and hydrogen burning, in the shell gradually lifts in favor of hellum burning, and the surface Aili tar becomes both hotter and brighter. When, the helium in exh sted and the core consists of Figure 16-5 Locations om the HER dias gram of cool stars with. stellar winds | Note that they fall into. thie major groups: cool, warm, and hot winds. Typ- ical wind speeds and -mass-loss rates ae given for each (A, Dupree) i a tt i Ib +4 37] . Mn 30 Z y 2 AS FU F5 GO G5 KO. KS Stellar Evolution 32, cbon, contraction again Occurs and a helium- formed. i rornass star, the evolutionsey (ror well as the demise of the stat from the star. ir may undergo planetary nebuila and leave Pes a white dwarf. Or, the iar may go supernova. In either case t sheds ma- terial into the interstellar medium. “hte lives of these two stars represent Ose of about a high-mass Jow and middle masses. Jatively brief lifetime en- star, say of 25Mo? Its rel sures a quick trip to death as a supergiant star. sures that its evolutionary track (Figure 164) proves almost horizontally across the HR diagram mov{purns hydrogen in its core, then helium, and then earbon. As it turns into a red supergiant starr Its core becomes unstable and collapses, igniting a supernova explosion (more‘in Chapter 18)- ca burning shell is Like the sola! AGB, as ve a superwin' certain. The stal turns up the ‘Thermal pulses dri The next stage is UN mass ejection to form a behind a core that beco! Extremely Massive Stars Let’s look at theoretical work on the evolution of really massive stars—50-100M. Mass loss dra- matically changes the evolution of certain, stars” The Sun Joses mass at a rate of about 10-4Mo/ year by the solar wind. Other stars (Figure 16-5) are known to lose mass at much greater rates in Gutflows that are called stellar winds. Red giants Cool (104K) Warm (0°K), Fast (V.,~ 100 kon $4), ) M~107M ah in iB a M10? May J face Mo M3 : fees O4 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 Blow (V..~ 20 ken 5") yp Spectral Type (V Lo324 Chapter 16 The Evolution of Stars and supergiants blow off their envelopes at rates Of 1077 to 10" *Mo /year. Massive O stars also have stellar winds at about 10-7 to 10-*Mg /year for the strongest winds. Note that an O star will lose a few solar masses of material during its main-sequence lifetime of a fuiw million years. The mass loss changes the evolutionary tracks sof stars with masses of 50-100Mq. Such stars lose 50-60% of their initial mass by the end of their main-sequence lifetime. The outer layers of the stors are stripped off—so much, in fact, that the core is revealed and the products of the CNO cycle (euch as nitrogen) lie exposed at the surface. Such stripped cores may never become red giants because the layers above the core, where shell burning would take place, have been removed. (The peculiar objects known as Wolf-Rayet stars, which are hot stars with strong emission lines in their spectra, are examples of these stars. They have abnormally large abundances of nitrogen and carbon.) The evolutionary tracks that result from these calculations (Figure 16-6) start with the stars on the ZAMS, losing mass at observed rates. In general, such stars make large loops in temperature at more or less constant luminosities. For the most massive stars (M > 60Mg), the winds strip the outer layers while on the main sequence, leaving a bare He core, Such stars never evolve to red supergiants: they are O stars and then perhaps Wolf-Rayet stars. For mid-range stars (60-25Mo), they rapidly evolve to red supergiants where they undergo core helium burning, These start out as O stars and become blue supergiants and red supergiants; what exactly hap- pens depends on the behavior of the mass loss. The lowest range of masses follow a blue-red-blue su- pergiant scheme. (Such stars do not have helium lashes because helium ignition takes place before a degenerate core develops.) Finally, these stars blow up in a supernova, Low-Mass Stars The evolution of stars with am than the Sun’s also has significant differences. First, may not get hot enough ss much lower stars of low enough mass to burn much helium to carbon betore th off their envelope. Such stars will end up as dwurs composed largely of helium. Socond, if the mass of a star is le: 0.08 solar masses, it will not even Te ey throw ss than about ach the main Teay Se san oa tak 60 w ss sw 56 3 : as 3 she oe © 52 7 ha 3 as es hy 4s wi 46 4a 3 Main Sequsose 5 40 4 Ms ue as a2 08S log Tow Figure 16-6 Evolutionary tacks for very massive sts ‘The initial masses (20-120Ms) are indicated along the > rain sequence. The bane! of the main sequence ison A Toft; the region on the right labeled “He-ignition” mais the onset of helium burning, The first dot along the trick indicates the start of helium burning for that spect A model, (Adapted from a diagram by C. Chiosi ant Macder) sequence. Gravitational contraction does not heat it very effectively. Before it gets hot enough to sat nuclear reactions, the density has risen so high that the matter becomes degenerate. Then the pressure of the degenerate electrons supports the Keeps it from contracting any further. Tf gravity tional contraction is prevented from heating, the an never be lit, and the str divarf. (More ot rand star, the nuclear fires & simply cools otf to become a brow white and brown divaris in Sgction 17-1.) ‘op Chemical Composition and Evolution Population IL stars contain only 001% heavy ele ments; the range is about 0.2-0.002%. Do their w+ sr much from those af Popt: olutionary tracks diffe 3? The overall + lation I stars with the same mas: sequence is the same, but these stars exhibit a sig: nificant difference in position on the H-R diagram during core helium burning. What happens '0 & star with a heavy-element abundance of 0.01% thatleaves the main sequence with mass of 0.7Mg (Fig ion years after the start of PP’ reactions ‘have con- Ben fuel. Shell burning duction, and the star rises at first slowly and then core hydrogen burning, sumed the core’s hydro, Lukes over the energy pro to the red-giant region, swittly. While a red giant, the star loses some mass to } Esttong stellar wind. After the heli ming core, ‘oughly 10” kg/m? and the vol , | | eat it dn start | that . sure ic and i. rite S al the : star i ‘on i on Figure 16-7 Evolutionary tracks for stars with low metal abun- dances. The two tracks are for two sats, one of mass OSM and one af mass O7Mo, leaving the main sequence. Both stars lose mass phas Hous by L fhrough the red-giant sad on theoretical tom, Jr 16-3 Stellar Evolution temperature about 100 million K. As this. star evolves, its luminosity stays roughly constant aied its surface temperature changes, ist to higher tem Peratures and then to cooler ones before the core buming stops. The star's evolutionary track makes 4 Zigzag on the HR diagram. Stars with fewer heavy elements (only 0.001%) and a range of masses also form a corhelium. ‘burning horizontal branch, but, relative to stars of same ase yet higher heavy-element composi tion (2.01% as above), these stars are shifted te the tet (higher temperatures) on the H-R diagram. ty clusters, the reason for the range of mascee along, ‘he horizontal branch is the different amounts lost “To Planet Nebula Phase "——— Core Hetium x [so mition —_- —eomition oestt, i 100 milion |. 30: i [20 mition 1.5 1A shet tyrope Bef ga oo no T1835 Nes Sb OMe is Hydrogen Zerorage Vanishes at Center Main Sequence . 2 tition years —— i \ 0 00326 Chapter 16 The Livolution of Stars while the stars are red giants. All the horizontal: branch stars in such a group start out with about the same mass and end up with helium cores of the same size, but some lose more mass than others as red giants and end up with very thin hydrogen en- velopes around their helium cores, They are very much like mainsequence stars composed of pure helium and tie fr tothe left on the H-R dlageam, Those that lose very little mass as red giants end up with thicker hydrogen envelopes. They ate like ordinary red giants, ending up farther tothe right on the H-R diagram. ABQ che carl foul INTERPRETING THE H-R DIAGRAMS OF CLUSTERS If a cluster of stars is formed such that all members contract out of the gas cloud more or less simul- taneously, the locations of the stars in the H-R di- agram will depend upon the time elapsed since the initial formation. In 10° years, a cluster has stars on the main sequence up to a luminosity correspond: ing to 3Mg ot slightly more, say L/L> ~ 100 ot absolute magnitude ~ 0. Somewhat more massive stars lie a little to the right of the main sequence: and some stars have reached the giant branch but have not yet gone beyond it. The turnoff from the main sequence reflects the time elapsed since the stars first arrived on the ZAMS. Ages of clusters may be determined by comparing the turnoff points in the theoretical HLR diagram (Figure 16-8), with the scale on the right of the diagram. The observed H-R diagrams of various clusters represent the loci of the ends of the evolutionary tracks for member stars to that particular time since formation. These loci are called isochrones, constant-time lines. The fact that, computed isochrones closely. resemble observed HER diagrams is one of the major triumphs of mod em astrophysies—it demonstrates that the basic physics of stellar models is correct The time taken up by the protostar contraction is so short that it can usually be neglected, partic: ularly: for well-developed clusters. In many clus ters, however, the contraction time tor stars is so much faster than that for low-mass stars that the massive stars will have already started to evolve off the main sequence by the time the low: assive imp ntars reach tt Sula young, elaster bs te Me: icles, which atill hoe massive Iunuinou state on the main sequence. The tumolt at the very upper end of the HER diagram of this cluster (Pigure 164A) and the appearance of the styperiant branch have uswally been attributed to the tapid evolution of these massive stars. The Pletadles have an age of AP years. In an intermediate case, the Praesepe (Bechive) cluster has an age of about > 10% years (Figure 16-85), AC the other extreme, we have an old open cluster (Population 1) whose stars are highly evolved, Mo7, It has stars of about 1.2504 evolved onto the red-giant branch and stars of [Mg just about to loave the main sequence, One timate gives the age of M67 as 3% 10" yeats (Figure 16-80), The HER diagram of Population UF ylobulir clusters (Figure [6-9 litters: from the TER lit grams typical of both intermediate Population | clusters (like MUL) and old Population 1 clusters (like M67), Globutar clusters are old, and because they started with almost pure hydrogen and he lium and virtually no heavy elements, their evo lutionary tracks took different forms than Populs tion T clusters did The present HER diagrants for globular clusters represent the en points of the ee olutionary tracks, Ditterences tromt one cluster to ahother are attributed to differences on the initial chemical composition. Globular clusters cleatly show the horizontal branch (MB in Figure 16-9) hat results from ditterent mass losses anil chemical compositions. Note that a globular cluster’s HER de agram shows stars at all evolutionary phases: main sequence (MS in Figure 16-9), lasting 10!” yeas with core hydrogen burning; red giants (RGD) for Ihe yeas svth shel hydrogen burning; horizont branch (HB) for 10° years with core helium burning and shell hydrogen burning; and the asymptoticgi ant branch (AGB) for 1X” vears with shell double burning THE SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS IN STARS Ino ments into heavier ones and in this way generat provides the int zoing, The more fo survive, a star must fuse lighter ee energy. Gravitational contractic tial heat to get fusion reaction Se eee eee eeeAbuoute Visual Magnitude: (Mee r | omnes 16-5 The Synthesis of Elements in Stee | 9% 10" years | Absolute Visual Magnitude PRAESEPE (rm=M), = 5.85, 4 (eM, @) Figure 16-8 H-R diagrams for clusters in color-mag- Ditude form. The observed turnoff points give the ap- Proximate ages when compared to isochrones from the. : retical models (solid lines). (A) Diagram for the Pleiades. The solid lines are the theore'cal calculations for the ZAMS and for an evolved cluster at age 3 x 10* years. The Pleiades are younger than this age, since the upper end of the main Sequence still has massi Stars. (B) Disgram for the Praesepe cluste fit theoretical line for an age of 9 * 108 ye: 27am for ME. Same comparison as for Praesepe. Th @pparent distance modulus is given for each ‘Adapted from diagrams by D.A, VandenBerg)28 Chapter 16 The Evolution of Stars Cluster M5. Visual Magnitude Figure 16-9 Schematic H-R diagram for one globular cluster with the evolutionary major phases indicated. (Adapted from a diagram by V. Castellani) mass a star has, the greater the central temperature Produced by gravitational contraction before de generacy seis in and the heavier the elements it can fuse. From the ignition temperatures needed for sich reactions, we can set limits on the heaviest ements that a star of a certain mass can fuse (Table 16-1). For example, our Sun can burn helium te carbon but will never get hot enough to {use cit bon. Table 16-1 summarizes the principal stages of nuclear energy generation and nucleosynthesis in stars. Note that the products (or ashes) of one st of reactions usually become the fuel for the next set of reactions, until iron is reached. “Also note in that table that only very massive stars (those with masses greater than about SMo} can produce elements heavier than oxygen, neon and sodium. Few stars have this much mass, and 50 many stars come to the end of their nuclear ev olution without having manufactured some impor tant elements. This fact emphasizes the importance of massive stars in the scheme of cosmic eval- tion—they fuse heavy elements and, through the supernova process, throw some back into the in- terstellar medium. (CTR) 5292s 0f Thermonuclear Energy Generation in Stars Approximate Approximate Minimum Major Temperature Mass (solar Process __Fuel Products © masses) . Hydrogen Hydrogen Helium 13x 107 o1 ‘burning Helium = Helium Carbon, 2x 10° 1 burning oxygen Carbon Carbon ‘Oxygen, 8 x 10° 14 burning neon, sodium, : magnesium Neon Neon Oxygen, wx , 3 burhing magnesium Oxygen Oxygen Magnesium 2x0 1 burning to sulfur Silicon Magnesium Elements 3x10 » buming to sulfur near iron. ee EE SalReal gi loogyntte stars play a major ole in cosmic mn s.‘he thermal pulses in a heliam-burne are the sites for producing certain ise. lopes, especially those (hat are rieh in neutrons, This process can occur In two stages for low. niddle-mass stars, Let's see and Thow this happens ina compatison of the post-main-sequence evolution- ary tracks for lows and intermediate-mass stars (Figure 16-4), One stage takes place when a star first becomes, ated giant. The convective zone that develops a8 ‘result of evolution to a red giant reaches down to the star’s core and pulls up elements that have been made with hydrogen burning, At the base of ‘he convection zone, carbon can be converted to nitrogen. The convection brings this processed ma. terial up to the surface, so the carbon abundance there goes down while the nitrogen abundance Co Equations of stellar structure Hydrostatic equilibrium, a _ =GMinotr dr e Mass continuity Mo, 7 Tol) Energy transport (radiative and convective) a _[ seine [=e i) =(1-1)| Moar 7] [Poy | ar dr Key Faquations € Conc, som up. This whole process, which acc a becomes are at forte tt a called the ft dredge-up (ee point mare hey the evolutionary tracks in Figure 16-4) : For medium-mass stars, such as one of SM, 9 second phase of nucleosynthesis takes place after a star has burned the helium in its core. Thermal pulses then can convert helium to carbon, carbon to oxygen, nitrogen to magnesium, and iron to cer. lain neutron-rich isotopes of heavier elements, The convective zone brings these to the surface, a pro- ess called the second dredge-up (Figure 16-4), Ail these processes would rot affect the rest of the cosmos except for one crucial fact: red. giant stars have strong stellar winds. These blow off ma. \etial from the surfaces of the stars so that the pro- cessed material from the first and sec cond dredge- up is sent out into the interstellar medium. Energy generation (thermal equilibrium) dL Fm Palle) Equation of state a_i jy = kote Hg, Kramer's opacity law = constant x Z(1 + Xs y Stellar lifetimes (main-sequence stars)chapter 16 F The Evolution of Stare =< 1. Verify that about él verted to helium in area of hydrogen ig "our Sun every scone” SO 2 (a) Ifa startis choracteriay is rized by M a b= 4x 108 W how on A ‘minosity if tis 100% i the H to He? Do a similar calculat i ~ Head mins 19 yt oF 108 2X 10% kg and Pgcanit shine a tha drogen and converts a Br c ielly describe the evolution of the following stars from a cloud ae nt 89S and dust to their demise: ©) M = 01Mp Clearly indicate hi Tigh ea Which Stages ofthe evaliton ae 4. Using Figures 16-8 and the data in Table 16-1, sketch = BER diagrams for star clusters of ages 10, 108, and 10° years (these are constant lines!) Clearly label the axes and comment upon the fic ‘Your results (tumoff points). ead 5. Although detailed models of stellar structure require the use of complex computer codes, simple scalings can be obtained by making rough approximations. For a variable x, we can substitute Ax/Ar for dx/dr in order to obtain a crude result. (This method is a rough version of a numerical technique called finite differences.) (a) Use the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium (16-1) to show that the central pressure scales as P. * M?/R4, Substitute AP/Ar for dP/dr and take this difference between r = 0 and r = R/2, that is, AP/Ar ~ [P(r = R/2) ~ PeJAR/2 ~ 0). You may assume that P(r = R/2) is negligible com- pared with P.. Also, substitute the mean density of the star (a) for pl) (6) Now use the radiative transport equation and the same method as in part (a) to approximate dT/dr and obtain the theoretical mass-luminosity relationship, L = M3, Assume that x() is con- stant and that T(r) © T.. (©) Use the same method to obtain a rough relation- ship between the effective temperature and mass of a main-sequence star. (No other variables should appear in the proportionality.) (@) Combine your answers to parts (b) and (cto ob- tain a relationship between T and L. Use the HER diagrams (Figures 13-7 and 13-9) and Table ‘AL3 to compare the temperature of a stat of L = 10Lo with that of the Sun. How does this eompare with your theoretical T-L relations Gbequonmanggt total T-Lreatontp fa ion re + Ge'BY (ignore the fact that some of the ‘energy is in {the form of positrons and neutrinos). Oblain an ex Pression for the hydrogen-burning lifetime of a stat ‘in years a8 a function of mass in solar units, (Assume L™ constant during the hydrogen-burning phase and use the mass-luminosity relationship L = Min solar units.) 4. (a) Estimate the central pressure for 05, 10, and 50Mo stars. Compare these pressures tothe cer teal pressure of the Sun, () Estimate the central temperature for 0.5, 10, and 50Mo stars. Compare these temperatures to the central temperature ofthe Sun. 8, Calculate the main-sequence lifetimes for stars of 5, 1,5, 10, and 25Mo, 9. Assuming that a star radiates as a blackbody during all phases of its evolution, use the Stfan-Boltamara Law lo determine the radius (in units of Ro) of Mg star at all main stages in Figure 16-4. (Hit Both the temperature and luminosity axes ate logarithmic.) 10, Estimate the energy available and the lifetime forthe hrlium-burning phase in a 1Mg star: (a) Calculate the energy released per net reaction 34He— 2C in the triple-alpha process. (Note ‘The weight of *He is 4.0026, and the weight of RC is 12.0000.) (b) What fraction of the available mass of 3 helium nuclei is liberated in the form of energy in the 4 triple-alpha reaction? Compare this to the frac tion of available mass liberated in the proto proton reaction. (o Assume that approximately 10% of the origial ‘mass ofthe star isin the form of He inthe stl "core during the helium-burning phase. Estimate the total energy available from the triple-alph process. (@) During the helium-core-burning phase, some hy drogen burning is aso occurring in a shell. Ths the star's luminosity is not due only to hein mind, assume thal burning. Keeping this_-———_— the typleal luminosity from helium bumning is 10'Lo. Estimate the lifetime of the heliumsre, burning phase, 3. Consider model star in which the density) goes a4 in the core (F < 1), polr/t? in the region be tween the core and surface (fy R), @) Find an expression for Mi : (IF the star's mass i S is IM at R = Ro, and mp = OR, what is the value of a? (0. Find an expression for P(r). 12. The following table gives one model for the future evolution of the Sun Problems Time Luminosity Radius (Gy) (lg) (Ro) 55 1.08 104 66 19 1.08 77 132 a 88 150 1m 98 178 136 ee For each future time, find the effective temperature ‘of the Sun. Then plot an evolutionary track on an FER diagram,