CONTENTS

Introduction

What Is Anthropology?

Classification of Anthropology

Evolution

The Various Eras of Evolution.

Theories of Evolution

Hominid Evolution Process

Evolution of Human Face

Evolution of the jaw and joints

Evolution of teeth and its attachment apparatus

Orthodontic aspects of dental anthropology

Indices in anthropology

Crown shape, winged and shovel shaped incisors

Theory of overbite and buccal segment reproximation.

Carabelli Trait

Conclusion
INTRODUCTION

Orthodontists are functioning anthropologists. We

measure the bones of the skull, face, and teeth and study the relationships
of these structures. We should also be interested, then, in learning as much
as possible about the origins of human beings and evolutionary development
of our anatomy.

WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?

Anthropology is the study of humans in all places and at all times. The term
itself comes from the Greek (anthropos=man, logos=the study of). Both
literate and non-literate peoples are of interest to anthropologists. The
field includes many aspects of sociology; however, anthropology reaches
much more deeply into prehistory, the humanities, and the physical sciences.
Anthropologists study modern humans and their direct ancestors whom we
will refer to as hominids.

Anthropology is a recent discipline originating a little more than a hundred

years ago. The first course in the field was offered at the University of
Rochester (New York) in 1879.

THE SUB-FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY:

Four distinct branches or sub-fields of anthropology are -

1) Physical Anthropology.

2) Archaeology

3) Linguistics

4) Ethnology.
I Physical Anthropology: is the study of people from a biological
perspective, involves biologic and physical science. The study of fossils is
paleontology; study of the fossils of modern humans an human ancestors,
namely paleo anthropology one of interest is measuring human physical
characteristics - anthropometry was the main research activity of the first
anthropologists early in the 1800s.

Forensic anthropology is a specialized area of physical anthropology.

It is the identification of human remains for legal purposes. Teeth are
especially important for several reasons. They tend to be the most
enduring body part.

II Archaeology is the study of human cultures and behaviour through

material remains.

III Linguistics is the discipline that studies speech and language.

IV Ethnology - Ethnology concentrates on the cultures of the present.

It is the study of human behaviour as it can be seen, experienced and
discussed with those who live in a particular culture. Ethnology is the study
of many cultures from a comparative perspective.

WHAT IS DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY?

Dental Anthropology is the study of teeth in all perspectives - it includes

the study of dental growth, theories on dental origin primate dentition, and
population variation.

(1) Genetically controlled variables such as tooth crown size and

morphology are used to trace phylogenetic relationships and historic trends
in size, shape, and number of teeth.
(2) Crown wear and dental pathology give clues to dietary and cultural
behavior.

(3) Gross and microscopic defect analyses reflect disease and dietary
stress.

(4) Intentional cultural modifications of teeth reflect society and

culture of people, both present and past.

(5) Bite marks, distinctive pattern of occlusion and wear, missing and
filled teeth, and radiographic landmarks make teeth pivotal in many cases of
forensic identification.

(6) The comparative anatomy of teeth provides crucial evidence for

systematics and determining biological relatedness.

(7) There is sexual dimorphism in crown diameters.

EVOLUTION:

Evolution is a continuous process of change from one form to another.

Acc. to theory of evolution or origin of species, all present forms of life

have been derived from earlier simple forms.
VARIOUS ERAS OF EVOLUTION:

Paleozoic era:

Fossil fish first appear in the rocks of silurian period. Fossil amphibians in
the Devonian period. And the reptiles in the pennsylvanion period

Mesozoic era:

This era was dominated by reptiles. In early triassic period fossils of first
of primitive mammals were found,and later those of first birds were found.
In cretaceous period,fossils of first modern mammals appear,but by the end
of this period primitive mammals got extinct.

Cenozoic era:

Consists of two periods – tertiary & quaternary

The tertiary period is further divided into 5 epochs -

1. The Paleocene
2. The Eocene

3. The Oligocene

4. The Miocene

5. The Pliocene

The quaternary period is further divided into 2 epochs –

The Pleistocene

The Holocene

Fossil primates first appear in the rocks of Paleocene epoch.

Fossil anthropoid apes appear in the rocks of Oligocene epoch.
Australopithecus fossils from upper Pliocene and lower Pleistocene epoch.
Earliest human fossils from Pleistocene epoch.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION:

Four main theories to explain the method by which species of life that exist
today have evolved from earlier simpler forms.

The Lamarckian theory.

The theory of orthogenesis.

The theory of natural selection.

The Mendelian theory.

THE LAMARCKIAN THEORY:

Characters acquired and changes taking place during life of an organism are
inherited after the acquired character and changes have persisted for a
long time. They are due to change in environment and to the concerned
effects of use and disuse.

Eg: Giraffes with long necks.

THEORY OF ORTHOGENESIS [DEVELOPMENT IN

STRAIGHT LINE]:

Put forth by Haldane and Julian Huxley. They considered that evolution
proceeds in any particular direction ,not because of any advantage gained by
the race or because of direct moulding effect by the surrounding,but
because of some inner urge, some necessity for the hereditary constitution
to change in just that particular way.

NATURAL SELECTION OR SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST:

Charles Darwin propounded this theory of organic evolution. This theory

assumes that every life on earth was developed from previous form. He
attributed changes in living organisms to the action of natural selection and
in many instances to the effect of use and disuse.

This theory can be summarized briefly as:

Struggle for existence

Natural selection

Heredity

Survival of the fittest

 As the world has a limited surface, and more animals are
born into it than it is capable of holding, this produces struggle for
existence, the outcome of which is natural selection or survival of the
fittest and new species originates. Natural selection exterminates the
unfit.

MENDEL'S LAW OF INHERITANCE:

Mendel discovered the fact of segregation or dissociation of characters

from each other in the course of formation of germ cell.

His research work was on edible pea.

HOMINID EVOLUTION:

The study of the evolution of hominid provides important clues about

locomotion, behavior, adaptation and lifestyle. The family of Homo-sapiens,
are about 4 million years old. Homosapiens, maturing more slowly than other
primates, retained many primitive features, which may be why the genus has
been successful. Hands and teeth, for eg, are quite primitive. Genera that
become specialized tend to become extinct when their environment changes.
The following sequence to be followed:

1) The Great apes : Chimpanzee, gorilla and orangutan.

2) The 'gracile' Australopithecines.

3) The 'robust' paranthropus group.

4) Homohabilis 'handy man' - early Homo.

5) Homo erectus 'upright man'

6) Neanderthals - Often called 'Archaic homosapiens'

7) Homo Sapiens 'wiseman'.

THE GREAT APES

A) Orangutan:

limited to borneo and Indonesia

arboreal and frugiverous / fruit eaters).

Legs are shortened with arms lengthened.

skull and face are elongated and surrounded by fur.

narrower jaws than Gorilla and molars are of equal size.

B) Gorilla

Largest of living primates

Restricted to Africa.
Have clavicles which help in brachiating.

Strong incisors with chisel like edges.

Diastema between the laterals and canines in both arches. Well defined
maxillary premolars

Canines exhibit sexual dimorphism.

C) Chimpanzees

Closest match to Homo Sapiens

Have a complex social behaviour.

Have little wider arches than organgutan's

Canines exhibit sexual dimorphism - male have heavier, longer and more
curved canines.

The 'gracile' Australopithecines

The hominids split off from the apes about 5-7 million years ago.

Walked upright

Small brains

Large protruding faces.

Were highly dimorphic; male about twice the size of females.

Dental features are intermediate between those of apes and modern

humans.

Arcade is omega shaped, intermediate between the box row and the
parabolic curve in humans
Lower first premolar has two cusps.

Design of dentition being more effective for grinding.

The 'Robust' Paranthropus group

First identified by Robert Broom

More sturdier

Molars are enormous

Lower jaws is very large

The entire skull has been reorganized to accommodate the massives chewing
apparatus.

Homohabilis 'handy man' - 'Early Home'

The evolutionary trends toward relative greater cranial capacity,

orthognathy,

dental reduction

greater body size which had begun in H.Habilis, continued in its

descendants.

Associated with stone tools.

Homo Erectus 'upright man'

thick cranial vault

prominent browridges and the sagittal keel

sizes of the posterior teeth are decreased

while anteriors are larger than modern humans

upper central incisors are distinctively shovel shaped.

Neandertals, often called 'Archaic Homosapiens'

Ruggedly built, and short stocky bodies

Developed skilled stone tool technology

Had larger brains

Skull had characteristic presence of an occipital 'bun' at the rear end.

Have large canines and incisors relative to their molars and premolars

Dentition as a whole is placed forward relative to the skull vault, because of

this anatomical change - the retromolar space is seen.

Frequent feature was taurodontism.

Homosapiens 'Wiseman'

Anatomically modern Homosapiens first appeared 100,000 years ago

Skull is high and well rounded

Orthognathic face

Modern humans have small faces tucked under enlarged brain cases

Teeth progressively reduced in size, concurrent with the reduction of

masticatory apparatus.
EVOLUTION OF HUMAN FACE

In a typical non primates: dog, sheep or hedgehog, the facial

skeleton projects in front of cranial region of skull.

During primate evolution facial skeleton bent gradually more

downwards until in man it lies below overhanging frontal region of cranium.

Erect posture in humans. The arms and hands have become freed. The
manipulation of food and other objects and defense, offense, and so forth,
utilize primarily the hands, rather than the shortened jaws.

The large size of the human brain also relates to a rotation of the
orbits toward the midline. This results in a binocular arrangement of the
orbits, a feature that complements finger-controlled manipulation of food,
tools, weapons, and so forth. The absence of a long, protrusive muzzle does
not block the close-up vision of hand-held objects.
 Complete orbital rotation into a forward-pointing direction, however,
has also caused a marked reduction in the interorbital part of the face. This
is significant, because the area involved is the root of the nasal region, and
the result of man's close-set eyes is a narrow nose.

Reduction in nasal protrusion is accompanied by a more or less

equivalent reduction of the jaw.

The downward rotation of the olfactory bulbs and the whole

anterior cranial floor by the enlarged frontal lobes of the cerebrum has
caused a corresponding downward rotation of the nasomaxillary complex.
 Facial rotation has led to the development of the human maxillary
sinus beneath the orbital floor and above the shortened maxillary arch .

Because of its adaptation to facial rotation, the human maxilla is

uniquely rectangular, rather than triangular like that of most other
mammals. It is a distinctively shaped upper jaw.

An orbital floor has also been added to the human maxilla because
the middle and lower parts of the face have been rotated to a position
beneath the eyes.

EVOLUTION OF JAWS AND JOINTS

The first vertebrates did not have jaws. These are collectively referred to
as the "Agnatha" (a=without, gnath=jaws), or jawless fish.

There is a general trend to reduce the number of pharyngeal arches

over evolutionary time.
 Placoderms, an extinct group of early fishes, had 7 arches. The
first arch was lost. Their new ‘first’ arch became the mandibular arch that
formed jaws.

The upper half of the mandibular arch became the palatoquadrate cartilage,
the lower half became the mandibular or Meckel’s cartilage.

At about the same time in the fossil record there appears several major
groups of fishes, in these groups, the jaws were formed by components of
arch #1 and #2. Arch #2 is called the hyoid arch (upper half =
hyomandibular cartilage, lower half = hyoid cartilage).

Amphibians

Some arches are lost in adult amphibians while others are modified.

In amphibians, the hyomandibular cartilage became the stapes in the middle

ear.

The hyoid apparatus supports the tongue and larynx.

With the loss of gills, associated dermal bones that connected the head to
pectoral girdle was lost creating an independent neck region.
Reptiles and the evolution of the secondary palate and middle ear
ossicles

Reptiles invented the secondary palate that allows us to eat and breathe at
the same time.

The reptile line that led to mammals substantially increased bite force by
ultimately redesigning the articulation of the jaw joint.

This in turn led to the development of the malleus (hammer) and incus
(anvil) ossicles in the middle ear.

The secondary palate

Fish have good noses.

They smell by passing water through a loop located on their snout.

The loop does not connect to

the mouth cavity.

The lobe finned fishes

(Sarcopterygii) breathed
atmospheric oxygen. One of
the consequences of air
breathing is that the olfactory
loop became redirected.
Instead of exiting back to the
outside environment, the loop
turned and entered the
anterior margin of the mouth
cavity, forming the internal
nares. Thus, these fish could
breathe by bringing the tip of
their snout to the surface.

This saved energy and allowed

air breathing to be less
conspicuous to predators.
 Amphibians inherited this anatomy. Because the internal nares
are at the anterior margin of the mouth, amphibians have to hold their
breath while they eat.

Amphibians can use cutaneous gas exchange until the prey is swallowed.

Reptiles, with their hardened, dry skin do not have that luxury. Any reptile
that did a better job of eating while breathing would be favored by natural
selection.

Over evolutionary time, the fossil record shows a second shelf of bone
forming across the roof of the mouth.

Over evolutionary time, first the premaxilla bone, then later, the maxilla
bone, then finally the palatine bone all extended a shelf from each side of
the jaw and met in the middle.

This shelf formed a separate passage for air from the external nares.

Over time, the internal nares entered the mouth further and further
toward the throat.

This shelf is the secondary palate. We know it in humans as the hard palate.

EVOLUTION OF TMJ

In reptiles generally, including the now extinct early synapsid reptiles that
gave rise to mammals, the jaw joint is formed by the articular (lower) and
quadrate (upper) bones.

The joint was a simple hinge at the posterior of the jaw.

The jaw closed putting even pressure along its margin therefore, the force
exerted on the joint was in proportion to the bite pressure.

In mid to late synapsid reptiles, the dentary bone (lower jaw) increased in
size as muscle and bite force increased, but force on the joint decreased.

This was because muscle insertion points shifted to allow greater jaw
mobility.

The looser the joint became, the more control synapsids had over
specialized processing of food along regions of the jaw margin.

The articular and quadrate bones at the jaw joint became smaller and more
loosely associated with the dentary.

The coronoid process of the dentary bone formed to accommodate these

changing forces.

Ultimately, the jaw joint shifted from a articular-quadrate joint to a

dentary-squamosal joint.

The condyloid process formed to create a new articulating surface.

Freed from jaw mechanics, selection pressure favoring perception of sound
took the evolutionary opportunity of the articular and quadrate bones adrift
at the margin of the jaw joint and incorporated them into the middle ear.
The articular became the malleus (hammer) and the quadrate became the
incus (anvil). Humans, and all mammals, have these bones to this day.

EVOLUTION OF HUMAN MOLAR OR TEETH

Six main theories :

1) Concrescence theory

2) Cingulum theory

3) Kinetogenetic theory

4) Tritubercular theory

5) Multitubercular theory

6) Dimer's theory
CONCRESCENCE THEORY :

Given by Ameghino, Rose and Kekentha

Mammalian teeth were developed from simpler cones (Haplodont teeth) and
the modern multiple -cusped teeth are formed by the fusion of 2 or more of
these simple haplodont teeth into a compound tooth.

This might be due to - shortening of jaws, uniting the teeth of the same
series or by a fusion bucco-lingually, uniting the teeth of one series with
those of their successors.

CINGULUM THEORY

Mammalian teeth is derived from haplodont teeth.

"Marrett Tims" consider that basal ridge or cingulum, with surrounds a

tooth at its neck, develops into a fresh cusp or cups- which explains to a
great extent the evolution of complex tooth form.

KINETOGENETIC THEORY

Ryder, who upholds this theory, again regards the earliest mammalian teeth
as haplodont in origin.

He mentioned that the movements of TMJ. govern the form of the tooth.

The simple cones become flattened by mutual pressure, and the ridge and
hollows are produced by the movements of the lower jaw in mastication.

TRITUBERCULAR THEORY OR COPE - OSBORN THEORY

He considered that multicuspid mammalian are developed from a simple

haplodont or reptilian form of tooth by the addition of extra cusps.
In this theory - original haplodont cone is known as the protocone

When this original cone has two small accessory cones on its mesial and
distal surface and it is known as protodont tooth.

These small accessory cones develop in size until the tooth appears to
consists of 3 cones in a straight line and this is known as triconodont teeth.

Tooth Anterior Middle Posterior

Maxillary Paracone Protocone Metacone

Mandibular Paraconid Protoconid Metaconid

MULTITUBERCULAR (OR POLYBUNY) THEORY

Forsyth Major, refutes the statement that the 1st mammalian tooth can be
traced back to a simple haplodont or a tritubercular tooth.

Forsyth Major considers that human molars and modern mammalian molar
(whether tritubercular or not) are derived from multitubercular teeth by
reduction in the number or tubercle.

DIMER THEORY

It is the result of investigation by Prof. Bolk of Amsterdam and advances

the view that there is one origin for all mammalian teeth, whether, incisors,
canine, premolars or molars.

Bolk's views are expressed under 4 headings :

Hypothesis of triconodonty

The hypothesis of dimery

Hypothesis of concentration

Hypothesis of equivalence

i) Hypothesis of triconodonty -

Mammalian teeth are evolved from a triconodont teeth, not a haplodont with
one large and 2 small cusps in a straight line anteroposteriorly.

ii) The hypothesis of dimery :

Every mammalian tooth = two reptilian teeth.

Labial and incisal portion of the incisors, canines and buccal cusps of
premolars and molars = one series of reptilian teeth.

Cingulum of incisors, canine and lingual cusps of premolars and molars =

second or later series of reptilian teeth.

Each longitudinal half of human tooth = monomere

buccal half = protomere

lingual half = deuteromere

Together form a dimerous tooth.

Minute tuberculum impar or tubercle of carabelli found occasionally on

lingual aspect of deuteromere of the upper 1st molar.

iii) Hypothesis of concentration :

The polyphyodont in reptiles is reduced to diphyodontism in modern

mammals.

There is a concentration of the tooth germs of two reptilian teeth to form

one mammalian tooth.
iv) Hypothesis of equivalence :

Elements of mammalian set of teeth are all morphologically alike.

The terms monocuspidate and multicuspidate possess only a descriptive

anatomical value and do not indicate any morphogenetic differences.

The tooth germ 'of every tooth possesses the potentiality of developing all
the cusps found in the most complicated tooth of set.

BUTLER'S FIELD THEORY

In 1939, Butler, an English paleontologist, proposed that the mammalian

dentition can be divided into several developmental fields - incisors, canines
and check teeth.

Within each field there is one tooth that is presumed to be the stable 'best
copy' - i.e., "Key" tooth, the remaining teeth within the field become
progressively less stable.

Considering each quadrant separately, the molar/premolar field would

consist of the first molar as the key tooth, the second and third molars on
the distal end of the field, and the first and second premolars on the mesial
end. The theory predicts that the third molar and first premolar would be
most variable in size and shape.

Adapting Butler's theory to the human dentition. Dahlberg suggested the

following fields and gradients of stability among teeth the arrows indicate
decreasing stability.

Maxilla
1st Incisor 2nd Incisor Canine 1st pm 2nd pm 1st molar 2nd m 3rd m

Mandible

1st Incisor 2nd Incisor Canine 1st pm 2nd pm 1st molar 2nd m 3rd m
EVOLUTION OF SOCKET OR ATTACHMENT OF TEETH

Four methods of attachment of teeth in animal world:

1. Fibrous
2. Hinged

3. Ankylosis

4. Gomphosis

Fibrous attachment

Seen in sharks and rays.

The teeth are fixed by the means of fibrous bands to the

submucosa of the fibrous membrane which covers the
jaws.

Hinged attachment

The hinged teeth occur in the centre and front of the mouth and those
around the periphery of jaws being attached by anchylosis.

Three main fishes have to be discussed as they have different types of

hinge attachments.

1. Angler
2. Hake

3. Pike

1) Angler

This fish has 2 rows of teeth an outer anchylosed and inner

hinged row.
A hinged tooth is supplied posteriorly by fibrous elastic ligament, while its
anterior free edge rests upon a buttress of bone.

The teeth bent towards the throat, the hinge compresses and teeth return
to their original positions upon the force being removed.

2) The hake

Hake teeth is composed of vasodentine,

which requires a rich blood supply and the vessels
pass from the tooth in a backward direction and
enter the bone attachment about the rotating axis
in the posterior hinge which has 2 parts.

A) Calcified elastic part of hinge which prolong

downwards to the bone of attachment of the
lingual surface of'dentine (outer area of dentine -
no blood supply)

B) Uncalcified fibrous part of hinge which lies in

front of the calcified, elastic portion.

Between two part of hinge is a triangular area containing interlacing fibres -

elastic in nature.

The labial edge of base of teeth - thickened and rounded - adapted for
resisting shock.

This edge is at higher level - than the lingual edge and fits upon a buttress
of bone. So that tooth cannot be bent outward without injury to lingual
hinge.

3) Pike

The hinged teeth of pike sit anteriorly on a small pedestal of

bone - but posterior hinge does not possess elasticity.
In pike teeth (osteodentine) , the central trabeculae do not calcify but
remain soft and elastic-responsible for returning the teeth to their erect
posture when backward pressure is released.

Anchylosis attachment

When a tooth is fixed to the jaw by calcified tissue it is said to be

anchylosed.

There is no intervention of fibrous or uncalcified tissue.

Eel fish : The teeth of the Eel rest upon little

cylinder or cups of bone of attachment and is
described as " Acrodont anchylosis".

Here dentinal tubules do not fuse with bone of

attachment, but little fibrous "annular
ligament" surrounds the base of tooth and
allows a slight movement.

Mackerel: Teeth are slung up between the plates of the

jaws by means of osseous trabeculae which pass between
the inner sides of the alveolus and outer sides of teeth,
the bases of latter resting upon nothing hard, the
attachment is pleurodont.

Gomphosis (attachment in sockets)

Seen in man, mammalia, reptiles and in some fish

eg :saw fish, pristis. In man, mammals and crocodile,
a membrane (alveolar dental membrane) exists
between the tooth and the socket of bone in which
the tooth is situated. Our field exists today due to
excellent remodeling capacity of the PDL and
alveolar bone in gomphosis type of attachment
ORTHODONTIC ASPECTS OF DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY

What is anthropometry ?

Anthropometry is a division of anthropology, it has been described by

Hrlicka as the systemized art of measuring and taking observations on
man ,his skeleton , his brain or other organs, by the most reliable means and
methods and for scientific purposes.

What is craniometry ?

Craniometry, a subdivision of anthropometry, has been an important study in

orthodontic research ,because orthodontics is concerned primarily with the
correction of morphologic deviations from the accepted norms in
dentofacial area.

Measurements of the extent of these deviations entails some knowledge of

physical anthropology and the ability to recognize and use the anthropologic
landmarks.
 Fig. Sliding caliper Spreading caliper

INDICES IN ANTHROPOLOGY

Cephalic index

Index of skull height [profile]

basion – bregma height X 100

max. cranial length

 Chamecephalic < 69.9

 Orthocephalic 70 – 74.9

 Hypsicephalic > 75
Skull height [frontal]

basion – bregma X 100

max. cranial breadth

 Tapeinocephalic < 91.9

 Matricephalic 92 - 97.9

 Acrocephalic > 98

Facial index

Palatal height index

Given by Korkhaus.
Palatal height X 100
posterior arch width
Normal value is 42 in mixed
dentition
 Rivet’s angle

Nasion – prosthion –basion angle.

Prognathous < 69.9

Mesognathous 70 – 72.9
Orthognathous > 73.
WHAT IS ORTHODONTIC ODONTOMETRY?

The anthropologic science of measuring the size and proportion of teeth

is called odontometry.

Orthodontists practice some form of odontometry as a part of routine

case diagnosis.

Traditionally, orthodontic odontometry has been limited to the

determination of the amount of dental arch space deficiency.

Crown Shape

In some odontometric studies, crown shape has been found to

be a determining factor in the presence and absence of
mandibular incisor crowding.

MD

Crown shape = ------- ratio

FL

The maximum limit of desirable index values for lower incisors

are 88-92 for the mandibular central incisors 90-95 for the
mandibular lateral incisors.

Lower incisors within or below the ranges is considered

favorably shaped.

Any lower incisor with MD/FL index above these ranges,

possesses a crown shape deviation, which contribute to
crowding phenomenon.
Clinical implication:

The relationship between tooth shape and lower incisor alignment is

important in mesiodistal enamel's stripping or reproximation.

Overall and anterior intermaxillary ratio [Bolton]

WINGED INCISORS

A peculiar arrangement often seen between central incisors,

both maxillary and mandibular, was first reported by Leigh in 1926.
Called incisor winging by Dahlberg. Characterised by mesiolinguo version
of the central incisors creating a v-shaped notch in the arch at the
midline. Noted in Mongoloid dentitions. Show unfavourable prognosis for
permanent orthodontic correction.

SHOVEL SHAPED INCISORS

Present another variation of incisor morphology. Prominence of

the mesial and distal marginal ridges enclosing the central fossa in the
lingual surface of incisor teeth. Often present a problem in overjet
correction. In such cases, reducing the prominence of the marginal
ridges is helpful.
THEORY OF OVERBITE

Overbite is present in greatly varying degrees among

modern populations. Primitive people, past and present, tend to display
edge - to edge anterior bite (labidonty) or at most, slight scissor bites
(psalidonty) of less than two millimeters. Overbites in excess of two
millimeters are largely limited to those living in relatively civilized
environments. It is generally reasoned that overbite has accrued among
the civilized because substantial tooth wear is no longer present to

compensate for natural incisor eruption. Another insight into the origins
of overbite in man has been suggested by Brace and Mahler in 1971. They
observed that overbite was widely expressed among Europeans only
after the Middle Age. At that time, also the table fork was introduced in
Italy and aimed popularity in Europe. The personal fork and knife took
the functions of holding and shearing food away from the incisors.
Protrusive function, essential to the holding and shearing process,
swiftly became obsolete, and deep overbite and its related occlusal
deviations have since proliferated unchecked.

BUCCAL SEGMENT REPROXIMATION

The orthodontic community has known about natural tooth

wear, largely through the work of Raymond Begg on the Australian
aboriginal population. All teeth become smaller mesiodistally as they
wear down with age. The contact areas between become flatter and
broader. The mesiodistal enamel reduction of all permanent teeth in the
developing adolescent dentition would be a method to produce artificial
tooth wear mimicking the natural wear pattern of primitive population.

THE CARABELLI TRAIT

In 1842, Carabelli gave his name to a frequently occurring

tubercle on the lingual aspect of mesio lingual cusp (protocone) of the
maxillary first permanent molar.
Many theories have been advanced
explaining the occurrence of the
Carabelli trait.

One holds that the

Carabelli cusp has its origin in the
cingulum, and numbers among its
proponents Gregory (1922),
Cope (1888), Osborn (1907),
Adioff (1908), and Korenhoff
(1960).

A second school, led by Rose (1892) and Baufjeiff

(1896), .claims that the Carabelli cusp arose as a separate tooth germ.
The third group bases its reasoning upon the "Dimer" theory of Bolk
(1914) in calling upon a "trito-mere" for the origin of the cusp. Other
explanations are brought forth by individual authors such as
Weidenreich (1937), who considered the Carabelli cusp an accidental
variation" of the procone.

It is indeed a most remarkable phenomenon in the history of

biological research that so little is known about a structure of which so
much has been written. As Jorgensen rightfully points out that “our
actual knowledge of the evolutionary and racial significance of
Carabelli's cusp is quite disproportionate to the number of pages
published about this structure

CONCLUSION

Variation in size, shape, number, arrangement, and

wear pattern of the teeth of man has long been an area of great interest
to physical anthropologists. It is important that orthodontist cultivates
an anthropologists eye for tooth variation. Since the orthodontist
ponders many of these same variables in his daily battle with
malocclusion, many aspects of dental anthropology can prove helpful in
understanding orthodontic problems and in formulating their successful
treatment.

REFERENCES

Dimensions of anthropology – vol.2; V.Rami Reddy.

Dental anthropology – vol.1; V.Rami Reddy.

Anthropology and modern human teeth – Scott and Turner.

Human adult odontometrics – Julius A. Kieser.

Anthropology and orthodontics – AO vol.67(1);1997,73 – 77.

Harmonious anthropometric relationships – AO vol.31(1);1961,18 – 34.

Dental variation among population – an anthropologic view – DCNA

vol.19(1);1975,125 – 139.

Orthodontic aspects of dental anthropology – AO vol.45(2);1975,95 –

102.

Crown dimensions and mandibular incisor alignment – AO vol.42;1972,148

– 53.
Stone age man’s dentition – AJO vol.40;1954,298 – 312.

Begg orthodontic theory and technique – Begg and Kesling – third edition.

An index to assessing tooth shape deviations applied to mandibular

incisors – AJO vol.61;1972,384 – 402.

Textbook of orthodontics – Salzmann.

Color atlas of orthodontic diagnosis – Rakosi.

Evolution Atlas, Chapter 6: The Skeletal System: Axial Division.

(internet)

Functional adaptation of jaw joint, Evolution atlas, the skeletal system;

axial division(internet)