Lecture 1

EMCH 777 Aerospace Structures II

Topic: Introduction
Semester: Spring 2023
Instructor: Jaspreet (Jessie) Pandher
 EMCH 777 – Lecture 1
Introduction

Jaspreet (Jessie) Pandher

SmartState Center for Multifunctional Materials and Structures
Ronald E. McNAIR Center for Aerospace Innovation and Research
Lecture Contents

1. Introductions
2. Course Overview
1. Objectives and Learning Outcomes
2. Course Material
3. Grading
3. Introduction to the Field
Your Teacher
Jaspreet (Jessie) Pandher, pandher@cec.sc.edu,
1000 Catawba St Suite 120, Columbia, SC

Bachelor: Mechanical Engineering

University of South Carolina (Columbia, South Carolina, USA)

Masters: Mechanical Engineering, focus Aerospace Engineering

Structures & Aircraft Configuration Design
University of South Carolina – McNAIR Center (Columbia, South Carolina, USA)
Research Focus: Design and Prototype Development of a Deployable Unmanned Aerial Systems

PhD: Mechanical Engineering, focus Aerospace Engineering

Materials, Manufacturing, Design & Analysis of Aircraft Structures
University of South Carolina - McNair Center (Columbia, South Carolina, USA)
Research Focus: Fastener-Free Design and Assembly of Aerospace Structures (Induction Welding)

Dash X
Class Introduction

What’s Your Name?

What’s Your Major?
What’s Your Focus Area (or Research Focus)?
 2. Course Overview

• Course Objectives &

Learning Outcomes
• Course Material
• Course Grading

Reference the Syllabus and Blackboard for more Details!

Course Objectives & Learning Outcomes
Objectives:
1. Familiarize students with aircraft design, especially the structural design part related to thin-
walled structures and buckling prevention/analysis
2. Familiarize students with the terminology related to structural design
3. Familiarize students with airworthiness requirements
4. Enable first application of the course material to a realistic design and/or analysis case

Learning Outcomes
1.Understanding of the main developments in technology throughout aviation history, with a focus on
structural developments
2.Understanding of the structure development process in industry
3.Understanding of the role of airworthiness requirements in aircraft structural development
4.Ability to do a functional analysis
5.Ability to create and present a conceptual design
6.Ability to select applicable airworthiness requirements for a typical design problem
7. Ability to do an initial sizing (e.g. undisturbed structure + one typical cut-out + one typical joint)
8. Ability to describe the main structural analysis methods for aerospace structures (including buckling)
and apply those to simple problems
9.Ability to select means of compliance finding and draft the analysis/test approach
10.Understand the safety philosophy and practice in the aerospace supply chain
Overview of the Lectures Always Check Blackboard for latest
version of Syllabus and Schedule

Lectures are divided into 7 parts

(1) History of Aircraft Structures (x2 lectures)
(2) Design Process and Airworthiness (x4 lectures)
(3) Loads (x4 lectures)
(4) Materials & Manufacturing (x4 lectures)
(5) Design Philosophies & Load Path Design (x5 lectures)
(6) Load Path Analysis (x5 lectures)
(7) Specific Topics:
- Crashworthiness (x1-2 lectures)
- Environmental Effects on load paths/ lightning strike (x1-2 lectures)
Course material

I. Course Syllabus, see Blackboard

II. Book: Aircraft Structures for Engineering
Students, by T.H.G. Megson. Seventh Edition
recommended.
III. Lecture Slide, will be posted after each class on
Blackboard
IV. Lecture Notes: Aircraft Structural Design,
Analysis and Certification, by Michel van
Tooren and Darun Barazanchy. The Notes will
be supplied through Blackboard!
V. Case Study documents, see Blackboard
Course Grading
Homework (15%)
There will be a select number of homework assignments to aid students in both reviewing topics from past
courses and reinforcing topics covered in class. Specific focus is placed on design, analysis, and sizing of
tradiational commercial aircraft structural components (e.g., fuselage, wing, empennage, pylon). If missed results
in a zero grade for homework assignment. No homework assignments will be dropped.

Case study (45%)

Each student will select a case study in the first week of lectures. Each case study will consist of multiple assignments. Students
are asked to submit their assignments as graded Homework for feedback. The assignments and case study reports should be
submitted through blackboard to the teacher in pdf format or an agreed upon notebook standard (e.g. Moleskine). Within one
week of submission, feedback will be given in the form of digital annotations to the pdf or Word version or annotations to the
notebook file.

Midterm (15%)
There will be one in-class test before spring break. The test will begin promptly at the start of the class period and ends at the
end of the class period. Late arrival will take away time from test time. A missed test results in a zero grade for that test. Make-
up exams will be accepted only in extreme cases. If you know ahead of time that you will miss a test, the teacher may allow
you to take the exam before the in-class test. No test grade will be dropped.

Final (25%)
The final exam is Thursday, April 28th at 9:00 am take-home and will cover all topics from the semester. The exam is 25% of
the overall grade.

Discretionary Points (up to 5+ points)

Up to 5 points may be added to the student’s final average based on extra credit for other work, e.g. quizzes.

More information on Blackboard in the Syllabus and the Case Study documents
 Case study (1/5)
You decided from x2 options for the case study based on what you are interested
in or want to learn more about. May be related to your research field or other
interested areas

Option 1: The design variant of the Option 2: The analysis variant of the
case study consists of seven case will be defined individually and
assignments that follow the could look like:
contents of the course:

1 Historic developments 1 Problem definition

2 Development process 2 Literature review
3 Functional analysis 3 Theory
4 Conceptual design 4 Method development
5 Airworthiness requirements 5 Code development
6 Sizing 6 Application of the code for a specific
case
7 Certification approach
7 Verification of the code
 Due date:
Case study (2/5) January 17, 2023
Step 1: choose one of the following subjects for your case study or propose an
alternative to your instructor: Option 2: Development of a specific
analysis tool/code:
Option 1: Design Case Study Potential Topics - Virtual testing and AC20.107B
- Thin walled high-stability design of a… - Bearing bypass
- Fastener-free design of a… for a military transport helicopter - Bonded Joints
- Urban Air Mobility propellor blade design for high-rate manufacturability - Non-conventional laminate (e.g. fiber steered, clutch,
- Influence of material properties on manufacturability of a… variable thickness)
- Crashworthiness design of a… - Plate/shell buckling
- Structural design of a… for lightening strike and environmental loads - Post-buckling
- Post-Buckled design of a… - Topology optimization of…
- Design of a smart and aeroelastically tailored… for a… - Aerostructural analysis and preliminary sizing of a
- Design of a composite… for space launch systems that is reusable
wing for…
- Design of a cylindrical shell structure for a space launch system
- Structural batteries for a…. - Analysis and sizing of … for flutter
- High-rate manufacturability design of a…. - Structural batteries
- Atoms-to-Aircraft design of a… - Fusion bonded joints
- Atoms-to-Spacecraft design of a… - Continuous fiber 3D printed part
- Fastener-free design of a shell structure for a…. - Free-edge stresses in…
- Integrated damage stoppers and/or crack arrestors for a stiffened shell on a… - Cut-outs
- Design of a non-winged or winged re-entry vehicle heat shield - Notches/holes
- Design of a cut-out for… on a… - Progressive Damage Analysis (PDA)
- Any other Aircraft Design competition (AIAA, NASA, SAE …..) with a - Remaining/Residual Strength
structural design part - Residual Stresses
- Aeroelastic Tailoring Design for a wing on a…
 Case Study (3/5)
Step 2: if you propose an alternative design topic (e.g. design of a…. or a control
surface design for a …) you should select the type of aircraft you will consider:

I. Passenger civil transport fixed wing

II. Military fixed wing
III. General aviation or leisure fixed wing
IV. Military rotating wing
V. General aviation or leisure rotating wing
VI. Business jet fixed wing
VII. Drone / UAV / UAS
VIII. Urban Air Mobility (UAM)
IX. Urban Cargo Air Vehicle (UCAV)
X. Spacecraft
XI. Etc…
 Case Study (4/5)

Step 3: When submitting your case study via email to the instructor by the
specified due date in the syllabus, make sure your email contains the
following information:

Email Subject: ‘EMCH777 Case Study Proposal - <Name of the student>’.

Email Content must specify:

- Case Study Topic or Proposal Name

- (if applicable) a small paragraph (2-3 sentences) describing the proposed case study topic or alternative
proposal for clarity on your proposed topic. Think of this as a starter abstract for your case study topic that
you will add on to later for the final report.
 Case study (5/5)

Step 4: each case study consists of a set of assignments. Students must hand
in individual assignments for feedback and homework grading. All students
are expected to hand in the total set of assignments as the case study for final
grading.

The due date for each assignment is specified in the syllabus.

3. Introduction to the Field
The aircraft system
An aircraft (AC) can be divided in two main parts:

Aircraft

Airframe Systems
Structure + mechanical Hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical,
systems (part of the control electronic part of the AC including
systems, the landing gear, flight control system, fuel system,
doors etc) of the AC ECS, weather hazard protection
 Aircraft
Airframe design
Airframe Systems
Requirements

Functions Performance Constraints

Structural Design

Form
Materials
Production
Introduction into Technical Aviation
Regulations (Airworthiness)
Requirements

Functions Performance Constraints

On the product:
- Minimum structural design speeds
- Minimum and maximum design weights
- Minimum loads
- Material design values
- Minimum safety factors
- Etc.
Introduction into Technical Aviation
Regulations (Airworthiness)

Requirements

Functions Performance Constraints

On the processes:
- Design Compliance finding and
- Production verification on design,
production, operation,
- Operation maintenance, end of life
- Maintenance (full functional flow for
- End of Life an aircraft)
Introduction into Technical Aviation
Regulations (Airworthiness)
Airworthiness

The property of a structure to be fulfilling all the requirements based

on past experience plus all new requirements formulated for the
particular structure that are thought to ensure adequate safety and
reliability.

Reliability is the probability of a device performing its purpose

adequately for the period of time intended under the operating
conditions encountered.

Safety is the property of a device performing its purpose under the

operating conditions encountered without causing unacceptable work
load and/or danger.
Structural functions
Take up loads Aerodynamics loads
Inertia loads
Transfer loads Acoustic loads
Electromagnetic loads
Guarantee form Crash loads
Hydro loads
Protect Sloshing loads
Electric current (lightning strikes) Load Application Types:
(Please the eye)
Thermal loads Point loads
(many more…) Impact loads Surface loads
Body forces
Line loads
etc
Performance / Constraints
Costs

Weight

Reliability

Endurance

Recyclability

Strength

Stiffness
Requirements for aerospace
structures
More than half of the safety related structural
requirements are related to the loads on aircraft.

Applied loads Allowable loads

Requirements Structural property

(starting point of the design)
(most airworthiness requirements
for aircraft structures specify
minimum levels for applied loads)
(outcome of your design)
(part of the airworthiness requirements
for aircraft structures specify how to
determine (calculate, test …) allowable
loads)
 Safety Factor/Design Factor
F = Allowable/Failure load (stress, force, moment, torque, etc)
f = Applied/Design load (stress, force, moment, torque, etc)
FOS = Factor of Safety
𝐃𝐅𝐱 = Design Factor (e.g. Design Safety Factor, Fitting factor, casting factor, bearing factor)
x : critical condition for application

Factor of Safety (FOS): is how much Design Safety Factor: is how much
load the structure is actually able to load the structure is designed to
withstand. withstand (note, this one example
for a design factor used for design
Calculation checked from testing of with a given applied/design load
structure to validated design factor when sizing a structure).
used for design:
Commonly provided per application
F from requirements (e.g. FAA/EASA)
FOS = and is not a calculation.
f
 Margin of Safety/Reserve Factor
F = Allowable/Failure load (stress, force, moment, torque, etc)
f = Applied/Design load (stress, force, moment, torque, etc)
FOS = Factor of Safety
𝐃𝐅𝐱 = Design Factor (e.g. Design Safety Factor, Fitting factor, casting factor, bearing factor, etc.)
x : critical condition for application
Option 2: MS as a measure of requirement
Option 1: MS as a measure of verification (reality/design)
structural capability (textbook) F
MSx = −1≥0 MSx = RFx − 1 ≥ 0
F f × ∑DFx
MSx = − 1 ≥ 0 MSx = FOS − 1 ≥ 0 F
f RFx = ≥ 1 (Reserve Factor)
f×∑DFx

Option 1 𝑴𝑺𝒙 Definition: Measure of excess Option 2 𝑴𝑺𝒙 Definition: Measure of requirement verification, checking if the
capability, what additional load beyond the design structure complies with the design requirements for application in service.
load a structure can actually withstand before Considers the design/applied loads with the design factors (e.g. design safety
failure. factor).

If 𝑀𝑆𝑥
= 0 structure will not take any additional load
before it fails
< 0 (negative) structure will fail before
reaching its design load in service
≥ 0 structure can withstand additional
load beyond the design load (e.g. if MS = 1
can handle one additional of equal force to
the maximum load it was designed to
support (x2 the design load))
If 𝑀𝑆𝑥
= 0 structure is exactly at the required strength designed for (e.g. MS = 0 and
design safety factor = 1.5, the structure would have an actual factor of safety
of 1.5, supporting one load equal to the design safety factor, meaning the
structure can support 1.5 times the applied/design load before failure).
< 0 (negative) structure may not fail but the design requirements have not been
met to reaching its design load(s) in service (failed compliance with
requirements).
≥ 0 (positive) structure must have additional remaining strength requested in the
requirements (e.g. if requirements specified MS = 1 and design safety factor =
1.5, the structure would have an actual factor of safety of 3 capable of
supporting two loads each equal to the design safety factor of 1.5, meaning
the structure can support 3 times the applied/design load before failure).
 Margin of Safety/Reserve Factor
F = Allowable load (stress, force, moment, torque, etc)
f = Applied load (stress, force, moment, torque, etc)
𝐃𝐅𝐱 = Design Factor (e.g. Design Safety Factor, etc.)
x : shows critical condition
Possible critical conditions:
- Basic material strength
- Tension
Airworthiness criteria: - Compression
- Shear
- Positive MS / RF larger than 1
- Joint strength
- Bearing
F - Bearing/bypass (for multi row fastened joints only)
MSx = −1≥0 - Fastener strength / pull out
f × ∑DFx - Bond strength
- Stability
F - Buckling
RFx = ≥1 - Damage tolerance (residual strength)
f × ∑DFx - Compression after impact
- Crack arrestment
- Creep
- etc
Loads as product requirements
for the airframe
Number of load cases is very large due to

- Aircraft configurations (take-off, enroute, cruise, landing ….)

+ for military AC: weapon configurations
- Weight cases (MZFW, MTOW, MLW etc …..)
- CG positions (rear CG, forward CG, most rear CG @ MTOW …)
- n, V, altitude, thrust conditions
- discrete, continuous gust cases
- flexibility issues
- ……….
Airworthy Airframes:
some common sources for bugs
(more requirments)
• Stress concentrations
• Corrosive environments (water traps) unknown mission
• Fatigue profiles/new classes
• Impact (VLJ, UAVs, UAMs)
• Chafing
• Fitting (mechanical joints) Design and verification is
• Creep also debugging, preferably
• Thermal environment before first flight
• Uncertainties in material properties
• Inspectability (accessibility)
• Operability
• Maintainability
Airworthy Airframe:
Example of Requirements
Fuselage Barrel section located
aft of the main landing gear well
 Protentional Structural
Airworthy Airframe: Configuration Design
Example of Requirements
Fuselage Barrel section located
aft of the main landing gear well

Summary of Major Design

Requirements

What do you
notice?
Structural design
Functional analysis

Concept generation

Analysis

Evaluation

Trade-off

Verification
Verification: prove that allowable loads are
higher than applied loads
Finding objective evidence that the
Functional analysis structure is airworthy
Methods:
Concept generation - calculation (analysis)
- laboratory testing
Analysis - flight tests
- ground tests
- reviews
Evaluation - inspections
- statements
Trade-off - safety assessment
- simulation
- equipment qualifications
Verification
FAA/EASA: control the verification process
Airworthiness Product
requirements specification

Design

System monitorin
Type Analysis
investigation & test
Type investigation

Organisation
program

System
Show

Design
Compliance

Verification of
compliance

Declaration of
compliance

Type
certification

The FAA/EASA view on the aircraft design process

Airworthy Airframes:
Verified collection of load paths
Load path elements Handbooks, tests, simple hand
building blocks for the calculations, FE-methods are the
structural designer / analysis tools for the structural
Analysis of a
stress engineer designer / stress engineer
design
Beam theory
Rods, beams, plates,
Requires Classical laminate theory
shells, stiffeners, clips,
modelling Continuum theory (Kt, K)
cleats, facings, cores,
and/or FE: rods, beams, shells,
inserts, frames, brackets,
simulation material models, failure
bearings, hinges, rivets,
models ……..
bolts, washers, nuts
Buckling formulas
…………………..
Material data
Bolt data etc.
Basis for airframe design:
Knowledge about loads, materials, forms, production
Materials Metals Production Rubber pressing
Polymers Folding
Organic / non-organic fibers Stretch forming
Ceramics …. Milling
Forging
Forms/designs/concepts Stiffened shell principles Casting
Multi-rib structures Injection molding
Sandwich structures Wet lay-up
3-D Solid structures Fiber placement
Inflatable structures Vacuum injection
Truss structures 3D Printing
Space frames …. …….
 Triple-trinity airframe design:
the foundational trinity

Design

Manufacturing Materials
 Triple-trinity airframe design:
the foundational trinity
Metal
Polymer Composite

Materials
Ceramic

Extrusion

Manufacturing

Lamination
Design

Sintering
Externally bead
stiffened medium
thickness cylinder

Monolithic thick Externally hat

walled cylinder stiffened thin
walled cylinder
 Triple-trinity airframe design:
the marketing trinity

Function

Technology/
Customer
Design
 Triple-trinity airframe design:
the engineering trinity

Design

Analysis Testing
 Engineering Trinity:
Simplified design and analysis cycle for aircraft primary structure
Understanding structures:
Basis for design and analysis
Primary function is take up loads, carry through and pass over to other
elements or items

Therefore you have to know and be

able to explain how a structural
concept works, example:

How are symmetric and asymmetric

tail loads transferred through
this fuselage tail cone?

How are drag, lift and aerodynamic

moment transferred through this
wing structure?
Free body diagrams!
 Understanding structures:
Basis for design and analysis

How are symmetric and asymmetric

tail loads transferred through
this fuselage tail cone?
 Understanding structures:
Basis for design and analysis

How are drag, lift and aerodynamic

moment transferred through this
wing structure?
Understanding structural design
Example questions

Look at this simplified fuselage

barrel:
- what does the skin do
- what do the frames do
- why you need stiffeners
- why do you connect stiffeners
to frames and how
 Understanding structural design:
Example questions

General: based on a given

function:
- define external loads
- explain how loads are introduced
- explain how loads are transferred
Importance of ‘language’

Engineering benefits a lot from clear and commonly

accepted languages

What do we mean by
• Material
• Structure
• Safety factor
• Loads
• …..
Importance of language:
The airframe and its components
• Fuselage
• Wings
• Empennage
• vertical tailplane
• horizontal tailplane
• Engines
• Landing gear
• Control surfaces
• Doors
• Windows
The fuselage
• Skins • Butt joints
• Frames • Single lap joints
• Stringers • Keel, side, crown
• Stiffeners • Bulkheads
• Keel beam • Doublers
• Cut-outs • Crack stoppers
• Clips • Seats
• Cleats
• Floor beam
• Seat rails
• Castellations
• Stringer couplings
 Importance of language:
Wings
The airframe and its components
• Skins,
• Spars
• Shear webs
• Ribs
• Access holes
• Stiffeners
• Filler caps
• Fuel tanks
• Slosh ribs
• Shims
• Hinges
• Brackets
 Importance
Control systems
of language:
The airframe and its components
• Rods
• Cables
• Pulleys
• Rod ends
• Tensioners
• Turnbuckles
• Brackets
• Bell cranks
• Gearing ratio
• Actuator
 Importance
Detail elements
of language:
The airframe and its components
• Rivets
• Bolts
• Nuts
• Anchor nuts
• Safety pins
• Washers
• Brackets
• Fittings
• Clips
Importance of ‘language’

Design Deciding the arrangement and character of elements that make

up a structure’.
Characteristics aspects of a structure
• shape
• constituent materials/parts
• production method.

Design presentation / recording

An airframe design is normally presented as a set of drawings,
accompanied by a bill of materials and specifications for the
processes needed for its production
Importance of ‘language’

Be precise in using:
- Strength (static, fatigue, buckling, residual ….)
- Stiffness: extensional, bending, torsion, material stiffness
- Material <> structure
- Material properties (A-, B-values, etc)
- Stress concentration
- Stress intensities
- ……..
Summary of the key ideas
• Successful product development is guided by the Triple Trinity
• Requirements: functional, performance constraints
• Main functions structure: take-up loads and transfer loads
• Understanding and designing load paths is a key part of structural design
• Free body diagrams and FE are the key tools for understanding and quantifying
applied loads on individual parts
• Understanding failure modes, structural analysis and testing are the key tools for
understanding allowable loads
• Design verification is the analysis of Applied loads versus Allowable loads
• Airworthiness MS>0, RF>1
• Design is synthesis of partial solutions
• Foundational trinity asks for best combination of shape, material and manufacture
• Many new developments ask for new combinations in all three trinities
• Understanding and being able to express yourself in the language of structural design
and analysis is an important enabling skill
Thank You!