Lecture 2

Introduction to Matrix Algebra II

2.1 Some Special Matrices (Continued)

A square matrix A is said to be Symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all i =  1, 2, · · · , n;j =
2 9 3
 
0
1, 2, · · · , n. Clearly, for symmetric matrix A = A. For example, matrix A =  9 4
 
1 
 
3 1 7

Remark 2.1 1. If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order and α is real
number then αA and A + B are also symmeric
 matrices.
 However, AB may not be
2 1 3 4
symmetric. For example, A =  , B =  .
1 4 4 1

2. If A and B are symmetric matrices then AB is symmetric iff A and B are commutative
for matrix production. (See Proof )

0
3. If A is upper (lower) triangular matrix then A is lower (upper) triangular matrix.

4. The sum of two upper (lower) triangular matrices is upper (lower) triangular matrix
and scalar multiplication of an upper (lower) triangular matrix is upper (lower) trian-
gular matrix.

5. The product of two upper (lower) triangular matrices is upper (lower) triangular matrix.

1
 0 0
Theorem 2.1 If A is a m × n matrix then AA and A A are symmetric matrices of order
m and n respectively.

0
Theorem 2.2 If A is a symmetric matrix of order n and C is any m × n matrix then CAC
is symmetric.

A square matrix is said to be Skew-symmetric matrix if (i, j)th element is negative

of (j, i)th element and all the diagonal elements are zero. Thus a matrix A = ((aij )) is
skew-symetric if 
 0 ; i=j
aij =
 −a ; i 6= j
ji
 
0 1 −3
 
0
Note that for skew-symmetric matrix A = −A . For example, A =  −1
 
0 2 
 
3 −2 0
A square matrix is said to be idempotent matrix if its square is equal to itself i.e. a
0.5 −0.5
matrix A is idempotent if A2 = A. For example, A =  . Identity matrix and
−0.5 0.5
square null matrix are particular examples of idempotent matrix. A matrix A satisfying A2 =

1 2 5
 
0 is called nilpotent and A2 = I is called unipotent. The matrix A =  2
 
4 10 
 
−1 −2 −5
 
1 a
is nilpotent and B =   is unipotent.
0 −1

Remark 2.2 1. If A is idempotent martix then all powers of A are equal to A, i.e. Ar =
A, r = 1, 2, · · · .

2. If A is idempotent matrix then so (I − A) but (A − I) may not be idempotent.

3. The product of two idempotent matrices is idempotent if the matrices commute in

multiplication.

1
Example 2.1 1. Examine whether I− En×n is idempotent matrix, where En×n is matrix
n
of order n × n with all the elements euqal to one.

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 2. If A and G matrices are such that AGA = A then GA is idempotent.

0 0
A square matrix
 √ P√ of order 
n is said to be orthogonal matrix if P P = P P = In .
√
2 2 2
 √ √ 
For example,  3 − 3 0 . An orthogonal matrix of order n is constructed using
 
 
1 1 −2
following procedure,
1 0
1. Take first row of a matrix as √ en .
n
1  0 0 
2. Each of its remaining (n − 1) rows has the partitioned form √ ei |−i|0n−i−1 , i =
λi
1, 2, · · · , (n − 1)0 ; λi = i(i + 1).

This matrix is called as Helmert matrix.

Example 2.2 Construct an orthogonal matrix of order 4.

Result 2.1 Product of orthogonal matrices is orthogonal.

s
p 0 n
x2k is called as norm of x. If
P
If x is a vector of real numbers then |x| = x x =
k=1
norm of any vector is one then it is called as normal vector or unit vector. Any vector x
1 1
can be made normal by scalar multiplication of to x i.e. u = p 0 x. Any two non-null
|x| xx
0 0
vectors x, y are said to be orthogonal if x y = 0 = y x. A set of vectors of same order
xi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n is said to be an orthonormal set of vectors if every vector in the set is
0
normal, xi xi = 1, i = 1, 2, · · · , n and every pair of different vectors in the set is orthogonal,
0
xi xj = 0, i 6= j; i, j = 1, 2, · · · , n. Note that all rows and columns of orthgonal matrix form
a set of orthonormal set of vectors.

2.2 Trace
Definition 2.1 Trace of a Square Matrix
Trace of a square matrix A = ((aij )) of order n is sum of diagonal elements of matrix denoted
Pn
by tr(A) i.e. tr(A) = aii .
k=1

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Trace of scalar is scalar itself.
Properties of Trace
If A = ((aij )), B = ((bij )) are two matrices and λ ∈ R then;

Result 2.2 1. Trace of transposed matrix same as the trace of the matrix itself. i.e.
0
tr(A ) = tr(A).

2. tr(λA) = λtr(A).

3. Trace of sum of matrices is the sum of thevtrace of matrices, i.e. tr(A + B) = tr(A) +
tr(B).

4. tr(AB) = tr(BA), provided AB, BA are well defined and square matrices. This result
can be easily generalized to k matrices.

©: These Lecture notes are copyright of Alok D. Dabade 4