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Adaptive Control for Smart Water Distribution Systems

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DOI: 10.1109/ISC253183.2021.9562812

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 Adaptive Control for Smart Water Distribution
Systems
1st Mostafa Zaman 2nd Maher Al Islam
Electrical and Computer Engineering Electrical and Computer Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, VA, USA Richmond, VA, USA
zamanm@vcu.edu alislamm@vcu.edu
4th Carol J Fung
Department of Computer Science
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, VA, USA
cfung@vcu.edu
Abstract—The rationalization of energy and water consump-
tion is becoming increasingly important. Water distribution
systems require energy to operate, and a consumption trade-off
became a necessity. Existing water distribution systems still rely
on traditional feedback control that is reactive and sub-optimal.
The proliferation of the Internet of Things (IoT) provides a
myriad of opportunities to achieve new levels of optimization
for water distribution systems. This paper presents the design
and simulation of a water distribution testbed currently under
construction at Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU). The
simulation results show the superiority of IoT-based adaptive
control schemes over existing control approaches, with no addi-
tional cost. The paper provides a roadmap for IoT-based system
design and advanced control to minimize the consumption under
user convenience constraints.
Index Terms—Adaptive control, Smart city, IoT, Water
testbed, Water distribution, Hydraulic system, Pump control,
Cyber physical system, modeling, simulation, process control,
MQTT.
I. I NTRODUCTION
As the population expands, demand on energy and wa-
ter increases. The energy generation and distribution is in
general costly, and the water crisis will be eminent due to
global climate change. Therefore, rationing energy and water
consumption has become a necessity. Moreover, the water
distribution system is an essential component of any smart
city, which requires energy to operate, especially for high-rise
residential and commercial buildings. Such buildings require
a significant amount of energy to distribute the water to
high-level floors that could have over 150 meters elevation.
In addition, any water leakage or misuse would result in
significant water loss due to the high pressure these systems
work at.
The Internet of Things (IoT) echo system that powers smart
cities opens up a myriad of opportunities to achieve levels of
rationalization that were not possible before. The Internet of
Things (IoT) is a complex sensing, actuation, and networking
3rd Ashraf Tantawy
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, VA, USA
amatantawy@vcu.edu
5th Sherif Abdelwahed
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, VA, USA
sabdelwahed@vcu.edu
system integrating different connectivity technologies and so-
lutions that facilitate human-systems interaction and systems
control. IoT enables in-time tracking and monitoring of water
distribution facilities, water storage, and water quality [1], [2].
IoT enables the development of intelligent water networks
that meet dynamic requirements and track critical parameters,
including flow rate, pressure, altitude, water quality measures,
and leakage detection for the smart city [3]. IoT also allows
the development of water distribution management systems
that are closely associated with the production, distribution
of water resources, and careful management of public utilities
demand for economic efficiency [4].
Despite the significant advances in IoT technologies in
recent years, IoT is mainly used for monitoring or simple
control in smart buildings. Water distribution systems are still
designed based on traditional equipment and simple control
techniques that do not exploit IoT potential capabilities. This
results in both energy losses and excessive water consump-
tion. In this paper, we claim that by exploiting IoT data, it is
possible to achieve better operational efficiency even without
the additional cost associated with system modifications to
install smart actuators.
Realizing the significance of water and energy consump-
tion, as well as the opportunities offered by IoT technology,
we took the initiative to build a water distribution system
testbed as part of a large smart city project at Virginia
Commonwealth University. This paper presents the design
of the testbed and simulation results comparing existing
simple control approaches and an adaptive control approach
that utilizes IoT data. The key contributions of the paper
are: (1) Illustrate how a water distribution system variables
(pressure, flow, and energy consumption) are coupled and how
they change with different usage profiles, (2) Show that simple
adaptive control approaches that utilize IoT data outperforms
existing classical control techniques for smart buildings, and
(3) Propose more complex control configurations using the

Fig. 1. A simplified process flow diagram for the water distribution system.
Details for the business and hospital buildings are the same as the residential
building and omitted to avoid cluttering the diagram.
insight gained from simulation experiments.
Section II explains the testbed design. Section III describes
the control system design and user consumption modeling.
Simulation results and data analysis are provided in Section
IV. Related work is briefly discussed in Section V. The work
is concluded in Section VI.
II. T ESTBED D ESIGN
A. Process Design
Figure 1 is a simplified process flow diagram for the
water distribution system. The diagram shows the distribution
system for the residential building. Both the business building
and hospital have the same process design. For each building,
a supply tank and a Variable-Frequency Drive (VFD) pump
are used to distribute water to each floor. Each floor has two
users representing two apartments, where the consumption is
captured using one control valve per apartment.
The return water is accumulated in a reservoir tank serving
the three buildings. A recycle pump is provided to distribute
the water from the return tank to the storage tank of each
building. The reservoir pump is an on/off pump that turns on
when the reservoir level exceeds a certain threshold or when
the level of one or more supply tanks drops below a certain
threshold.
B. Instrumentation and Control Design
The system pressure is regulated using a VFD pump. The
recycle on/off pump controls the water level in the return tank
as well as supply tanks. Both pumps are equipped with an
angular velocity sensor, a torque sensor, a temperature sensor,
and an over-pressure sensor. Water flow for each consumer is
regulated using an automatic control valve representing user
consumption. The control valves are equipped with position
sensors to report the valve opening percentage. Each supply
tank is equipped with an inlet on/off valve that closes when
the water level exceeds a particular threshold value.
The water levels in the supply and return tanks are mon-
itored using smart level sensors. The flow in each floor is
Fig. 2. MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) communication for
the testbed
measured using a smart volumetric flow rate sensor. The total
water consumption could be calculated either from the rate of
change of supply tank level or by flow totalization of the flow
sensors, assuming no system leakage. The discharge pressure
of each pump is measured using a smart pressure sensor.
The general control philosophy is to regulate the system
pressure or flow by adjusting the pump angular velocity.
The recycle pump starts when the return tank level is high
and stops when the level is low. The inlet valve of each
supply tank closes when the tank level is high. The water
consumption represents a system disturbance and is simulated
by developing a probabilistic model for the usage pattern and
simulating the model to drive the consumption control valves.
C. Safety System Design
The VFD pump is stopped when the discharge pressure is
high. An independent pressure sensor is used for this purpose.
In addition, the pump is protected against low suction pressure
by stopping the pump when detecting a low water level in the
tank. A similar technique is utilized to ensure the safety of
the recycle pump.
D. Embedded System and Communication Architecture
The testbed employs a distributed architecture, where smart
sensors and actuators communicate directly without a central-
ized controller. Each actuator, e.g., the VFD pump, has its
own embedded system implementing its monitoring, control,
and diagnosis algorithms. Smart sensing and actuation is im-
plemented using Raspberry pi boards. Sensors and actuators
communicate using IEEE 802.11ac wireless standard [5].
Communication with the smart city infrastructure is made
via MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) [6].
MQTT has been selected to connect to various heterogeneous
blocks in the larger smart city testbed at VCU. MQTT is a
protocol developed especially for the ”Machine-to-Machine”
correspondence. The MQTT protocol operates over TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol)/ IP (Internet Protocol) which
is capable of transmitting data for different formats using a
publisher/subscribers model instead of a client/server model.
MQTT collects data from data publishers and transfers it to
data subscribers using a data broker [6]. The water distribution
testbed sensors and actuators are connected to the broker via
MQTT client software running on their respective Raspberry
pi embedded boards. Figure 2 illustrates the MQTT commu-
nication architecture for the testbed.
III. C ONTROL S YSTEM D ESIGN
Figure 3 illustrates in a single diagram the two control
schemes proposed in the paper, and explained briefly in this

Setpoint
Num. Users
Calculation
SP Disturbance
Water Distribution
PID Controller
System
Pressure Measurement
Fig. 3. Pressure control schemes for the water distribution system
section. The two control schemes are used in the simulation
experiments presented in Section IV.
A. Single-loop Feedback Control
The classical single loop pressure control scheme uses
a PID controller to keep the system pressure at a fixed
setpoint. This control scheme is pervasively used due to
its simplicity and minimum required information. The PID
controller regulates the voltage applied to the VFD pump
(or the angular velocity for ideal drive models) based on the
current pressure measurement. This control scheme does not
take into account the user consumption profile, i.e., how many
users are simultaneously using the system and the demand
(system disturbance), since this information is not available
for the majority of existing non-smart buildings.
B. Adaptive Feedback Control
This dynamic pressure control scheme is a slight modi-
fication to the single-loop feedback control scheme, where
the IoT data is utilized to achieve better system control. For
smart valves, it is possible to know when a valve is open
using wireless communication to transmit such information
to the controller. By knowing how many users are currently
online, the setpoint could be adjusted accordingly to achieve
the desired control objective. There are several ways to
estimate the functional mapping from the usage pattern to
the setpoint calculation. One option is model-based design,
where a mathematical model is developed for each usage
pattern to estimate the optimal setpoint. Another approach is
to empirically estimate the optimal setpoint using simulations.
In this paper, the block designated ”Setpoint Calculation” in
Figure 3 is a simple lookup table mapping the number of
concurrent system users to the setpoint value.
C. Disturbances and User Consumption Modeling
Modeling of the user consumption profile is important to
test the robustness of any developed control algorithm, since
the user interaction with the system could be considered
as an external system disturbance. Accurate modeling of
the user consumption behavior could be quite complicated,
N ∼ (µd (θ), σd (θ))
% Opening
1 N ∼ (µx (θ), σx (θ))
0.5
Time →
Poisson(λ(θ))
Fig. 4. A signal representation of user consumption.
given the dependency between timed user actions. In this
paper, we present a simplified user consumption model. The
development of advanced probabilistic models is an ongoing
research.
The user consumption could be represented by the signal
in Figure 4. The signal transition from low to high represents
the time when the user opens the water faucet. The signal
amplitude represents the percentage valve opening. The signal
duration represents how long the user is opening the water
faucet. Lastly, the interval between two signal transitions
captures consecutive usages. The difficulty in modeling user
consumption is that all the aforementioned signal attributes
are not deterministic. In addition, these attributes are not
independent. As an example, the average time the user
opens the faucet for a morning shower could be 5 minutes,
but the actual time could vary widely depending on many
other factors that may not be known. Moreover, subsequent
uses may depend on prior usage, as a user who made a
consumption for 10 minutes in the morning is unlikely to
repeat the same usage pattern until probably late afternoon. To
summarize, we need a complex probabilistic model to capture
user dynamics.
Our preliminary probabilistic model is based on user pro-
files, day of the week, and time of the day. Each user profile is
defined by the pair {Age, Employment-status}. Further, we
divide the day into four time intervals that reflect common
times for user water consumption. Table I summarizes the
profile attributes and the possible values.
We define three independent probability distributions to
describe the signal in Figure 4, parameterized by θ =
[A E D I]. The random variable representing the start-
ing time of user consumption is modeled as a Poisson distri-
bution with an arrival rate λ(θ), where the dependence on the
profile is noted, and will be dropped hereafter. The random
variable representing the duration of usage is modeled by a
TABLE I
U SER PROFILE AND TIME INTERVALS , REPRESENTED BY THE PARAMETER
VECTOR θ
Attribute Symbol Possible Values
Age A Child, Adult, Elderly
Employment E No, Yes, Telework
Day D 7 Days of the week
Time Interval I [6-9], [9-5], [5-9], [9-6]
Gaussian distribution with parameters N ∼ (µd (θ), σd (θ)).
Similarly, the random variable representing the percentage
opening of the faucet is modeled by a Gaussian distribution
with parameters N ∼ (µx (θ), σx (θ)). The three probability
distributions, along with the user profile, fully describe the
user consumption behavior.
One of the key questions is how to estimate the model
parameters λ, µd , σd , µx , σx for each value of the parameter θ.
The availability of a labeled user consumption dataset would
enable us to verify the modeling assumption and estimate
the parameter values. However, to the best of our knowledge,
there is no such detailed dataset. In the meantime, we rely on
our knowledge about common human practices for each user
profile.
The presented model makes two simplifying assumptions:
(1) Usage distributions are independent inside each time
interval and across time intervals. This is not true in general.
In reality, usage in a one-time interval may impact the usage
in a later time interval during the day. To capture this behavior,
we would need to model the system using a finite-memory
random process, (2) Arrival times are independent. Usually,
the probability of subsequent uses of the system will diminish
as the number of previous uses in a closer time window
increases, and likewise, the probability increases as the time
elapses.
IV. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
A. System Performance
We simulated the system for six different usage patterns;
one active user (1), two users on the same floor (2-S), two
users on opposite floors (2-O), three users with the additional
two users on the same floor (3-S), three users with the
additional two users on alternative floors (3-O), and all users
(4). We compared the two control schemes presented in
Section III in terms of flow rates and power consumption
per user to test if the control scheme utilizing IoT data would
provide a performance enhancement. For the purpose of this
experiment, the performance is measured by the deviation
from a reference flow rate (user convenience), and power
consumption.
Figure 5 illustrates the pressure profile for the two control
schemes. The fixed control scheme maintained the system
pressure at the desired setpoint as expected. The dynamic
pressure shows the required pressure setpoint for each usage
pattern. The PID controller was able to maintain the required
setpoint so both the setpoint and actual pressure measurement
are the same.
Figure 6 shows the flow rate for the pivot user (the user that
is always on in all usage patterns). The fixed pressure control
scheme results in a wide variation of the flow rate, hence a
negative user experience. For a single user, the pressure head
is so high that it results in double the required flow rate. For
the other usage patterns, the flow rate oscillates based on the
location of other users. Reducing the pressure setpoint will
have the effect of shifting the whole curve down which will
result in an underflow for the user when other users are online
Pressure Profile
·104
5
4
Pressure (Pascal)
3
2 Fixed Pressure
Dynamic Pressure
1 2-S 2-O 3-S 3-O 4
Usage Pattern (No and Location of Users)
Fig. 5. Pressure profile for the two experimental control schemes vs different
usage patterns. For the usage patterns, ”S” is for the Same floor, and ”O”
is for the Opposite floor. The fixed pressure scheme utilizes one pressure
setpoint for all usage patterns, while the dynamic pressure scheme varies the
pressure set point according to the usage pattern.
instead of an overflow condition. The adaptive control scheme
clearly reduces the variation in the flow rate, although not
perfectly. The figure also shows that a lower floor user will
always has a higher flow rate regardless of the usage pattern.
This is not surprising, since the pressure loss will be higher
at higher floors. The figure shows a fundamental limitation of
the current control scheme, where we only have one degree
of freedom. Essentially, we can control only the pump speed,
so theoretically it is not possible to maintain the flow for all
users with a single manipulated variable.
Figure 7 shows the power consumption per user. The
power consumption is reduced significantly using the adaptive
control scheme. The main reason is that fixed pressure control
results in an over-pressure for most scenarios that is not
needed to achieve the desired flow rate, hence excessive power
is unnecessarily spent.
B. Discussion
From the experimental results, we conclude that adaptive
feedback control utilizing IoT data results in less flow rate
variability (user convenience) and less power consumption
(cost-effective operation). However, tight system control for
more efficient operation is not achievable with a single
manipulated variable.
The purpose of this work is to highlight the power of
utilizing the data provided by the IoT echo system, even with
a very limited system controllability. However, IoT provides
opportunities for optimal system operation beyond what we
showed here, and without the need for additional investment.
As an example, for smart valves that could be regulated
remotely, the user could specify the required flow rate using a
 Flow Rate for Different Control Schemes eliminated or kept to a minimum in a smart building setup.
This higher degree of control would allow us to design more
Fixed Pressure sophisticated optimal control schemes that could minimize
0.8 energy usage and water consumption while maintaining a
Dynamic Pressure-U
Dynamic Pressure-L minimum level of user convenience.
V. R ELATED W ORK
Flow rate (GPM)

0.6 A. Water Distribution Systems and Testbeds

The authors in [7] present a water distribution testbed
design (WADI). The system is controlled using three pro-
grammable logical controllers and two remote terminal units.
0.4
The main purpose of the testbed is to conduct research
on the design of secure cyber physical systems, hence the
design architecture is not to facilitate system performance
0.2 optimization. A Smart Water Distribution System (SWDS) ar-
chitecture that uses IoT and ICT cloud computing technology
1 2-S 2-O 3-S 3-O 4 is introduced in [8]. An IoT-based underwater water delivery
Usage Pattern (No and Location of Users) grid architecture with water demand prediction is explained
in [9].
Fig. 6. Flow rate variation for the two pressure control schemes for a fixed The authors in [10] suggest a smart water distribution
user. For the dynamic pressure scheme, the flow rate for two different users
at two different floors is shown. ”U” stands for the Upper floor, and ”L” for
network solution for smart cities for the Indian scenario. An
the Lower floor. adaptive water demand forecast approach (WDF) is presented
in [11] to assist smart water distribution systems in real-
time operational management. The WDF technology relies
Power Consumption for Different Control Schemes
on a series of studies on water demand and uses artificial
neural networks for forecasting. A learning architecture for
2.5 Fixed Pressure smart water distribution system control is developed in [12].
Power consumption/user (Watts)

Dynamic Pressure-U
2 Dynamic Pressure-L
1.5
1 B. IoT and Water Distribution Systems Models
0.5
0
1 2-S 2-O 3-S 3-O 4 an intelligent water management system that utilizes IoT
Usage Pattern (No and Location of Users)
Fig. 7. Power consumption per user for the two pressure control schemes.
simple digital display, possibly from among a preset values,
and this information represents the desired setpoint for the
controller. The controller then could adjust multiple inputs,
including pump speed, user valve percentage opening, and
other system components, to achieve the desired user setpoint.
Although it may seem counter-intuitive for the first time that
the user valve is adjusted by a controller, and not by the
user, as we used to, what we do at home or office is that
we adjust the valve opening to achieve the flow rate we
need. Therefore, manual adjustment could very possibly be
The authors in [13] combine artificial intelligence, ICT, and
water conservation to solve water delivery problems and
examine network optimization for drinking water distribution
and waste water storage networks. An automated water meter
reading system, from the field to the Utility office to the
consumption information system is described in [14].
A hydraulic space-time model for the water distribution
system that incorporates information on water demand is
developed in [15]. A complete process simulation model for
estimating water demand using Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) is described in [16]. The authors in [17] propose
technology to coordinate business processes and support
mechanisms for decision making. The study highlights the
critical advantages of utilizing IoT data in water management.
The work in [18] studies the use of IoT for water quality
monitoring. The authors in [19] propose an IoT system
for continuous monitoring in intermittent water distribution
networks (IWDN). An IoT-Based Framework for Smart Water
Supply Systems Management has been proposed in [20] to
avoid unwanted water accidents.
C. Water Distribution Systems Control
A control algorithm that takes into account the nonlinear
relationship between pressure and flow in distribution net-
works, and utilizing discrete setpoints for pumps is described
in [21]. The control methods for water distribution networks
with the most frequent control goals, including duty pressure
control, tank filling control, and energy output are discussed in
[22]. Modeling and regulation of a series of pumping stations
providing water via pipes to intermediate storage tanks is
discussed in [23], where the results are compared in real-time
with observed data. The Control of water distribution systems
as a holonic system is proposed in [24], where individual
system components are modeled as interacting event-based
systems that react to achieve a common system goal. A flow
control algorithm that is based on linearization to reduce
leakage in water distribution networks is proposed in [25].
D. Water Distribution Datasets
In 2013, the Water Distribution Systems Research Task
Committee of ASCE was founded to establish a database used
to develop and test the new network design, analysis, and
operations algorithms for the water system community. This
work has resulted in identifying and collecting data files and
stories supported by more than 40 distribution platforms. The
study in [26] gives an overview of the database and directions
on using the system data designed for the water distribution
system.
The main difference from the prior work We’ve tried to
find the relationship between coupled variables in a water
distribution system varying the user number profile and how
simple adaptive control methods based on IoT data outper-
form traditional control techniques for smart buildings. In this
work, We attempt to utilize smart optimization in our WDS
by considering the number of users and stabilizing the flow
rate regardless of the number of users. To accomplish this
optimization, we use PID feedback to control the output of
the VFD pump. Also, we do not use any datasheet for our
simulation in real-time. We have instead modeled user usage
using Poisson’s distribution.
VI. C ONCLUSION AND F UTURE W ORKS
We presented the design of a laboratory testbed for a water
distribution system that is part of a larger smart city project.
We built a simulator for the physical system hydraulics to
use it for model-based design of the plant control system. We
showed by numerical simulations that utilizing the informa-
tion provided by the IoT infrastructure results in a convenient
energy-efficient operation for the system without additional
cost. This is a work in progress and several extension are
currently ongoing. We will be building a state space model
for the complete water distribution system for model-based
control design. We are in the process of building the real
testbed and will utilize it to collect real time data and
adjust the mathematical model using system identification
techniques. Both the testbed and the simulator will have
an expanded number of buildings and users to mimic real
situations. More complex control algorithms that leverage
IoT data are currently under study, including optimal flow
control by varying individual user valves under water and
energy consumption as well as user convenience constraints.
We have faced the main challenges in this work: scalability
and adaptability because every system has its parameters and
variables. To sync with those parameters and variables, we
have to execute the whole control method, simulation, and
the proposed testbed properly. Finally, more realistic user
consumption profiles will be used in system analysis and
design.
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