Unit 2

The Production of Speech Sounds
[2.1] How to study this unit?
[2.2] The airstream and the organs of speech
[2.3] The respiratory system
[2.4] The phonatory system
[2.5] The articulatory system
9
2 A
TUENMI T
Fonética de la lengua inglesa
Outline
Unit 2–Outline 2
Pay attention to
2.1. How to study this unit?
This unit is about the main speech mechanisms we posses to speak.
You need to:

Pay attention especially to the location and main functions of each speech
mechanism.
Focus on how sounds are produced and how it affects understanding.
Understand how the different phonemes are pronounced.
Do the practice at the end of the unit.
2.2. The airstream and the organs of speech
As we have studied in unit 1, every speech sound is the result of an airstream set in
motion. In this second unit, we will study the journey of that airstream from its
origin in the lungs to their final articulation into English speech sounds.
This second unit will teach us how the air we inhale every day can be turned into speech
sounds. It is then a description of the journey carried out by the airstream as it passes
through several body mechanisms which modify it until it is finally released in the form
of speech.
According to professor Michael Dobrovolsky, we should “think of the speech

production mechanism as consisting of an air supply, a sound source that sets the air in
motion in ways specifically relevant to speech production and a set of filters that
modifies the sound in various ways” (O’Grady, 2011: 19).
Therefore, the sound-producing mechanisms involved in speech production are divided

into three main categories:
The respiratory organs.
The phonatory organs.
The articulatory organs.
Unit 2 – Pay attention to 3

Respiratory organs
Speech
production. Phonatory organs
Categories
Articulatory organs
Think of the speech production mechanism as consisting of an air supply, a sound source
that sets the air in motion in ways specifically relevant to speech production and a set of
filters that modifies the sound in various ways.
O’Grady, 2011: 19
This picture shows the distribution of these areas:
Figure 2.1. The three main sound-producing mechanisms

Source: adapted from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Respiratory_system_complete_en.svg&page=1

2.3. The respiratory system
The lungs and the bronchial tubes
The great majority of human sounds are produced by an egressive pulmonic

mechanism. The term egressive means that the airstream moves outwards.
Occasionally, we can produce some sounds differently as for example the click sounds
we make to call a horse or to reproduce a kiss. This egressive mechanism entails that
the source of the airstream is in the lungs.
The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the bronchial tubes.
Lungs
Respiratory organs
Speech Bronchial tubes
Categories
Articulatory organs
The lungs are located below the larynx and are considered the source of speech. Once
the air has been inhaled, it goes down through the trachea (a sort of windpipe which
connects the bronchial tubes with the larynx) and splits off into the right and left
bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes are then a sort of passageway for the air to be
distributed throughout the lungs. Once the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen has
taken place, the lungs provide the necessary energy for the airstream to be released
outwards through the trachea, again causing the vocal folds to vibrate in its way out.
Roughly speaking, the process of speaking begins when we breathe in some air into
our lungs and then modify it in its journey outwards. However, we should bear in mind
that some air pressure is required to keep the speech mechanism working steadily. This
pressure is provided by the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm (a large sheet of
muscle which separates the chest from the abdomen). The lungs take in air quickly but
let it out slowly. Consequently, we could assert that “speech can be seen as a type of
controlled breathing” (Collins, 2009: 29).
At this point, the airstream has been set in motion but no actual speech sound has been
produced yet.

Figure 2.2. The journey of the airflow

Source: adapted from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Respiratory_system_complete_en.svg&page=1
2.4. The phonatory system
The most important speech mechanisms of the phonatory system are the larynx and
the vocal folds.
Respiratory organs
Speech
Larynx
Vocal folds
Categories
Articulatory organs
The phonatory system is the area where voiced and voiceless sounds are produced.
As the airstream coming from the lungs passes between the vocal folds it causes them
to vibrate. This vibration is termed phonation.

As we will see later on, consonants fall into two main categories according to their
manner of phonation: voiced and voiceless consonants.
The larynx and the vocal folds
The trachea is the passageway which transports our airstream directly from the lungs to
the phonatory system. As the airstream is being released it passes through a box-like
structure known as the larynx. The larynx is where the vibration (phonation) of the
vocal folds takes place. The larynx (commonly known also as the Adam’s apple) is
clearly visible in male adults. It is formed by a set of cartilages that surround a pair of
muscle tissue (known as the vocal folds) which vibrate as the airstream passes
between them.
Figure 2.3. Vocal folds

Based on Beverley Collins’ simplified model of the larynx (Collins, 2009: 28)
The vocal folds are positioned differently thanks to the movement of the arytenoid
cartilages (see figure 2.3). As we stated in the first chapter, the vocal folds also play an
important role blocking the entrance of small pieces of food into the lungs. This safety
procedure is accompanied by an involuntary movement of the epiglottis which seals the
trachea and deviates the bolus into the esophagus down to the stomach. Sometimes the
vocal folds safety procedure does not work properly and we end up choking.
When the vocal folds are wide apart the airstream passes freely between them through
the glottis and the sounds produced in this state are called voiceless (see figure 2.4).
Nevertheless, the space left between the vocal folds to produce voiceless sounds is not
as big as when we are simply breathing. This inner space between the vocal folds is

called the glottis. The different states in which the vocal folds are positioned result in
what we term in phonetics the glottal states.
The main positions are voiceless, voiced and the glottal stop. These positions are
represented in the following diagrams:
Voiceless: the vocal folds are wide apart.
Figure 2.4. Vocal folds in voiceless position

Based on Beverley Collins’ simplified model of the larynx (Collins, 2009)
Voiced: in this position the vocal folds are close together:
Figure 2.5. Vocal folds in rapid vibration


Glottal stop: this is the position in which the vocal folds are tightly closed.
Figure 2.6. Vocal folds in glottal closure

A phonetic transcription of this glottal stop would be as follows:
Spelling Phonetic transcription Phonemic transcription
Getting better [´geʔɪŋ ´beʔə] /´getɪŋ ´betə/
To visualize how different segments may be voiced and voiceless we may use a
representation of the manner of phonation in different words. For example, the
following picture represents the vibration of the vocal folds when two words are spoken
(Alcaraz, 1995: 23):
Bee /bi:/
[b] [i:]
On the other hand, when we produce the word stay /steɪ/ the vocal folds only vibrate
when the diphthong is produced (As seen on Alcaraz, 1995: 23.):
Stay /steɪ/
[st] [eɪ]

As we said before, the gap between the vocal folds is known as the glottis. In English,
we can produce a speech sound by using the vocal folds as articulators  the /h/
sound:
/h/: hat, hockey
A common mistake for Spanish speakers is to pronounce English glottal /h/ as Spanish
/x/ as in words such as “Jerez” or “jaula”.
To sum up, the vocal folds represent a distinctive difference in the production of speech
sounds since they are in charge of producing voiced and voiceless speech sounds.
2.5. The articulatory system
The articulatory system represents our specialized hardware to produce the varied
speech sounds we can find in the world’s languages.
The constituents within the articulatory system are: the pharynx, the lips, the teeth,
the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or velum), the uvula and the tongue.
In addition, the articulatory system is divided into three resonating cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity, which is in the pharynx.
The oral cavity (mouth).
The nasal cavity (nose).
Respiratory organs
Speech
Pharynx
Categories
Articulatory organs Mouth
Nose
Speech sounds are distinguished either on the basis of articulatory differences or by

their acoustic features. The different settings in our articulatory system result in varied
speech sounds. As professor Michael Dobrovolsky states:
As a result of the difference in articulation, consonants and vowels differ in the way they
sound. Vowels are more sonorous (acoustically powerful) than consonants, and so we
perceive them as louder and longer lasting.
O’Grady, 2011: p. 22

The articulatory system is therefore the area where the airflow coming from the lungs is
finally modified to produce speech sounds. This modification occurs at particular
points or places of articulation.
A place of articulation is then the point at which the airstream is modified to

produce a particular sound. The different points or places of articulation are found in
the lips, the mouth, the pharynx (throat) and the glottis (larynx).
Figure 2.7. Points of articulation

Source: http://www.indiana.edu/~hlw/PhonUnits/vowels.html
As we have said, to produce speech sounds, we use articulators which modify or filter
the airstream to produce sounds. Articulators can be classified into two main
categories:
Passive articulators Active Articulators

The upper teeth Lips
The alveolar ridge Tongue
The hard-palate The velum
The vocal folds (glottis)
Within the oral cavity, we can distinguish between active articulators (the jaw, the lips,
the soft palate or velum and the tongue) and passive articulators (the upper teeth, the
alveolar ridge and the hard palate).

The distinction is clear since the active articulators are the ones we set in motion
towards the passive articulators which remain in their static position.
The pharynx
The pharynx is located just above the larynx and it diverts into two passageways: one
leading to the nasal cavity, and the other one leading to the oral cavity. We can block
the access to the nasal cavity by raising the soft palate or velum (velic closure).
The sounds made in this area by retracting the position of the tongue are called
pharyngeals (quite common in Arabic languages). Pharyngeal sounds are rare in
English.
The oral cavity
Within the oral cavity, we can distinguish between active articulators (the jaw, the lips,
the soft palate or velum and the tongue) and passive articulators (the upper teeth, the
alveolar ridge and the hard palate).
The oral cavity may be regarded as the main articulator where the great majority of
speech sounds are articulated, and it contains the following elements:
The lips 
Some linguists do also consider the lips as a resonating cavity since their different
positions may produce different resonating cavities:
Tightly closed: this position produces English bilabial consonants /b/, /p/, /m/.
The lower lip raised to the upper teeth: this position produces English labio-
dental consonants /f/ and /v/.
To produce vowels, the lips may be:
o Rounded: /u:/, /ʊ/, /ɔ:/, /ɒ/
Source: Ann Baker, Ship or Sheep? (2010)

o Neutral: /æ/, /e/, /ɪ/, /ɜ:/, /ə/
o Spread: /i:/
o Open: /a:/, /ʌ/
Protruded: this position is used to produce English palato-alveolar consonants:

/ʃ/, /ʧ/, /ʒ/, /ʤ/.
The teeth 
Dental speech sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue is against or near the
front teeth. If the tongue is placed between the teeth the sound is said to be
interdental. For instance:
/ð/: then, this, they, the, though

/θ/: thin, think, thought, thing
English /ð/ is rather problematic for Spanish speakers since they tend to produce this
sound as Spanish /d/ which is post-alveolar rather than interdental.

The alveolar ridge 
In the oral cavity, just behind the upper front teeth, we find a small ridge known as the
alveolar ridge. The alveolar ridge is located in the roof of the mouth. When the tongue
is in contact with the alveolar ridge or near it we produce English alveolar sounds:
/t/: time, tap

/d/: day, dear
Notice the different position of the tongue when producing the alveolar sound /d/ and
the dental sound /ð/.
Other alveolar sounds in English are:
/s/: say, sit

/z/: zeal, zone
/l/: light, loft
/n/: nose, night
Finally, the /r/ sound deserves special attention. In RP (Received Pronunciation) /r/ is
a post-alveolar approximant consonant. If we want to use the specific IPA symbol for
this /r/ sound in a phonetic transcription we should use this one: [ɹ], although in
phonemic transcriptions the symbol /r/ is commonly used instead.
In American English (and in Canada and India as well) the /r/ sound is produced
slightly farther back than it is in RP. This sound is called retroflex r. The IPA phonetic
symbol is [ɽ].
In American English, another realization of /r/ is commonly heard. It is known as flap

and it is produced when the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge. It is normally
produced with intervocalic “t” and “d” (butter, better, ladder). The IPA phonetic symbol
is [ɾ]. Flap r typically occurs between vowels.
Finally, another type of “r” is the trill. In a trill, the active articulator hits repeatedly
against the alveolar ridge. It is heard in South African English and its IPA symbol is [ʀ].
This is the sound we find in Spanish “carro”.

The hard palate 
The hard palate is a passive articulator and is located in the mid part of the roof of the
mouth, just behind the alveolar ridge. It is described as “hard” since there is actually a
bone above it. Some books refer to this part as palato-alveolar, post-alveolar and
alveopalatal. The English palato-alveolar consonants are:
/ʃ/: ship, sheep

/ʒ/: measure, treasure
/ʧ/: church, patch
/ʤ/: gesture, joke
They are formed by raising the central part of the tongue towards the hard palate.
The soft palate or velum /´vi:ləm/ 
At the back of the roof of the mouth we can find a soft area known as the soft palate or
velum. The velum is in charge of diverting the airstream coming from the lungs into
two passageways: the one leading to the nasal cavity (the velum remains lowered) or
the one leading to the oral cavity (the velum is raised; this setting is also known as velic
closure). These two positions of the velum result in two different sorts of sounds:
Oral sounds: they are produced when the velum is raised (velic closure) and the
airstream cannot enter the nasal cavity.
For example, the sounds in “people” /´pi:pəl/ are oral sounds.
Nasal sounds: they are produced when the velum is lowered and the airstream
passes into the nasal cavity.
The sounds in “man” /mæn/ are nasal sounds.

Figure 2.8. Velum raised (velic closure)

Source: adapted from http://www.indiana.edu/~hlw/PhonUnits/vowels.html
Figure 2.9. Velum lowered

Source: adapted from http://www.indiana.edu/~hlw/PhonUnits/vowels.html
The sounds produced by raising the back of the tongue towards the velum are called
velars. In English we have the following velar sounds:
/k/: cut, come  it shows velic closure (oral sound).

/g/: go, gap  it shows velic closure (oral sound).
/ŋ/: think, thing  it does not show velic closure (nasal sound).
The /ŋ/ sound occurs when the grapheme “n” is followed by velar consonants /k/ and
/g/.

The velum ends in a sort of fleshy lump called the uvula. Sounds produced by touching
the uvula with the back of the tongue are called uvulars. This is the standard French
sound for /r/ as in the word “Paris”.
The tongue 
The tongue is considered the most important active articulator since its different
positions towards several passive articulators result in many different speech sounds.
As professor Alcaraz says, the importance of the tongue can be realized when we try to
speak with our tongue anesthetized (Alcaraz, 1995: 26). The tongue is a very agile
muscle and can be raised, lowered, retracted, rolled, etc. It can then assume a great
variety of positions. The tongue is normally divided into 5 different areas:
Figure 2.10. The tongue
It is worth mentioning that the sides of the tongue can be lowered to produce lateral
sounds such as /l/.
The nasal cavity 
The nasal cavity is a resonating cavity. To produce nasal sounds /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/,
the velum must be lowered so that the airstream coming from the lungs may enter the
nasal cavity.
This entails that the airstream will be released through the nose.

Figure 2.11. The nasal cavity

Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal, 76 (2000): pages 484-487
The main nasal sounds in English are:
/m/: my, mother

/n/: no, nice
/ŋ/: sink, sing
So far, we have studied the main physiological elements at play when we speak. Once
we know the basics about the organs of speech involved in speaking we can move on to
classify the different sounds we can produce.

Specially recommended
Master lessons
Introduction (II): The Speech Organs
In this master lesson, professor Svetlana Antropova, on the one hand, discusses the
main organs of speech involved in the production and articulation of speech sounds,
and on the other hand, she introduces some information on the sounds of English.
The video is available on the virtual class.
Be sure you read…
Speech production
This article contains status reports of research in three areas of speech production:
functional properties of the speech production apparatus, control principles underlying
speech production, and the biological basis of the speech production process. (RL.)
Peter F. MacNeilage, “Speech Production.” Language and Speech, 23:1 (1980): 3-23
The article is available on this website:

http://www.phonetik.uni-
muenchen.de/~hoole/kurse/hs_evolution/macneilage_bbs.pdf
Be sure you watch…
Pronunciation of English Vowel Sounds
English with Jennifer is a very popular and helpful video channel on YouTube. You can
watch a list of videos about how to pronounce correctly English phonemes. The videos
Unit 2 – Specially recommended 19

show how to place the main active articulators correctly (mainly the tongue and the
lips).
The video is available on the virtual class or on this website:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=haZVOZr48N0&feature=fvwrel
Unit 2 – Specially recommended 20

More information
In depth
Laboratory Phonetics
Read chapter 20 from Peter Roach’s English Phonetics and Phonology where he offers
a clear view of the interrelations between the production and the perception of speech
sounds.
Roach, Peter. Phonetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Webgraphy
Voicedoctor. Views of the larynx
For those interested in watching how the actual vocal folds look like check this website.
http://www.voicedoctor.net/media/normal-vocal-cord
Unit 2 – More information 21

Exercises
Practice unit 2
Complete the drawing with the names of the speech mechanisms studied so far:
Unit 2 – Exercises 22
Assignment 1: How does the moving air around us turn into

actual speech sounds?
The air around us is transformed inside our body into energy which enables us to
speak. Describe in your own words the journey that the air around you must travel to
become a speech sound.
Choose any of the speech sounds available in the English phonemic inventory.
Do not forget to take into account the type of sound you want to describe (is it a labial,
dental, velar, or nasal sound?) If so, which way must the airstream travel through?
Which obstacles will it encounter on its journey?
Length: 1 page. 400 - 500 words.

Font: Georgia 11.
Spacing: 1.5.
Unit 2 – Exercises 23
Test
1. The lungs are considered:

A. The source of the speech mechanism.
B. The filter of the speech mechanism.
C. The articulator of the speech mechanism.
2. The vocal folds are located in…

A. The larynx.
B. The pharynx.
C. The velum.
3. When the vocal folds are wide apart, the sounds produced are…
A. Voiced.
B. Voiceless.
C. Glottal.
4. When the vocal folds rapidly vibrate, the sounds produced are…
A. Voiced.
B. Voiceless.
C. Glottal.
5. The active articulators are…

A. The lips, tongue and upper teeth.
B. The lips, tongue, velum and hard-palate.
C. The lips, tongue and velum.
6. The velic closure produces…

A. Oral sounds.
B. Nasal sounds.
C. Creaky sounds.
7. Nasal sounds are always…

A. Voiced sounds.
B. Voiceless sounds.
Unit 2 – Test 24
8. The glottal stop is produced when:

A. The vocal folds are vibrating.
B. The vocal folds are tightly closed.
C. The vocal folds are wide apart.
9. The energy required by the lungs to keep on speaking is provided by:

A. The stomach.
B. The diaphragm and the intercostal muscles.
C. None of the above mentioned.
10. The term “phonation” applies to:

A. The vibration and production of voiced/voiceless sounds.
B. The positions of the velum.
C. The positions of the tongue.
Unit 2 – Test 25

Unit 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Production of Speech Sounds

[2.1] How to study this unit?

[2.2] The airstream and the organs of speech

[2.3] The respiratory system

[2.4] The phonatory system

[2.5] The articulatory system

2.1. How to study this unit?

This unit is about the main speech mechanisms we posses to speak.

You need to:

2.2. The airstream and the organs of speech

According to professor Michael Dobrovolsky, we should “think of the speech

Therefore, the sound-producing mechanisms involved in speech production are divided

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 3

This picture shows the distribution of these areas:

Figure 2.1. The three main sound-producing mechanisms

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 4

2.3. The respiratory system

The lungs and the bronchial tubes

The great majority of human sounds are produced by an egressive pulmonic

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 5

Figure 2.2. The journey of the airflow

2.4. The phonatory system

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 6

The larynx and the vocal folds

Figure 2.3. Vocal folds

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 7

Voiceless: the vocal folds are wide apart.

Figure 2.4. Vocal folds in voiceless position

Voiced: in this position the vocal folds are close together:

Figure 2.5. Vocal folds in rapid vibration

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 8

Figure 2.6. Vocal folds in glottal closure

A phonetic transcription of this glottal stop would be as follows:

Spelling Phonetic transcription Phonemic transcription

Getting better [´geʔɪŋ ´beʔə] /´getɪŋ ´betə/

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 9

2.5. The articulatory system

Speech sounds are distinguished either on the basis of articulatory differences or by

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 10

A place of articulation is then the point at which the airstream is modified to

Figure 2.7. Points of articulation

Passive articulators Active Articulators

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 11

The oral cavity

Source: Ann Baker, Ship or Sheep? (2010)

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 12

o Neutral: /æ/, /e/, /ɪ/, /ɜ:/, /ə/

Source: Ann Baker, Ship or Sheep? (2010)

Source: Ann Baker, Ship or Sheep? (2010)

o Open: /a:/, /ʌ/

Source: Ann Baker, Ship or Sheep? (2010)

Protruded: this position is used to produce English palato-alveolar consonants:

/ð/: then, this, they, the, though

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 13

The alveolar ridge 

/t/: time, tap

Other alveolar sounds in English are:

/s/: say, sit

In American English, another realization of /r/ is commonly heard. It is known as flap

Unit 2 – Pay attention to 14

The hard palate 

/ʃ/: ship, sheep

The soft palate or velum /´vi:ləm/ 