Distribution, accumulation profile, and

risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl

ethers in sediment from lake and river
systems in Hanoi Metropolitan Area,
Vietnam
Pham Thi Ngoc Mai, Nguyen Van
Thuong, Trinh Thi Tham, Nguyen
Khanh Hoang, Hoang Quoc Anh, Tran
Manh Tri, Le Si Hung, Dao Thi Nhung,
et al.
Environmental Science and Pollution
Research

ISSN 0944-1344

Environ Sci Pollut Res

DOI 10.1007/s11356-015-5235-7

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Environ Sci Pollut Res
DOI 10.1007/s11356-015-5235-7

ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY OF POLLUTANTS

Distribution, accumulation profile, and risk assessment

of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sediment from lake
and river systems in Hanoi Metropolitan Area, Vietnam
Pham Thi Ngoc Mai 1 & Nguyen Van Thuong 2 & Trinh Thi Tham 3 &
Nguyen Khanh Hoang 1 & Hoang Quoc Anh 1 & Tran Manh Tri 1 & Le Si Hung 1 &
Dao Thi Nhung 1 & Vu Duc Nam 2 & Nguyen Thi Minh Hue 2 & Nguyen Thi Anh Huong 1 &
Duong Hong Anh 4 & Nguyen Hung Minh 2 & Tu Binh Minh 1

Received: 23 March 2015 / Accepted: 11 August 2015

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract Concentrations of seven polybrominated diphenyl
ethers (PBDEs) congeners were determined in surface sedi-
ments collected from several rivers and lakes in Hanoi, the
capital city of Vietnam, to understand the status of background
contamination, accumulation pattern, sources, and toxic im-
plications for benthic organisms. Total PBDE concentrations
in all sediment samples ranged from 0.03 to 17.5 ng/g dry
weight (mean 1.33 ng/g dry wt). The most predominant con-
geners were BDE-47 and BDE-99, which comprised 30 and
25 % of total PBDE concentrations, respectively. Results from
statistical analysis indicated that the potential sources of
PBDEs of sediments in Hanoi may come from penta-BDE
and octa-BDE mixtures. Risk quotients of PBDEs in sedi-
ments were also calculated for a benthic species, ranged from
2.12 × 10−6 − 1.60 × 10 −2, and were markedly lower than
threshold value for occurrence of any ecotoxicological risk.
This study provides some of the most comprehensive data on
Responsible editor: Hongwen Sun
* Tu Binh Minh
tubinhminh@gmail.com
1
Faculty of Chemistry, VNU University of Science, Vietnam National
University, 19 Le Thanh Tong Street, Hanoi, Vietnam
2
Dioxin Laboratory, Center of Environmental Monitoring, Vietnam
Environment Administration, 556 Nguyen Van Cu Street,
Hanoi, Vietnam
3
Faculty of Environment, Hanoi University of Natural Resources and
Environment, 41A Street K1, Cau Dien, Tu Liem Hanoi, Vietnam
4
Center for Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development
(CETASD), VNU University of Science, Vietnam National
University, 334 Nguyen Trai Street, Hanoi, Vietnam
the occurrence of PBDEs in sediments from lake and river
systems in Vietnam.
Keywords Polybrominated diphenyl ethers . Surface
sediment . Commercial penta-BDEs . Emission source . Risk
assessment
Introduction
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are anthropogenic
chemicals that have been extensively used as flame retardants.
The compounds are incorporated into many types of polymers
used in electric circuit boards computer and television hous-
ings, furniture, building materials, textiles, carpets, and vehi-
cles. Concern over PBDE contamination is increasing, partic-
ularly in Asian countries, due to their persistent and
bioaccumulative properties and potential toxic risk to humans.
PBDEs have been detected at significant levels in environ-
mental matrices such as air (Sellström et al. 1996; 1998),
sediment (Alaee et al. 2001; Sjodin et al. 1999), and sewage
sludge (Meironyte et al. 1999; Zheng et al. 2004) as well as in
biological samples including biota (Darnerud et al. 2001;
Lacorte et al. 2003), human blood (Kim et al. 2005), adipose
tissues (Alaee et al. 2003; Meironyte et al. 2001), and breast
milk (Luo et al. 2007). A study on Swedish human breast milk
PBDE levels found an increase between 1972 and 1997 (Luo
et al. 2007).
PBDEs are commercially available in three technical mix-
tures as penta-, octa-, and deca-BDE mixtures. Penta-BDE is a
mixture of BDE-47 (32 %), BDE-99/100 (56 %), BDE-153/
154 (9 %), and BDE-183 (0.5 %). The largest use of c-
PentaBDE (90–95 %) has been for treatment of polyurethane
 Author's personal copy
foam (PUF), mainly used for the production of automotive
and upholstery (UNIDO and Stockholm Convention 2012).
Octa-BDE is a mixture of BDE-153/154 (11 %), BDE-183
(43 %), BDE-197 (35 %), and BDE-206 (10 %). The main
historic use of c-OctaBDE has been in acrylonitrile butadiene-
styrene (ABS) polymers, mainly used for housings/casings of
electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), particularly in cath-
ode ray tube (CRT) housings and office equipment such as
copying machines and business printers (UNIDO and
Stockholm Convention 2012).
PBDE release may come from point sources such as PBDE
production and e-waste recycling facilities, and non-point
sources such as the migration of PBDEs from PBDE contain-
ing products (electronic/electric appliances) over their entire
lifetimes. There is an increasing environmental and human
contamination trend of PBDEs in several areas of the Asia-
Pacific region, indicating the widespread contamination of
PBDEs in the region. About 80 % of computer e-wastes were
exported to Asia, and 90 % of these exports were sent through
illegal imports for recycling (Ma et al. 2012). As the predicted
consumption of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in the
future may increase in connection with the rapid industrializa-
tion in Asian developing countries, the demand for monitoring
of PBDEs pollution is increasing. While a large number of
studies reported PBDE contamination in sediment from indus-
trialized countries, data on background PBDE contamination
is limited in Asian developing countries, including Vietnam.
Investigations on PBDEs in Vietnam are scarce and limited
to a few cities and industrial areas (Minh et al. 2006; Minh
et al. 2010; Tue et al. 2010; Hien et al. 2012; Romano et al.
2013; Tue et al. 2013). The level of PBDEs in environmental
media such as indoor dust and air in some e-waste recycling
sites in Hung Yen Province or Hai Phong City was significant-
ly higher than reference sites in Hanoi (Tue et al. 2013).
Elevated levels of PBDEs were also encountered in breast
milk of women who were directly involved in recycling ac-
tivities in Bui Dau Village, one of the largest e-waste sites in
Northern Vietnam (Tue et al. 2010). However, PBDEs were
detected only at highly contaminated areas such as e-waste
sites, but not in urban and industrialized areas like Hanoi
City. The impacts of human and industrial activities to the
background status of PBDE contamination in Vietnam are still
obscure.
Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam and the second most pop-
ulous city in the country with population in 2012 of approxi-
mately 2.9 million for the urban district and 6.9 million for the
metropolitan region. Hanoi City has experienced rapid growth
of urbanization and industrialization in recent years, with un-
controlled environmental pollution caused by anthropogenic
chemicals. Elevated contamination by heavy metals and var-
ious persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as organochlo-
rine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
and polycyclic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have recently been
Environ Sci Pollut Res
reported in Hanoi City and surrounding areas (Marcussen
et al. 2008; Hoai et al. 2010; Hung et al. 2015). However,
no investigation is available on the background contamination
of emerging POPs such as PBDEs in the Hanoi metropolitan
area.
Understanding the status of contamination by PBDEs is
important for public authorities to propose policy for
protecting the ecosystem and environment of the city.
Particularly, residue concentrations of these contaminants in
sediment would provide useful information on their spatial
distribution, sources, and toxic implications. Therefore, the
objective of this study was to investigate the contamination
level and accumulation pattern of PBDEs in surface sediments
of several rivers and lakes in Hanoi and to trace the sources of
PBDEs in the surveyed region. The potential toxic implica-
tions for aquatic organisms are also discussed.
Materials and methods
Sample collection
Twenty-one surface sediment samples (0–5 cm) from rivers
and lakes of Hanoi were collected in 2011 using an Ekman
grab. Sediment samples were homogenized inside the grab
and stored in clean polyethylene bags at −10 °C in darkness
before analysis. The sampling locations are shown in Fig. 1.
The rivers investigated in this study flow through the center
area of Hanoi City. To Lich and Kim Nguu Rivers flow
through the densely populated areas of Hanoi and receive
wastewater discharges from households and industrial ser-
vices such as textile companies and mechanical workshops.
Den Lu and Yen So Lakes are reservoirs receiving water from
Set and Kim Nguu Rivers.
Chemical analysis
Moisture content of sediment samples was determined by the
gravimetric method. Wet sediment samples (20 g) were mixed
with anhydrous sodium sulfate (approximately 100 g) until
dryness to remove moisture. The analytical procedure was
carried out following US EPA Method 1614 with some mod-
ifications. A mixture of sediment and anhydrous sodium sul-
fate was extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus with 200 mL of 20 %
of dichloromethane in hexane for 16 h after spiking with
13
C12-labeled BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, and 183 as
surrogate standards (EO-5277, Cambridge Isotope
Laboratory, USA). The extracts were concentrated to 1–
2 mL before clean up through a multilayer silica gel column.
The cleaned column was packed from bottom to the top as
follows: silica gel (1 g), 2 % (w/w) of KOH-silica gel (4 g),
silica gel (1 g), 44 % (w/w) of H2SO4-silica gel (8 g), silica gel
(2 g), and 4 g of anhydrous Na2SO4. PBDEs were eluted by
 Author's personal copy
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 1 Map showing sampling locations of sediment from lakes and rivers in Hanoi City, Vietnam
100 mL of 10 % of dichloromethane in hexane, and cleanup
solution was concentrated to 50 μL. The extracts were then
added with 13C12-labeled PCB-52 and 13C12-labeled PCB-138
which were used as internal standards for determination of
recovery efficiency of surrogate standards.
Seven congeners BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100,
BDE-153, BDE-154, and BDE-183 were measured by gas
chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry
(GC/MS-MS, Agilent 7000 Triple Quadrupe, USA). Details
of instrumental parameters are reported elsewhere (Thuong
et al. 2012). Recoveries of PBDEs congeners ranged from
78 to 110 %. The method detection limits (MDL) of PBDEs
congeners were 3.5–4.0 pg/g dry wt. Concentrations of
PBDEs were not corrected with recovery values. When mea-
sured values were below the MDL, half of the MDL was used
for calculation of mean concentrations. Due to the lack of
unavailable of a specific GC column and technical issues of
the condition of the tandem GC/MS/MS, we were unable to
quantify deca-BDE (usually low recovery). In this study, we
focus on discussion of the occurrence, pattern, and sources
related to penta- and octa-BDE mixtures. Investigations are
currently being conducted in our laboratory to quantify
deca-BDE in background concentration levels.
TOC analysis
Total organic carbon (TOC) was measured using a Total
Organic Carbon Analyzer (Shimadzu TOC-VCPH) with a
Solid Sample Combustion Unit (Shimadzu SSM-5000A) fol-
lowing the method provided by Shimadzu (Shimadzu Co. Ltd.
2001). The TOC value was calculated by the difference in the
results of combustion-oxidation reaction (total carbon analy-
sis) and carbonate acidification reaction (inorganic carbon
analysis).
Statistical analysis
Pearson correlation analysis was performed to assess the cor-
relation between individual PBDE congeners in sediment
samples using the Minitab 16.1 software package for
 Author's personal copy
Windows. Half of MDL was used for the samples with non-
detectable PBDE concentrations.
Risk assessment approach
The ecotoxicological effects of PBDEs were evaluated by
using the risk quotient (RQ) on several benthic species
(Phipps et al. 1993; Cristale et al. 2013; Xiong et al. 2015).
Risk quotient for each BDE congener in sediment from lakes
and river system in Hanoi area was estimated based on the
approach recommended by Cristale et al. (2013). Risk quo-
tient (RQ) for benthic organism (Daphnia magna) was calcu-
lated from the following equation:
. . 
RQ ¼ MEC EC50 f
where EC50 is effect concentration for 50 % organism mor-
tality, MEC is the measured environmental concentration, and
f is the uncertainty factor, equal to 1000 (Xiong et al. 2015).
MEC is calculated based on the PBDE concentrations in
sediment, fraction of organic carbon in sediment, and Koc
(partition coefficient for sediment organic carbon)
. To Lich and Kim Nguu Rivers (TL5 and KN2, KN2.2),
MEC ¼ Cs ð f oc :Koc Þ
where Cs is the PBDE concentration in sediment, foc is the
organic carbon fraction in sediment, and Koc is the sediment
organic carbon partition coefficient; in this case, it is assumed
Koc ≈Kow (octanol water partition coefficient).
Results and discussion
Concentrations of PBDEs in sediment samples collected
in rivers and lakes of Hanoi
Concentrations of PBDE congeners in sediment of Hanoi
sewer and lake systems are shown in Table 1. Seven PBDE
congeners, including BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100,
BDE-153, BDE-154, and BDE-183, were detected in all of the
surface sediments, proving the widespread presence of
PBDEs in the aquatic environment in Hanoi. The sum of sev-
en individual PBDE congeners varied from 0.03 to 17.5 ng/g
dry wt.
Total BPDE concentrations in river sediment varied
depending on the sampling locations, 0.17–1.14 ng/g
in the To Lich River, 0.138–0.167 ng/g in the Nhue
River, 0.381–2.21 ng/g in the Kim Nguu River, 0.751–
17.5 ng/g in the Lu River, and 0.81 ng/g in the Set
River (one sample). The highest concentration was de-
tected in the Lu River at L3 site (17.5 ng/g dry wt.).
No clear trend of PBDE spatial distribution was ob-
served, probably due to the wide spread of emission
Environ Sci Pollut Res
sources originating from municipal and industrial activ-
ities related to anthropogenic pollutants including
PBDEs. In the To Lich River, higher PBDE levels were
observed in downstream areas (site TL 5 and TL 6). A
previous investigation also reported higher concentra-
tions of PCBs and DDTs from this area (Hoai et al.
2010). The high PBDE concentrations found at the L3
site may be attributed to pollution from wastewater in-
flow at this point. Relatively higher PBDE residues
were found in sediment from the Kim Nguu River.
This river flows through the densely populated area
and receives wastewater discharges from human and in-
dustrial activities of Hanoi City. There are a textile
company and many small mechanical workshops that
discharge wastewater to the River. Elevated contamina-
tion of toxic heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbon (PAHs), and PCBs have recently been reported
in sediment and sewage sludge from this river
(Marcussen et al. 2008; Hung et al. 2015; Hoai et al.
2010). Furthermore, the total organic carbon content
(TOC) could also have influence on the residue concen-
trations of PBDEs in sediment. In some samples in the
higher PBDE levels could be related to higher TOC
values (Table 1). A similar trend was also observed in
sediment from the Saigon Dong Nai River, Ho Chi
Minh City canals, and this river system, showing greater
PCB and OCP levels in sediment samples with high
TOC content (Minh et al. 2007; Hoai et al. 2010).
However, in general, weak correlations between TOC
and PBDE concentrations (r2 =0.21, p<0.5, Pearson cor-
relation test) were observed in sediment samples from
Hanoi Rivers. Distribution of PBDEs in this study could
be influenced by a combination of atmospheric transport
and deposition processes, mixing between water column
and sediment, and land-based anthropogenic inputs. The
To Lich, Kim Nguu, and Lu Rivers flow though densely
populated areas and receive wastewater discharges from
households and industrial complexes including textile
and mechanical workshops. In addition, recent dredging
activities in the To Lich and Kim Nguu Rivers may
also have impact on the correlation of TOC and
PBDEs residues. Poor correlations between TOC and
PBDEs concentrations in sediments were also observed
from several locations such as the Bay of Bengal,
India (Binelli et al. 2007), coastal East China Sea (Li
et al. 2012), and Goseong Bay, Korea (Lee et al.
2014).
The concentration of PBDEs in lake sediment was some-
what lower, 0.035–0.05 ng/g for Den Lu Lake and 0.145–
0.26 ng/g for Yen So Lake. Concentrations in Yen So Lake
were considerably higher than those in Den Lu Lake. The
lower concentration of PBDEs in lake sediments may be the
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Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 1 PBDE concentrations in sediment samples collected from Hanoi River and Lake systems (pg/g, dry wt. for individual PBDE congeners; ng/g
dry wt. for sum of PBDEs)

Sample ID Latitude Longitude TOC (%) BDE-28 BDE-47 BDE-100 BDE-99 BDE-154 BDE-153 BDE-183 ΣPBDEsb

To Lich River
TL 1 N 21° 2′ 45.46″ E 105° 48′ 18.97″ 7.1 NDa 35 ND ND ND 9.0 118 0.170
TL 2 N 21° 0′ 55.51″ E 105° 48′ 16.30″ 2.7 7.2 110 30 94 12 43 75 0.371
TL 3 N 21° 0′ 6.59″ E 105° 49′ 4.76″ 5.8 4.2 109 ND 7.2 13 35 62 0.232
TL 4 N 20° 58′ 13.08″ E 105° 49′ 29.61″ 2.2 ND 9.0 ND 11 ND ND ND 0.030
TL 5 N 20° 57′ 34.70″ E 105° 48′ 48.39″ 5.3 21 344 95 280 59 105 232 1.14
TL 6 N 20° 57′ 19.81″ E 105° 48′ 32.82″ 4.7 5.3 597 ND 6.2 38 117 ND 0.767
TL 7 N 20° 57′ 4.89″ E 105° 50′ 41.83″ 1.1 ND 35 10 58 6.1 14 11 0.136
Nhue River
N1 N 20° 58′ 28.38″ E 105° 46′ 49.09″ 3.2 ND 29 25 20 4.0 22 67 0.167
N2 N 20° 57′ 10.50″ E 105° 48′ 25.79″ 2.2 ND 31 37 29 6.7 12 21 0.138
Kim Nguu River
KN 1 N 21° 0′ 26.65″ E 105° 51′ 39.28″ 10 7.8 106 27 72 12 51 105 0.381
KN 2 N 20° 58′ 33.85″ E 105° 51′ 55.14″ 9.7 30 45 21 2050 10 32 18 2.21
KN 2.2 9.1 5.9 210 64 166 21 36 22 0.525
KN 3 N 20° 58′ 31.92″ E 105° 51′ 45.23″ 8.5 5.0 84 67 56 12 26 93 0.343
Lu River
L1 N 20° 59′ 55.74″ E 105° 50′ 9.78″ 5.3 27 278 57 143 64 180 ND 0.751
L3 N 20° 58′ 58.20″ E 105° 50′ 5.07″ 7.4 490 6574 1380 8840 31 76 104 17.5
Set River
S1 N 20° 59′ 35.47″ E 105° 50′ 35.53″ 4.5 9.8 188 212 168 25 80 125 0.810
Den Lu Lake
DL 1 N 20° 59′ 10.18″ E 105° 51′ 18.79″ 6.5 ND 11 ND 14 ND ND ND 0.035
DL 2 N 20° 59′ 4.40″ E 105° 51′ 16.67″ 7.2 ND 6.2 ND 5.8 30 ND ND 0.050
Yen So Lake
YS 1 N 20° 57′ 55.61″ E 105° 51′ 23.61″ 6.4 ND 66 18 68 12 19 6.2 0.191
YS 2 N 20° 57′ 58.48″ E 105° 51′ 6.69″ 8.9 ND 63 28 80 17 25 9.4 0.224
YS 3 N 20° 58′ 28.82″ E 105° 51′ 52.24″ 9.1 ND 44 9.0 39 5.6 20 26 0.145
YS 4 N 20° 58′ 12.79″ E 105° 51′ 15.07″ 8.5 7.7 90 ND ND 14 47 98 0.260

ND not detected
a
Lower than the method detection limit (MDL)
b
ΣPBDEs: sum of seven PBDE congeners

result of recent dredging activities in these lakes, especially
Den Lu Lake, in the framework of the water quality improve-
ment program in Hanoi.
Local and international comparison of PBDE
contamination in sediment
PBDE levels in Hanoi Rivers and Lakes ranged from 0.02 to
2.12 ng/g dry wt. with an exception of an elevated level of
17.5 ng/g dry wt. from the Lu River. These concentrations
were similar to those observed in Thi Nai Lagoon (0.03 to
9.62 ng/g), an important industrial and residential zone in
Central Vietnam with maximum concentrations (9.62 ng/g)
found near sewage and industrial discharges (Romano et al.
2013). PBDE levels in rivers and lakes in Hanoi were lower
than in Ho Chi Minh City (1.5 to 11 ng/g for urban area) but
remarkably higher than in sediments from Saigon-Dong Nai
Estuary (the highest concentrations detected as 0.065 ng/g)
(Minh et al. 2010) (Table 2).
Comparing with other studies on PBDE in sediments,
PBDE concentrations measured in this study were much lower
than those reported in other Asian countries such as in Lake
Shihwa, Korea (Moon et al. 2012), Beijing River, China
(Chen et al. 2009), Hong Kong (Liu et al. 2005), and indus-
trialized areas such as in Southern California Bight, USA
(Dodder et al. 2012), or in the Great Lakes region (Song
et al. 2005a; Song et al. 2005b). Our measured PBDE levels
were at similar levels with those reported in some European
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Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 2 Comparison of PBDE concentrations (ng/g dry weight) in sediments measured in this study with those reported from other locations in the
world

Locations Numbera Sampling year ΣPBDE range (ng/g) References

Vietnam
Rivers, Hanoi 22 2012 0.03–17.5 This study
Lakes, Hanoi 0.035–0.26
Sewer system, Ho Chi Minh City (urban) 11 2004 1.5–11 Minh et al. 2010
Sewer system, Ho Chi Minh City (suburban) ND–1.5
Estuary of Saigon–Dong Nai River ND–0.065
Thi Nai Lagoon, Vietnam 14 2012 ND–9.62 Romano et al. 2013
Asian countries
Lake Shihwa, Korea 23 2008 0.16–943 Moon et al. 2012
Busan Bay, Korea 20 2003 0.38–5.86 Moon et al. 2007
Pearl River Delta, China 9 2002 0.04–94.7 Mai et al. 2005
Beijang river, China 10 2006 0.02–186 Chen et al. 2009
South China 14 2006 0.7–7.6 Zhang et al. 2009
Hong Kong 14 2004 0.96–58.5 Liu et al. 2005
Taiwan 19 2005 ND–1.82 Jiang et al. 2011
Other countries
Lake Superior, Great Lakes, USA 9 2001–2002 0.49–3.14 Song et al. 2005a
Lakes Ontario and Erie, Great Lakes, Canada 9 2002 1.83–6.33 Song et al. 2005b
Juksei River, Gauteng, South Africa 16 2011 0.92–6.76 Olokunle et al. 2012
Southern California Bight, USA 13 2012 ND–560 Dodder et al. 2012
The Netherlands 5 2001 0.6 –17.6 De Boer et al. 2003
Spain 11 2002 0.24–3.94 Eljarrat et al. 2005
Lake Maggiore, Italy 8 2005 0.0–2.63 Mariani et al. 2008

ND not detected
a
Number of PBDE congeners analyzed in sediment samples

countries such as The Netherlands (de Boer et al. 2003), Spain
(Eljarrat et al. 2005), and Italy (Mariani et al. 2008).
PBDE congener profiles in sediment samples
The percentage compositions of PBDE congeners in sediment
samples from rivers and lakes in Hanoi are shown in Fig. 2.
Accumulation patterns varied with sampling sites. In general,
BDE-47 and BDE-99 are the most predominant congeners,
accounted for about 30 and 25 % of the total PBDE concen-
trations, respectively (Table 2). The predominance of lower
brominated PBDEs (BDE-47, BDE-99, and BDE-100) was
also found in sediments of other studies (Moon et al. 2012;
Li et al. 2012; Hu et al. 2010), especially in Thi Nai Lagoon,
Vietnam (Romano et al. 2013). However, in Thi Nai sedi-
ments, the presence of BDE-153 was detected, but not at all
sites, and with low percentage.
Congener profiles of seven major PBDEs found in sedi-
ments collected from the Hanoi river system were compared
with congener profile of sediments and soils collected from
the sewer system of Ho Chi Minh City (Minh et al. 2010),
open dumping sites in Southern Vietnam (Eguchi et al. 2013),
and an open e-waste disposal and recycling facility located in
Guiyu, Guangdong, China (Wang et al. 2005) (Fig. 2).
Sediments collected from several canals and dumping sites
in Southern Vietnam have a higher contribution of heavier
congeners BDE-183 (38 and 67 %, respectively). While the
congener profile of Hanoi sediments is similar to those from
the e-waste site in China with BDE-99 as the largest congener
proportion (30 and 32 %, respectively).
The congener profile of sediments in rivers and lakes from
Hanoi reveals that PBDE congeners may come mainly from
penta-BDE mixtures and octa-BDE to a minor extent. The
patterns in river and lake sediments were different from those
in soils and sediments collected from open landfill dumping
sites, showing a higher proportion of BDE-183. Disposal con-
sumer products in landfill sites in Vietnam were suggested to
contain higher octa-BDE content (Eguchi et al. 2013). A sim-
ilar result was observed in fish samples collected near open
dumping sites in Can Tho, Mekong River Region, showing
marked differences in accumulation patterns between dump-
ing site fish and farmed fish (Minh et al. 2006). The above
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Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 2 PBDE congener profiles

in surface sediments collected
from lakes and river system of
Hanoi in comparison with soil/
sediments from Ho Chi Minh City
canals (Minh et al. 2010), open
dumping sites in Vietnam (Eguchi
et al. 2013), and e-waste recycling
site in China (Wang et al. 2005)

findings highlight the differences in sources of PBDEs in open
dumping sites, which are considered as hotspot of pollution,
and in lakes and river systems (as background contamination).
Pearson analysis was performed to assess the correlation
between individual PBDE congeners in sediment samples,
and the results are shown in Table 3. The correlation coeffi-
cient varied greatly from 0.165 to 0.995, which suggests that
the mechanisms by which individual congeners were intro-
duced into the investigated area were different. High correla-
tion of BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, and BDE-100 was found,
indicating that these congeners may come from similar emis-
sion sources. Good correlation was also observed for BDE-
153 and BDE-154. Correlations of BDE-183 with other
congeners were very low (correlation coefficient ranged from
0.171 to 0.261), suggesting that it has different origins.
Overall, results of congener-specific pattern and statistical
analysis suggest that the possible sources in sediments may
come from both penta-BDE and octa-BDE mixtures and can
be influenced by different factors.
Preliminary risk assessment of PBDEs to benthic
organisms
The ecotoxicological effects of PBDEs were evaluated by
using the risk quotient (RQ) on several benthic species
(Phipps et al. 1993; Cristale et al. 2013; Xiong et al. 2015)
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Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 3 Pearson correlation

coefficients for PBDE congeners BDE-28 BDE-47 BDE-100 BDE-99 BDE-154 BDE-153
in lakes and rivers from Hanoi,
Vietnam BDE-47 0.995a
0.000b
BDE-100 0.998 0.986
0.000 0.000
BDE-99 0.984 0.968 0.963
0.000 0.000 0.000
BDE-154 0.215 0.239 0.227 0.165
0.338 0.284 0.310 0.463
BDE-153 0.216 0.243 0.227 0.169 0.875
0.335 0.275 0.309 0.452 0.000
BDE-183 0.203 0.204 0.261 0.171 0.267 0.247
0.365 0.363 0.241 0.447 0.230 0.267
a
Correlation coefficient
b
p value

as described earlier in section Risk assessment approach. Conclusions

Further detailed descriptions are given in Cristale et al.
(2013). The RQs of PBDEs in all sediment samples ranged
from 2.12×10−6 to 1.60×10−2, indicating no significant risk
because these values were much lower than expected for a
potential risk of adverse effects (RQ>1) (Fig. 3). Cristale
et al. (2013) also reported that there was no risk of PBDEs
for species Daphnia magna along rivers Arga, Nalón, and
Besòs, Spain, with the RQs of total 08 PBDE congeners that
ranged from 0.12 to 0.71. Although there is no risk from
PBDEs observed in sediments from Hanoi Lake and River
systems, PBDEs can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms as
potential sources of human exposure via the dietary pathway.
Further investigations on PBDE occurrence in environmental
and biological media are needed to provide more comprehen-
sive toxic assessment on ecosystem and human health.
In summary, our results indicate widespread occurrence of
PBDEs in sediment from lakes and rivers in Hanoi City.
Contamination pattern varied among the various lakes and
rivers investigated with higher PBDE levels found in river
system. Statistical analysis suggests that PBDEs may come
from both penta-BDE and octa-BDE mixtures. The risk quo-
tients for benthic organisms of PBDEs in sediment were lower
than 1.0, indicating that there is no significant ecotoxicologi-
cal risk of these compounds in Hanoi aquatic environment.
Accumulation of PBDEs, particularly deca-BDEs in environ-
mental and biological media should be conducted in future
studies to provide a comprehensive characterization of the
occurrence and sources of PBDEs.

Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge financial support

from the Project BAssessment of emission and environmental pollution of
1 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)—a new and emerging class of
RQ < 1 : No significant risk
persistent organic pollutants (No. 104.07-2012.740) from National Foun-
dation for Science and Technology Development of Vietnam
0.02
0.02 (NAFOSTED). Chemical analyses of PBDEs using tandem GC/MS/
MS in Center for Environmental Monitoring, Vietnam Environment Ad-
ministration in framework of the Project Establishment of Dioxin Labo-
0.015
0.015 ratory in Vietnam (AP-16657 and BMGF-50799) supported by Atlantic
Philanthropies and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, were acknowl-
RQs

edged. We also wish to thank Prof. Alexander Scheeline, University of

0.01
0.01 Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA, for critical reading of this
manuscript.

0.005
0.005

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