ARCH 1311

Issue # 24/1/2021

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

ARCHITECTURAL MAGAZINE

EARLY DAYS OF THE

ROMAN REPUBLIC
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TEMPLE OF JUPITER
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1
OPTIMUS MAXIMUS

ETRUSCAN, GREEK AND

INDIGENOUS INFLUENCE
 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we wanted to express our gratitude towards
completing this assignment given. It was such a great experience
that we went through as a team although online. We learned so
much throughout the process of writing this magazine. We
would also like to thank Sir Sharyzee Mohd Shukri for teaching
us with so much passion throughout the semester. We would
also like to thank each other’s, members of the group for
sticking by each other and supporting each other throughout the
process.
 4

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2
LIST OF GROUP MEMBERS 3

TABLE OF CONTENT 4
ROMAN REPUBLIC 5-6
TRANSITION TO EARLY 7-13
ROMAN REPUBLIC
ROMAN LAW 14-15

TRANSITION OF ROMAN 16-17

REPUBLIC TO ROMAN
EMPIRE
HISTORY OF TEMPLE OF 18
JUPITER OPTIMUS
MAXIMUS
EFFECT OF CAPITOLIUM 19
ON ROMAN REPUBLIC
STAGES OF THE BUILDING 20

BUILDING STYLE 22-25

CONCLUSION 26

REFERENCES 27-28
 5

ROMAN REPUBLIC
The Roman Republic narrate the
period in which the city-state of Rome
existed as a republican government
traditionally dated to 509 BC, and
ending in 27 BC with the
establishment of the Roman Empire,
one of the oldest examples of
representative democracy in the
world.
After hundreds of years of rule
under kings, the year 509 BC saw the
face of roman civilisation change
forever. According to tradition, Rome
Roman society at that time was
had 6 pretty decent kings who were
primarily a multicultural society of
progressive and had their people’s best
Latin and Etruscan societies, as well as
interests at hearts as they invested into
of Sabine, Oscan, and Greek cultural
local agriculture, business, trade,
elements.
social well-being, housing renovation
and yeah, maybe the odd war here and During that time, the most
there. But each war brough more powerful part of the government was
wealth to the land but the 7th and which actually a group called the senate
was also the last was an Etruscan king, which used to give favours to around
named Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 300 upper-class men who already
who lived nearby in central Italy and owned large estates and wanted to stay
was told was cruel, preceding used to rich and they used to be called
ruled Rome. The king was brought Patricians. After all, they believed
down from the throne in 509 B.C by that only high-class people could hold
popular citizens and forced to live the office. Therefore, the ordinary citizens
remainder of his days in reluctant were called plebeians who could not
exile. Richest citizens vowed never to hold office or be senators in the early
put so much trust in a leader again. republic. They had jobs soldiers in the
They then created a new form of Roman army and craftsmen. However,
government which is a republic. In a both the patricians and the plebeians
republic, citizens are given the right to made up the citizens assembly.
vote who they want as their leaders and Patricians vote normally won in the
these leaders used to rule in the name assembly. There were 2 consuls per
of people. These congresses they used year elected. They all had to agree
to held was to decide very important before final decisions could be made.
matters for the city on behalf of its The magistrates collected taxes and
population. were often judges.
 6

When the magistrates retired, they

became members of the senate. The
senate debated new laws and also gave
advice to the consuls.
To be a citizen you must have been
the child of a citizen or been born in
Rome. Slaves could never be citizens
no matter where they were born. The
citizen had many rights compare to the
non-citizens. At times, non-citizens
could become citizens if they worked
very hard for the Romans, they might
be granted a special award of
citizenship. Likewise, it was possible
for slaves to be freed but their owner
should choose this for them. Women
and slaves had no right to say in on
how government should run. The
provincial people were those who
lived in the conquered lands and like
the women and slaves, they also had
no right to say in how Rome needs to
be run.
 7

TRANSITION TO EARLY ROMAN

REPUBLIC
HISTORY AT THE EARLIEST
There is at least 5,000 years of
historical evidence of human
settlement of the Rome region, but the
thick layer of much younger rubble
obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic Rome timeline
sites. The evidence implying the
ancient founding of the city is often Roman Kingdom and Republic
hidden by the tradition of the
beginning of Rome involving
Romulus and Remus. 753 BC According to legend, Romulus founds Rome.

The standard date for the

foundation of Rome is 753-04-21 BC, 753–
after Marcus Terentius Varro, and Rule of the seven Kings of Rome.
509 BC
since around that time, the town and
surrounding region of Latium has been
populated with no disruption. 509 BC Creation of the Republic.

Excavations made in 2014

390 BC The Gauls invade Rome. Rome sacked.
uncovered a wall installed years before
the official foundation year of the city.
A stone wall and fragments of pottery 264–
Punic Wars.
dated from the 9th century BC and the 146 BC
beginning of the 8th century BC were
discovered by archaeologists, and 146– Social and Civil Wars. Emergence
there is evidence of individuals 44 BC of Marius, Sulla, Pompey and Caesar.
arriving on the Palatine Hill as early as
the 10th century BC.
44 BC Julius Caesar assassinated.
 8

TRANSITION TO EARLY ROMAN

REPUBLIC
LEGEND OF ORIGIN IN ROME The general population was also
divided into thirty Curiae, named after
It is assumed that the root of the
thirty of the Sabine women who
name of the city is that of the reputed
intervened to end the conflict between
founder and first king, the mythical
Romulus and Tatius. The Curiae in the
Romulus. It is said that after being
Comitia Curiata formed the voting
deserted, Romulus and his twin
units.
brother Remus, apparent sons of the
god Mars and descendants of the There were efforts to locate a
Trojan hero Aeneas, were suckled by a linguistic origin for the word Rome.
she-wolf, then decided to create a Possibilities include Greek Ῥώμη
village. Romulus murdered Remus, derivation, meaning strength, courage;
the brothers argued, and then called probably the connection is with a root
the city Rome after himself. He *rum-, "teat" with a possible relation
allowed men of all classes to come to to the totem wolf who adopted the
Rome as citizens after founding and cognately-named twins and suckled
naming Rome (as the story goes), them. The city's Etruscan name seems
including slaves and freemen without to have been Ruma.
distinction. Romulus welcomed the
surrounding tribes to a festival in
Rome to supply his people with wives,
where he kidnapped dozens of their
young women (known as The Rape of
the Sabine Women). Romulus shared
the kingship with King Titus Tatius of
Sabine during the subsequent conflict
with the Sabines. To establish the
Roman senate as an advisory council
to the king, Romulus chose 100 of the
most noble men. He named these men The new born twins Romulus and Remus are
Patres, and their children were suckled by Capitoline Wolf
Patricians. He produced equites for
three centuries: Ramnes (meaning
Romans), Tities (after the King of
Sabine), and Luceres (Etruscans).

Romulus and Remus on the House of the She-

wolf at the Grand Place of Brussels
 9

TRANSITION TO EARLY ROMAN

REPUBLIC
CREATION OF THE TOWN Many Roman historians (including
Porcius Cato and Gaius Sempronius)
About 30 km (19 mi) from the
regarded the origins of the Romans
Tyrrhenian Sea on the south side of the
(descendants of the Aborigines) as
Tiber, Rome developed from
Greek, according to Dionysius of
agricultural settlements on the Palatine
Halicarnassus, despite the fact that their
Hill and surrounding hills. The
knowledge was drawn from mythical
Quirinal Hill was possibly an outpost
Greek accounts. Specifically, the
for the other Italic-speaking
Sabines were first mentioned in the
inhabitants of the Sabines. The Tiber
account of Dionysius for having taken
forms a Z-shaped curve at this spot,
the city of Lista by surprise, which was
containing an island where the river
known as the Aborigines' mother city.
can be traced. Rome was at a
crossroads with traffic following the
river valley because of the river and
the ford, and of travelers travelling
north and south on the western side of
the peninsula.
Archaeological discoveries have
established that in the 8th century BC,
in the region of the future Rome, there
were two fortified settlements: Rumi
on the Palatine Hill and Titientes on
the Quirinal Hill, assisted by the
Luceres living in the surrounding
woods. These were only three of the
many Italic-speaking groups that lived
in the 1st millennium BC in Lazio, a
plain on the Italian peninsula. The
origins of the Italic peoples lie in
prehistory and are still not understood
exactly, however in the second half of
the 2nd millennium BC, their Indo- Palatine Hill
European languages spread from the
east.
 10

TRANSITION TO EARLY ROMAN

REPUBLIC
BACKGROUND IN ITALICS
Latins (in the west), Sabines (in the
upper valley of the Tiber), Umbrians
(in the north-east), Samnites (in the
south), Oscans, and others were the
Italian speakers in the area. They
shared the peninsula with two other
large ethnic groups in the 8th century
BC: the Etruscans in the North and the
Greeks in the South.
The Etruscans (Etrusci or Tusci in
Latin) were founded in Etruria, north
of Rome (modern northern Lazio,
Tuscany and part of Umbria). Cities
such as Tarquinia, Veii, and Volterra
were established and Roman culture
was strongly influenced, as clearly
seen by the Etruscan heritage of some
of the legendary Roman rulers. The
origins of the ancient Etruscans are
missing. Historians have no literature,
no religious or philosophical sources,
but much of what is known about this
culture is taken from the finds of grave
goods and tombs. The behavior of the
Etruscans has contributed to some
doubt. Etruscan is, like Latin, inflected
and Hellenized. The Etruscans were
patrilineal and patriarchal, like the
Indo-Europeans. They were war-like, The Etruscan Tomb of the Whipping
much like the italics. In reality, the
gladiatorial displays evolved from
Etruscan funeral customs. Between
750 and 550 BC (which the Romans
later called Magna Graecia), the
Greeks founded several colonies in
southern Italy, such as Cumae, Naples,
Reggio Calabria, Crotone, Sybaris,
and Taranto, as well as two-thirds of
eastern Sicily.
 11

TRANSITION TO EARLY ROMAN

REPUBLIC
DOMINANCE IN ETRUSCANITY Some scholars (again, this is disputed)
claim that Rome has been under the
The Etruscans became powerful in
control of the Etruscans for nearly a
Italy after 650 BC, spreading into north-
century. A bridge called the Pons
central Italy. Roman legend stated that
Sublicius was designed during this
from 753 to 509 BC, Rome had been
time to replace the Tiber ford, and the
under the rule of seven kings, starting
Cloaca Maxima was also constructed;
with the legendary Romulus who, along
the Etruscans are said to have been
with his brother Remus, was said to have
great builders of this type of
founded the city of Rome. The last three
construction. From a cultural and
kings, namely Tarquinius Priscus,
technological point of view, the
Servius Tullius and Tarquinius
Etruscans, only exceeded by the
Superbus, were said to be Etruscan (at
Greeks, had arguably the second-
least partially). (The ancient literary
largest influence on Roman
sources claim Priscus is the son of a
development.
Greek refugee and an Etruscan mother.)
Their names refer to Tarquinia, an The Etruscans, spreading further
Etruscan region. south, came into close contact with the
Greeks and briefly prevailed in clashes
Livy, Plutarch, Halicarnassus'
with the Greek colonists; Etruria went
Dionysius, among others. It says that a
into decline after that. Taking
succession of seven kings-controlled
advantage of this, Rome revolted
Rome during its first millennia. As
around 500 BC and gained
codified by Varro, the standard
independence from the Etruscans. It
chronology allocates 243 years to their
also abandoned the monarchy in
reigns, an average of approximately 35
favour of a Senate-based republican
years, which has been widely dismissed
structure consisting of the city's
after the work of Barthold Georg
nobles, along with common
Niebuhr by modern scholarship. After
assemblies that guaranteed civic
the Battle of Allia in 390 BC (according
participation annually for most free-
to Polybius, the battle took place in
born citizens and elected magistrates.
387/6), the Gauls destroyed most of
Rome's historical archives as they
sacked the city and what was left was
ultimately lost to time or robbery. The
accounts of the kings must be closely
questioned without contemporary
documents of the realm remaining. The
kings' list is indeed of questionable
historical significance, since historical
rulers may be the last-named kings.
 12

TRANSITION TO EARLY ROMAN

REPUBLIC
The Etruscans left Rome with a
lasting influence. The Romans learnt
from them to construct temples, and
the Etruscans may have adopted from
the Etruscan gods the worship of a
triad of gods, Juno, Minerva, and
Jupiter: Uni, Menrva, and Tinia.
However, the influence of Etruscan
people in the construction of Rome is
often overstated. Rome was
predominantly a Latin region. It never
completely became Etruscan.
Evidence also suggests that the
Romans, largely by commerce, were
strongly influenced by the Greek cities
in the South. The Servian Wall takes its name from king
Servius Tullius and are the first true walls
of Rome

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus 526–509 BC

 13

TRANSITION TO EARLY ROMAN

REPUBLIC
THE EARLY REPUBLIC What made it worse was that, within
the Roman society itself, there were
The Romans instantly find
significant conflicts of exactly the sort
themselves battling for their life with
we encounter in Greek city-states. The
the expulsion of the last king, Tarquin
bulk of the populace, the Plebeians,
the Proud. A concerted assault on them
resented the manner in which the
was orchestrated by Tarquin and his
Patricians, the tiny community of
Etruscan allies, and hill-tribes
leading families, ruled, as the myths
including the Sabines and Volsci
reported by later Roman historians have
raided their territories. These assaults
it. The former felt that the latter were
were fought off by the Romans, but
interpreting customs to their own benefit
from now on they were constantly at
through their control over the law
war with their Latin, Sabine, Volscian
courts, enabling them (powerful,
and Etruscan neighbours.
patrician and wealthy) to behave in a
harsh and unfair manner against their
debtors (poor, plebeian and powerless).
However, unlike in many Greek nations,
the Plebeians did not advocate for the
division of territory, nor did they strike
the Patricians aggressively and threaten
to take power. Instead, they went on
strike (or a "secessio"-technically under
their own appointed officials, called
tribunes, they briefly "seceded" from the
state) and refused to pay their taxes or
serve in the army.

The seventh King of Rome, ruling from 535

until the Roman rebellion in 509 B.C., was
Tarquinius Superbus. Guillaume Rouille
 14

ROMAN LAW
The knowledge of the roman law
in the early days of Rome are
incomplete due to the scarcity of the
authentic records and the gap in the
ancient historical sources.
Roman legal history can be
divided to several periods consistent
with the modes of law-making and
therefore the character of legal
establishments that came to prevail in
numerous epochs.
The history of the Roman law may
be divided into four phases. The first
one being the archaic period which is
from the 8th century BC to the 3rd
century BC. This period is during the Another way of the laws being
Monarchy and the early years of the implemented includes the Plebeian
Republic. Next is the pre-classical being council, decrees by the senate,
period from the 3rd century BC to the decisions by the magistrates and
beginning of the Principate in the first edicts by the emperor.
century AD. This phase covers the
later Republic years and the earlier The laws were enforced by the
part of the Principate. Then, the praetor. Praetor has the second highest
classical period came around the first ranking officially after the consults in
century Ad to the middle of the third Roman Republic. Also, responsible
century AD. Lastly, the post-classical for the administration of justice.
period from the mid of the 3rd century Romans also had a police force called
AD to the mid of the 6th century AD, the Vigiles. They are responsible for
covering the later years of the keeping the laws in the city. They also
Principate and the Dominate. dealt with thieves, runaway slaves and
such. During riots when more forces
The laws were created of various than Viliges is needed, military groups
ways. The first means of constructing were used such as the Praetorian
official new laws was through the Guard and the urban cohorts.
Roman assemblies. Laws were voted
on by the assemblies which the
members were made up of several
citizens.
 15
ROMAN LAW
The Twelve Tables Law
The twelve tables.
In about 450 BC, the Roman private
law begins. Some laws were written on
stone tablets for people to see and it is
known as the Law of the Twelve
Tables. They were described as the
source of laws (private and public) and
during this period, even the
schoolchildren had to learn them. The
Twelve Tables contains a list of
important legal rules instead of a law
code in the modern sense. The rules
are also difficult to be understood
nowadays.
Since the Twelve Tables did not
survive, our information of it is
extremely fragmental, and also the
order during which appeared in them
is mostly unknown. The provisions
which are known indicate that the
matters of family law, succession and
property were outstanding, as is maybe
to be expected during this era,
however they also attest great concern
with setting out the rules for legal
purposes.
Ius.
The early law of Rome additionally
consisted in common law, that had not
been created by enactment however
merely was recognized as being the
law. A number of this in fact was what
was ultimately embodied with the Law
of Twelve Tables. This old, unwritten
law was referred to as ius.
Many of the rights given to the people
under the Roman law is only being
applied to the Roman citizens. There
was also different level of the Roman
citizenship as it was a big deal being a
Roman citizen. The level of
citizenships has different rights too.
The punishment given for committing
crime was also not the same for
everyone. The punishment you
received will be based on your status.
An upper-class citizen was to receive a
smaller punishment compared to
slaves and lower-classes citizen. The
punishment given could include fines,
death, lashing, and could also be
banned from Rome. The Romans do
have prisons but they don’t usually
send them to jail or prison for crimes
but instead prisons are usually used
just to hold people while they are
guilty.
Some aspects of Roman Law are
actually still being used up to this day
in many countries. Many of these
concepts are being used in a
democratic based government.
 16

TRANSITION OF ROMAN REPUBLIC

TO ROMAN EMPIRE
As Rome grew larger and became The stronger he got the more
more powerful and prosperous, it worried the senate were of his power
caused internal clashes that started to over the military so they demanded
arise as residents and militaries battled him to return and live a citizen. He
for power. That stage of the roman denied and stormed with his army into
republic suffered from greed, Rome where a war between him and
corruption and the misuse of foreign his rival Pompey arose. Pompey was
labour slaves by the elite wealthy defeated, escaped to Egypt where he
patricians. Roman citizens were put was killed by Ptolemy XIII.
out of work and replaced with slaves
and so gangs of unemployed romans
hired themselves as thugs to senates
who would pay more. The amount of
corruption caused a number of public
outbursts such as the movement of the
Gracchi brothers, two Roman tribunes
who fought for land political reform in
general. These conflicts later resulted
in civil war arising and of which a
prominent general and statesman
called Julius Caesar was gaining Bust of Pompey the Great in the Ny
loyalty of soldiers after he managed to Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.
conquer the province of Gaul.

Caesar won the war and returned to

The Tusculum portrait, perhaps the only
surviving sculpture of Caesar made during
his lifetime.
Rome a hero where he was named
dictator for life. [1] He was very
prominent in Rome because of his
lavish expenditures and generosity,
bestowing lavish gifts on the people
closest to him and showing mercy to
the people he conquered and spared
many of the political opponents he
defeated. Senate feared the power
Caesar was gaining so they
assassinated by stabbing him
repeatedly 23 times.
 17

The Death of Caesar (1798) by Vincenzo

Camuccini.

They had hoped that by doing so

the roman republic would rise again.
On the contrary, what they had done
was end the republic. Wars arose and
eventually Caesar's nephew and heir
Augustus defeated the conspirators.
He then established himself as the first
Roman emperor.

The statue known as the Augustus of Prima

Porta, 1st century
 18

HISTORY OF TEMPLE THE TEMPLE OF

JUPITER OPTIMUS MAXIMUS

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus The emperor, Vespasian, who newly

Maximus is also well known as the came, quickly rebuilt the temple on the
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. same foundations but this time it was
According to Tarquinius Priscus, it with a luxury superstructure. It was
was an Etruscan king of Rome who built taller than the previous one and it
used to rule in the pre-Republican was dedicated in 75 BC.
period, was the one who decided to Unfortunately, the third temple also
build the Temple. it was actually the was burned during the reign of Titus in
most important temple in ancient 80 BC. Domitian who was the Roman
Rome. Like most of the monumental emperor from 80 to 96, immediately
temples, the temple of juniper rebuilt the temple, again on the
Optimus Maximus also has been previous foundations, but in the most
constructed in highly visible locations. lavish superstructure yet and was
It is Situated on top at the Capitoline completed in A.D 82. The temple then
Hill, city of Rome, Italy. Lots of men has lasted more or less intact for over
were chosen to perform the dedication three hundred years. The temple
of this temple but the duty was given actually symbolizes the “sovereignty
to Marcus Horatius Pulvillus. It had a and immortality" of Roman
position like in cathedral in the civilization as in an effort to
religion of Rome which was distinguish itself from neighbouring
surrounded by the Area Capitolina, it peoples when establishing the new
was a restricted area where certain Roman Republic.
assemblies used to meet, and was a
holy place, altars, statues, and also
victory trophies were displayed. The
first building was the oldest large
temple in Rome at that time, and we
can consider it as essentially Etruscan
architecture. It was traditionally built-
in 509 BC, the traditional date for the
first year of the Roman Republic. and
declared sacred in 507 BC, but in 83
BC it was destroyed by fire, was
replaced in a Greek-style which was
completed in 69 BC but was burnt
down when there was a fight on the hill
on 19 December of 69 BC, when an
army who was loyal to Vespasian
fought to enter the city in the year of
the four emperors. Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
 19

EFFECT OF THE CAPITOLIUM ON

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

We can see that Rome was impacted by

the Etruscan presence in the Early to Mid-
Republic period by considering the
effects of the Capitolium on the rest of the
Roman Republic, and Roman architecture
in general. The Capitolium became a
crucial statue for Rome since its founding
connection to Jupiter. A lot of similar
temples were built throughout the
Republic and some Roman cities would
create their own Capitolium in an attempt
to mimic Rome.
The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
also has a very clear and strong Etruscan
influence in its architecture. The culture
of Etruscan temple architecture spread
throughout the republic.
The Capitolium had impact on the Roma
temple buildings and Etruscan
architecture proliferated through the
Roman Republic.
 20

STAGES OF THE BUILDING

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus The best estimate is that it resembles

Maximusis known was easily known as an Etruscan temple such as the Temple
the most important temple in Ancient of Minerva at Veii which consists of a
Rome. It has however gone through a high podium with a single frontal
number of fires and had to be staircase leading to a three-column
reconstructed. The original building was deep pronaos fronted by a hexastyle
built in 509 BC, the founding year of (six columns across). The three-part
(tripartite) interior with three adjacent
the Roman Republic and was
cellae (rooms) for the three major
consecrated later in 507 BC. It is the
deities honored within (Jupiter, Juno,
oldest large and the most important
and Minerva) was one of its defining
religious temple in Rome that, like many features.
other had similar features to Etruscan
architecture . The foundation of the
temple formed of Cappellaccio tufa that
was believed to be minded from the
building site itself as it was being
excavated and levelled for the temple.
The podium for the temple likely
measured 50m x 60m sully based on the
surviving parts of the archaic foundation.
Although those measurements are
heavily disputed by some specialists as
the building doesn’t exist now nor do we
have scholarly base measurements on it.

Plan of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus

Maximus (Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus)
Rome, Italy; sixth century B.C.E. through
fifth century C.E.
 21

STAGES OF THE BUILDING

A number of improvements and In the 16th century, it was subsumed

repairs were made in the building's into a large private residence, the
lifetime such as the ones made in the Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino, which
re-stuccoing of the columns and walls became part of the current-day
in 179 BC, the addition of mosaic Capitoline Hill. Today, remains and
flooring in the cella after the Third different portions such as a back wall
Punic War, and the gilding of the of the temple can be found in museums
coffered ceiling inside the cella in 142 and exhibition areas.
BC. The first temple eventually burned
in 83 BC, during the civil wars under
the dictatorship of Sulla.
For the second building
incomplete columns from the Temple
of Zeus were seized and transported to
Rome and were re-used in the Temple
of Jupiter. The new structure was then
finished in 69 BC on the same grounds
but with much more expensive
materials for the superstructure only to podium remnant, tuff, Temple of Jupiter
Optimus Maximus, begun 6th century B.C.E.
be burnt down during the course of
(Capitoline Museums, Rome)
fighting on the hill on 19 December of
69 AD.
It was rebuilt a third time in 75 A.D
with lavish superstructure and even
higher structure then the one previous
to it. However, it then burned during
the reign of Titus in 80 AD.
The building was then
immediately rebuilt and was
completed in A.D. 82. With the most
lavish structure yet, it incorporated an
extraordinary amount of gold,
elaborate sculptures and Renaissance
drawings. The building eventually was
spoliated a number of times through
the Middle Ages due to lack of upkeep
after all pagan temples were closed by
emperor Theodosius I in 392.
 22
BUILDING STYLE
The Temple of Jupiter Optimus
Maximus, also known as the
Capitoline Temple of Jupiter (Latin:
Aedes Iovis Optimi Maximi
Capitolini; Italian: Tempio di Giove
Ottimo Massimo; English: 'The
Temple of Jupiter, the Greatest and the
Best') was the most prominent temple
on the Capitoline Hill in ancient
Rome. It was surrounded by the
Capitolina City, a precinct where
numerous shrines, altars, statues and
trophies of victory were seen.
The first structure was the oldest
large temple in Rome, and shared
characteristics with Etruscan
architecture, like many temples in
central Italy. It was historically
dedicated in 509 BC and was
destroyed by fire in 83 BC, and a
Greek-style replacement was
completed in 69 BC (there were to be
two more fires and new buildings).
Etruscan experts are brought in for
different aspects of the construction,
including creating and painting the
extensive terracotta elements of the
Temple of Zeus or upper sections,
such as antefixes, for the first temple
sources.
The first version is the largest
temple recorded in the Etruscan style,
and for centuries later, much larger
than other Roman temples. Its height,
however, remains widely debated by
specialists; it was believed to have
been almost 60 m × 60 m (200 ft × 200
ft), not far short of the largest Greek
temples, based on an ancient tourist.
Not much shy of Greece's biggest
temples. Whatever its scale, it was
important and long-lasting in its
influence on other early Roman
temples. Typically, reconstructions
display very large eaves, and a wide
colonnade extending down the sides,
but not around the back wall as it
would have done in a traditional Greek
temple. On a coin from 78 BC, a
primitive illustration reveals just four
columns, and a very busy roofline.
The third temple only lasted five
years, to 80 A.D., with two more fires,
but the fourth survived until the
collapse of the empire. In the Middle
Ages and Renaissance, remnants of the
final temple survived to be pillaged for
spolia, but only elements of the
foundations and the podium or base
now survive; since these were
apparently reused by the subsequent
temples, they may date partly to the
first building. Much remains unclear
about the different houses.
Speculative model of the first Temple of
Jupiter Optimus Maximus, 509 BC.
 23

BUILDING STYLE

ORIGINALLY
The original Jupiter Temple
Optimus Maximus was possibly built
of stucco-faced mud brick and
cappellaccio foundations. There were
three cellas, or temple chambers, one
in the center for Jupiter Optimus, one
on the right for Minerva, and one on
the left for Juno Regina. The cellars
were probably not the full width of the
podium. The initial temple possibly
measured about 53 x 63 meters in
scale. It is difficult to represent what
the Temple would have looked like,
with nothing but foundations left. One
possibility is presented by the project Digital rendering from Rome Reborn, of the
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.
Rome Reborn. John North Hopkins
describes another reconstruction of a
74 x 54-meter base with a 4.85-meter-
tall podium and a porch filled with
columns. Filippo Coarelli indicates
that each side of the Temple had
colonnades, six columns at the front of
the Temple, and two more column
rows between the cella's façade and
front walls. While scholars still debate
the architecture of the Temple, the
colossal scale is the most significant
factor. During almost one thousand
years of Roman civilization, the
unparalleled size and complexity of
the Temple greatly contributed to its Reconstruction of Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, John
influence as a cultural icon. North Hopkins.
 24

BUILDING STYLE

CURRENT STATE The current best guess is that the

temple was quite similar in plan to that of
The temple's remains include parts
late-archaic Etruscan temples like the
of the base and podium of the tuff (a
Temple of Minerva at Veii (also called
type of rock made of volcanic ash), as
the temple of Portonaccio)-a high
well as some architectural elements of
podium (platform) with a single frontal
marble and terracotta. On the grounds
staircase leading to a hexastyle (six
of the Palazzo Caffarelli (today part of
columns across) arrangement of columns
the Capitoline Museums), much of the
fronted by a three-column deep pronaos
structural remains can be seen in situ
(porch). The three-part (tripartite)
(in their original setting), and
interior with three adjacent cellas
surviving parts are found inside the
(rooms) for the three main deities
Capitoline Museums.
honoured inside was one of the
distinguishing characteristics of the
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
(Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva).

Podium remnant, tuff, Temple of Jupiter

Optimus Maximus, begun 6th century B.C.E.
(Capitoline Museums, Rome)

The podium for the temple

possibly measured approximately 50m
x 60m based on the remaining portions
of the archaic foundation. However,
these dimensions are somewhat Plan of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
speculative, since there is no empirical (Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus) Rome, Italy;
consensus on the exact measurements. sixth century B.C.E. through fifth century C.E.
 25
BUILDING STYLE
Terracotta elements, including
acroteria (roofline sculptures) and a
large terracotta statue of Jupiter
driving a quadriga, were present at the
earliest stage of the temple (four-horse
chariot). Another image of Jupiter, the
cult statue allegedly sculpted by the
famous archaic sculptor Vulca of Veii,
was inside the temple. This statue was
painted red and, during officially
sanctioned triumphs, served as the
basis for the practice of painting the
faces of Roman generals.
In contrast to the modest terracotta
(baked clay) that was used to adorn the
earliest versions of the temple, many
Roman sources note that much more
lavish materials were present in the
later reconstructions produced during
the Roman Empire period. The temple
was identified as outstanding in its
quality and appearance by ancient
writers, including Plutarch, Cassius
Dio, Suetonius, and Ammianus, with a
superstructure of Pentelic marble,
gilded roof tiles, gold-plated doors,
and elaborate pedimented relief
sculpture.
LASTING INFLUENCE
Although the Temple of Jupiter
Optimus Maximus was designed in an
Etruscan style and included Etruscan
artisans, it still serves as the point of
origin for the growth of the tradition of
Roman temple-building, which also
integrated local elements into a Roman
template more generally.
The enduring importance of the
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
can be better recognized in terms of
architectural history by its impact on
the design of Roman temples from the
last two centuries B.C.E until the third
century C.E. Imperial temples in the
empire, including the Portunus
Temple in Rome, the Maison Carrée in
France. The numerous Capitolia
(Temples dedicated to Jupiter, Juno,
and Minerva) of Roman colonies
founded in North Africa show a strong
visual connection with a shared
frontality, deep front porch, and rich
sculptural adornment to the Capitoline
temple (some characteristics of which
are shared by the Temple of
Baalshamin at Palmyra). However, in
the overall Roman approach to
designing architecture, colossal scale,
urban environment, lavish decoration,
and imposing elevation, the influence
of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus
Maximus can also be seen. Together,
these elements are hallmarks of
Roman temples and indicate that the
Optimus Maximus Temple of Jupiter
was a point of origin for what would
become a widely recognized
architectural mark of the
Mediterranean world's Roman
sovereignty.
 26

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the temple is considered the oldest and

most important large temple in Rome. The hill in of
which it was built in was named after it, Capitoline hill.
Initially dedicated on 509 BC and like many other
temples at that time the building had features of Etruscan
architecture. After being destroyed by a fire in 83 BC. it
was then replaced by a new building with Greek style in
69 BC. The temple went on to be burned twice after that
and so underwent many different styles through its
lifetime. The remains we have today are some remains
from the ruins of the podium and foundation. The
information we have on the building are thanks to a lot of
hard work from scholars that with intensive research
were able to provide us with the initial drawing of the
building confirming that it was indeed one of the biggest
temples of its time.
 27

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