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The Significance of Agricultural Insurance in The Development of the

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International Journal of Research in Business, Economics and Management
Vol.3 Issue 1 January-February 2019
www.ijrbem.com

The Significance of Agricultural Insurance in The Development of the

Agricultural Sector in Zimbabwe: A Case Study of Mashonaland Central
Province
Gerald Munyoro &Beatrice Ambiyo Moyo
Graduate Business School, School of Entrepreneurship and Business Sciences, Chinhoyi
University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
ABSTRACT

This study focuses on the significance of agricultural insurance in the development of agricultural
sector in Zimbabwe and looking at farmers in Mazowe district of Mashonaland Central province.
The study used used positivism philosophy and case study research design. This was made up of
a sample of 500 respondents. Questionnaires and focus groups were used to collect data. Rsults
from the study show that agricultural insurance is significant and should be a pre-requisite for any
agricultural practioner in Zimbabwe and beyond. The study recommends that insurance companies
should embark on education and awareness campaigns aimed at helping famers especially in A1
sector to appreciate its significance in the development of agricultural sector in Zimbabwe.
Consequently, the insurance companies should adjust their premiums to enable financially stricken
be able to pay. Furthermore, insurance companies should reduce the waiting period for claims so
as to earn the famers’ confidence.

Key words: Agricultural insurance, Development of agricultural sector, Mazowe district,

Positivism, Zimbabwe

INTRODUCTION
The Zimbabwean agricultural sector has been widely acknowledged as the mainstay of the national
economy (Mutekwa, 2009; Munyoro et al, 2017). Consequently, its performance directly mirrors
that of the economy as it is closely linked to poverty alleviation, employment creation and the
generation of national income (Munyoro et al, 2018; Maiyaki, 2010). Demonstrating its critical
role in the economy, the Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency (2004) propagates that the
agricultural sector in Zimbabwe contributes 14% to the Gross Domestic Product, provides
employment to 70% of the population, supplies 60% of the raw materials used in the manufacturing
sector, and accounts for approximately 45% of the nation’s total exports. Therefore, it is evident
that the sector is an anchor for national food security and economic stability, justifying why the
government has resolutely endeavored to ensure that the sector remains vibrant (Munyoro et al,
2017) through the support of farmers (Tekere, 2012; Munyoro et al, 2018). This has mainly been
executed through diverse support programs that encompass financial, equipment and technical
support, even though they have incessantly been condemned by opposition parties and economic
commentators on the grounds that they are quasi-fiscal activities, that should instead be handled
correctly by banks and other suitable financial institutions (www.finangaz.co.zw, ;
www.newsday.co.zw). In addition, private players, international donors and governments such as

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Brazil and Belarus have equally been involved in supporting the development of agriculture in
Zimbabwe by availing loans, equipment such as irrigation and tractors among other things
(www.theherald.co.zw; Munyoro et al, 2018). However, this role of government assistance in the
form of funding and equipping farmers cannot be overemphasized, especially given the risks
involved in the farming business in Zimbabwe. Such risks include the vagaries of the weather,
pests and diseases and the effects of climate change (Gebrehiwot and Van der Veen, 2015). The
country has thus been at the mercy of global warming and climatic change, and has not been spared
from the consequences of consecutive severe droughts as well as the effects of El Nino, that have
mainly resulted in extensive flooding (Manatsa et al, 2010; Gebrehiwot & Van der Veen, 2015).
Consequently, there has been high incidences of crop failure and livestock losses, which also led
to food security challenges, the reduction of national herds, the collapse of industries due to lack
of raw materials and the loss of jobs and livelihoods for the general populace. The Zimbabwean
government has generally failed to cope with these economic shocks, despite its commendable
efforts in funding agricultural activities since 1980 (FAO, 2008; Kahan, 2013; World Bank, 2005).
Thus, this study aims establishing the existence of agriculture insurance in Zimbabwe. In addition,
the study wishes to identify various agriculture insurance policies available in Zimbabwe as well
as ascertaining the significance of agriculture insurance to the development of agriculture in
Zimbabwe

The Background of the Study

Zimbabwe, like many Southern African Development Community (SADC) economies, were
ruthlessly subjugated by discriminatory colonial policies, which were aimed at ensuring that the
utility obtained through farming was so low that black Zimbabweans would have no option but to
seek employment in mines, commercial farms or join the urban labour force as noted by
Waeterloos and Rutherford (2004) and Munyoro et al (2018). These bigoted policies resulted in
the relegation of indigenous black Zimbabweans and their families to the poor and low agro-
potential regions, whilst the white settlers amassed the best land for themselves as suggested by
Dabale and Chiringa (2014) and Munyoro et al (2018). This means that land distribution in the
country was biased towards the white minority settlers who only comprised 3% of the total
population, and yet they were controlling 75% of the economically viable land. On the other hand,
the black majority had only 25 % of the total land as noted by Mutasa (2015), Chigunhah et al
(2018) and Munyoro et al (2018). In addition, the white minority occupied freehold land with title
deeds and unparalleled access to financial, extension and research benefits in the best agro-
ecological regions such as regions I, II and III respectively (Hill and Katarere, 2002; Munyoro et
al, 2018; Chigunhah et al, 2018). However, the majority of the black people occupied communal
lands (which were known as reserves) with usufruct rights (state land without title deeds) in the
inferior regions such as regions IV and V (Utete, 2003; Munyoro et al, 2018; Chigunhah et al,
2018). Palmer and Hermemann (1997) and Utete (2003) argue that the black majority was forced
to stay in communal lands/ reserves because this was meant to disempower them economically
and politically. The sad thing is that these reserve areas were degraded and infertile (Dabale et al,
2014; Mutasa, 2015; Chigunhah et al, 2018) and this was part of the plan by whites to control
blacks (Sullins, 1991; Chitsike, 2003; Munyoro et al, 2018).

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This highlights the land distribution imbalances and the fact that Zimbabwe’s national asset
portfolio is mainly dominated by land, resulted in long standing political tensions between the
white minority and the black majority (Hentze and Menz, 2015; Munyoro et al, 2018). These
tensions eventually culminated into two wars, the first Chimurenga War that was fought between
1896 and 1897, and the Second Chimurenga War that was fought between 1964 and 1979
(Chavunduka & Bromley, 2010; Hentze & Menz, 2015; Munyoro et al, 2018). Consequently,
independence was attained in 1980, and various policies were put in place to correct the skewed
land distribution, particularly through the willing buyer- willing seller policy (Munyoro et al,
2018). Persistent clashes eventually led to the controversial Fast Track Land Reform Programme
(FTLRP), which led to the compulsory restoration of land to the native black people (Munyoro et
al, 2017). Despite evoking mixed emotions and reviews globally, Moyo et al (2000) and Munyoro
et al (2018) argue that it was necessary to embark on land reform in Zimbabwe but the sad story
is that yields declined following the Fast Track Land Reform Program (Moyo et al, 2000; Munyoro
et al, 2018), even though there are some who feel that the yields and productivity of farms actually
increased significantly (Utete, 2003). The decline of yields argument is also supported by Human
Rights Watch (2002) and Africa Review (2012) who also ascribed that the tumbling of yields after
the controversial Fast Track Land Reform Programme was as a result of lack of production
resources by the new farmers as they inherited untitled land without sustained government support,
and worse still the lack of agriculture insurance. As suggested by Chigunhah et al (2018) and Cliffe
et al (2011), this background tainted the new breed of farmers’ creditworthiness as banks and other
financiers became reluctant to advance funds to them, notwithstanding the fact that millions of
people in Zimbabwe depend on agriculture for their livelihood (Dabale and Chiringa, 2014;
Munyoro et al, 2018; Chigunhah et al, 2018).

Besides, it is important to note that the agricultural sector in Zimbabwe is very vulnerable to risks
and constraints such as drought, floods and hailstorms, yet the majority of smallholder famers do
not have agriculture insurance. The presence of these risks shows that agricultural insurance is
very important for farmers in order to manage and minimize their negative effects and constraints
(Munyoro et al, 2018). Thus, the assumption here is that, agricultural insurance is a strategy that
can be used by farmers to foster the development of the farmer and the agricultural sector at large
even though it is missing (Dabale and Chiringa, 2014; Chigunhah et al, 2018). Despite there being
many benefits of agricultural insurance, farmers in Zimbabwe seem to perceive it as an
unnecessary expense that not worth their investment (Tsikirayi et al, 2013). This serves to explain
why the general uptake of agriculture insurance is very low as noted by Tittonell and Giller (2013).
Furthermore, the lack of agricultural insurance in the Zimbabwean agricultural sector leads to the
inference that insurers are actually reluctant to provide cover to the farmers. For example, the
Gross Premium Written for the period 2013 to 2015 was at 1.42% in 2012, 1.62% in 2013, 3.82%
in 2014 and 1.09% in 2015 (www.fiainternational.org). These percentage contributions are
extremely low given that Zimbabwe is a predominantly agro-based economy and its farming
businesses need to be protected through agriculture insurance something that is worrying. Hence
the need to ascertain the significance of agriculture insurance in the development of agriculture in
Zimbabwe, focusing on A1 only as this dominates the agriculture sector after the land reform.

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3.0 The Definition of Insurance

Insurance falls under the umbrella of various financing instruments that are available for
individuals and corporates Zimbabwe. Hazell (1992) and Chigunhah et al (2018) define insurance
as a contract that is represented by a policy in which the individual or the entity receives financial
protection or reimbursement against losses from an insurance firm. In other words, insurance is
used to hedge against the risk of financial losses that may result from damage to the insured’s
property, or from liability for damage or injury caused to a third party to the insured. Insurance is
also a device for the reduction of the uncertainty of one party, called the insured, through the
transfer of risk to another other party, called the insurer, who offers a restoration, at least in part,
of economic losses suffered by the insured (Ray, 2013; Hazell, 1992; Chigunhah et al, 2018). In
short, insurance is based on the concept of risk pooling or risk sharing of losses. In most developing
countries, the concentration of formal insurance is in urban areas than in rural areas, because in
many instances, the insurance markets are in their infancy and are yet to fully acquire expertise
and consolidate, and also that trade practices are better developed in urban areas (Ray, 2013;
Hazell, 1992). That said, Cummins and Mahul (2008) are of the opinion that much more needs to
be done by insurance companies in the urban areas to improve services, and that their potential for
the growth is linked to the overall growth of the economy and the level of development of the
country (Vitoria et al, 2012; Ruete, 2015; Cummins and Mahul, 2008). In some developing
countries, particularly on the African continent, the share of the modern sector in the economy is
stagnant or even declining due to lack of investment in the insurance sector, but however, there is
a considerable potential for the expansion of business in the rural sector especially in farming
sector (Vitoria et al, 2012; Ruete, 2015; Cummins and Mahul, 2008). The decision regarding the
transfer of risks either in its entirety or in part for a price to the professional risk bearers who are
the insurers, will depend upon a number of considerations like the extent of the protection required,
the capacity to retain and absorb risks and whether the price to be paid for purchasing insurance
could be better utilized to minimize the possibilities and the extent of losses.

4.0 Types of Insurance

There are various types of insurance that can be used by individuals and institution in business.
The following is a discussion of some of these common insurance contracts available for
individuals and businesses.

4.1 Life Insurance

Life insurance is different from other forms of insurance in the sense that the subject of matter of
the insurance is the life of a human being, and the insurer will pay the fixed amount of insurance
at the time of death or at the expiry of a certain period (Jain, 2018). At present, life insurance
enjoys maximum scope because life is the most important property of an individual (Hardaker et
al, 1997; Jain, 2018). Life insurance, once taken by a farmer, provides protection to the family in
the event of premature death or gives an adequate amount at old age when the earning capacities
of individuals are reduced (Hardaker et al, 1997). This type of insurance will not only act as

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protection, but is a sort of investment because a certain sum is returnable to the insured at death or
the expiry of a period (Jain, 2018).

4.2 General Insurance

General insurance includes property insurance, liability insurance and other forms of insurance as
noted by Hazell (1992). Fire is strictly called property insurance. Motor, theft, fidelity and machine
insurance include liability insurance to a certain extent. The strictest form of liability insurance is
fidelity insurance, whereby the insurer compensates the loss to the insured when there is liability
of payments to a third party (Jain, 2018; Hazell, 1992). Property insurance, another form of general
insurance, is whereby the persons or institutions are insured against certain specified risks that can
be fire, accident, theft of property or goods damage (Jain, 2018). In the absence of fire insurance,
the fire waste will increase, not only to the individual, but also to the society with the help of fire
insurance, which compensates resultant losses (Hazell, 1992). The individual is prevented from
such losses and the property, business or industry will remain approximately in the same position
in which it was before the loss, as insurance does not only protect from losses, but provides certain
consequential losses like war risk, turmoil and riots (Jain, 2018; Hazell, 1992). Liability insurance
is another form of general insurance that is liable to pay for the damage of property, or to
compensate the loss of a person, injury or death (Hazell, 1992). This insurance is seen in the form
fidelity insurance, automobile insurance and machine insurance as noted by Jain (2018).
Furthermore, social insurance provides protection to weaker sections of the society that are unable
to pay the premium for adequate insurance. Forms of social insurance include pension plans,
disability benefits, unemployment benefits, sickness insurance and industrial insurance (Hazell,
1992).

4.2 Agricultural Insurance

Wenner (2005) defines agriculture insurance as a financial contingency that transfer production
risks from the farmer to the insurer, in exchange for a premium that reflects a true long term cost
of the insurer assuming those risks. Itturioz (2009) and Chigunhah et al (2018) argue that rather
than transferring production risk, agriculture insurance transfers the financial consequences of
losses from the insured to the insurer in exchange for a premium. Basically, what this means is
that agricultural insurance is designed to provide covers for financial losses incurred due to the
reduction in the expected outputs from agricultural products (Vitoria et al, 2012; Ruete, 2015;
Itturioz, 2009). The implication thereof is that agricultural insurance stabilizes farmer’s incomes,
smoothen consumption and protects assets, thereby fostering socio economic development in so
as suggested by Chigunhah et al (2018); Vitoria et al (2012) and Ruete (2015). Although farmers
prefer insurance for production losses, many financial institutions find the assessment too tedious
and subjective (Itturioz, 2009; Vitoria et al, 2012; Ruete, 2015). Furthermore, another form of
agricultural insurance which is weather-based insurance, responds to objective parameters like
rainfall or temperatures, and farmers who can obtain it purportedly have better access to other
forms of financing as well as noted by World Food Program & IFAD (2011) and IFC (2012).
Weather based insurance is seldom offered in countries that lack sound statistical information

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about weather conditions such as Zimbabwe and thus, insurance costs are seen to be high as
premiums range from 8-15%, and therefore demand is weak amongst small scale farmers whilst it
is stronger amongst large scale commercial farmers (Chigunhah et al, 2018; Vitoria et al, 2012;
IFC, 2012). Hence, there is a need to ascertain the role of agricultural insurance in sustaining
agricultural development in Zimbabwe.

5.0 The history of Agricultural Insurance in Zimbabwe

The insurance sector in Zimbabwe is highly developed and fairly diversified when compared to
other developing countries in Africa (Tsikirayi eta al, 2013; Chigunhah et al, 2018). Furthermore,
the insurance sector in Zimbabwe is made up of more than 20 non-life insurance companies, 2
reinsurance companies and more than 20 insurance brokers (Tsikirayi et al, 2013). The average
contribution of each product to the industry’s gross premium is summarised in Table below. The
largest contribution of 48% of the total insurance is from motor insurance, whilst the least
contribution comes from credit and hire purchase. Agricultural insurance however contributes
about 5% of the total premiums (Tsikirayi eta al, 2013; Vitoria et al, 2012).

Table 1.0: Contribution of Insurance Products to the Industry’s Gross Premium in

Zimbabwe.
Product Contribution
Aviation 0.03%
Farming 5%
Fire 26%
Miscellaneous Accidents 14%
Credit/ hire purchase 1%
Motor 48%
Engineering 4.97%
Source:
It is also interesting to note that agricultural insurance in Zimbabwe falls under the short or non-
life insurance arm of the insurance industry, showing that it is mainly the form of property
insurance, the most common form being “hail insurance” that is mainly targeted towards
commercial farmers (now known as A2 farmers). Property insurance in this sector also focuses on
farm equipment and farm buildings. Prior to the fast track and reform program, agricultural
insurance companies focused on commercial farmers for their business because they possessed
high value equipment, which generally needed to be insured (Munyoro et al, 2018; Chigunhah et
al, 2018; Tsikirayi eta al, 2013). Also, commercial farmers were well-equipped and possessed high
knowledge and management skills, which were buttressed by their experience, contributing to their
moderate risk levels. These commercial farmers mainly took up agriculture insurance consisting
of crop insurance, livestock insurance and assets such as farm buildings, equipment and machinery
(Munyoro et al, 2018; Chigunhah et al, 2018). On the contrary, the post fast track land reform era
saw the emergence of a new breed of farmers who lacked farm management skills and had less

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valuable equipment which pushed away insurance companies from servicing them (Chigunhah et
al, 2018; Munyoro et al, 2018). Another reason why insurance has tumbled is because some of the
current farmers did not take farming as a serious business but rather remained subsistence oriented.
To date, these farmers generally seem not to value the importance of insurance and risk
management in the day to day running of their farms, resulting in the nose diving of agriculture
insurance uptake (Tsikirayi eta al, 2013; Munyoro et al, 2018; Chigunhah et al, 2018). .

6.0 The Models of Agricultural Insurance

Itturioz (2009) and Jain (2018) state that agricultural insurance products are diveded into three
categories based on the method of determining how claims are calculated, and these are: indemnity
based, index-based and crop-revenue-based agricultural insurance. On the other hand, Yusuf
(2010) identified six types of agricultural insurance products and they include peril or damage-
based, rainfall index, multiple peril crop insurance, livestock and aquaculture insurance, index-
based insurance and input-based insurance products. Yusuf (2010)’s six types of agricultural
insurance are similar to Iturrioz (2009)’s classification of indemnity based insurance which
comprises of peril or livestock and aquaculture, index-based insurance which is aligned to rainfall
or weather index and index-based insurance products. On the other hand, crop revenue-based
insurance relates to input-based insurance products, and this study will focus on Iturrioz (2009)’s
classification, whose three distinct categories embrace the various forms of agricultural insurance
given by the other authors.

6.1 Crop Insurance

In this case, the indemnity-based agricultural insurance products assess the crop loss and insurance
compensation on-site based on actual loss at the policyholder level (Itturioz, 2009; Jain, 2018).
According to Mahul and Stutley (2010), damage-based indemnity insurance is a crop insurance
product in which the claim is calculated by measuring the percentage damage in the field soon
after it occurs, and the damage is measured in the field, less a deductible expressed as a percentage
which is applied to the pre-agreed sum insured. This type of insurance cover is the most suitable
especially in areas where there is a low degree of correlation of risk over a given area (Roth and
McCord, 2008). Named peril crop insurance is best known for hail in most countries, but it can
also be used for other named-peril insurance products such as frost, excessive rainfall and wind
(Mahul & Stutley, 2010).

6.2 Crop Revenue Insurance

Mahul and Wright (2003) assert that crop revenue insurance is an insurance cover in which the
insurer guarantees the policyholder a certain level of revenue to be obtained from the insured crop,
and this type of insurance protects the policyholder from eventual shortfalls in the yield of the
insured crops and adverse movements in their price. In this case, guaranteed yield can be
determined, either as a percentage of the producer’s past production or as a percentage of the
average yield of the region where the insured farm is located. The guaranteed price can either be
the future market price for the crop in the month of harvest, or the strike price of a base price option

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(Jain, 2018; Mahul and Wright, 2003). Furthermore, an indemnity is paid when the actual revenue
is received by the producer, which is given if the product of the actual yield and the spot market
price at the time of harvest is less than the guaranteed amount (Mahul and Wright, 2003; Jain,
2018). This type of cover is available in a few countries that are mainly developed. Nonetheless,
it is a useful tool in smoothing the income of farmers over the years.

6.3 Index-Based Insurance

Hellmuth (2009) defines index based insurance as a financial product linked to an index highly
correlated to loss experiences. Indemnifications are triggered by pre-specified patterns of the
index, as opposed to actual yields, which eliminates the need for in-field assessments. In this case,
contracts are written against specific perils or events. For example, area yield loss, drought,
hurricane, flood among others. The specific perils that are insured against are recorded at regional
levels, for example at a local weather station. Furthermore, Jain (2018) and Hellmuth (2009) argue
that the sum insured is normally determined on a pre-agreed value basis, and pay-outs are made
based on a pre-established scale set out in the insurance policy. The index insurance can be used
as a handy tool for disaster relief or development, as it offers a speedy response to catastrophic
and highly covariate risks such as hurricanes, floods and severe droughts. With development-
focused index insurance, households pursue riskier, but potentially more profitable farming
strategies, thereby defending their income and consumption. The following are some of the index-
based crop insurance products that can be used by farmers (Jain, 2018; Hellmuth, 2009)

 Area-Yield Index-Based.

According to Mahul and Stutley (2010), area-yield index insurance is a coverage in which the
indemnity is based on the realized or harvested average yield of an area such as a county or district.
The insured yield is established as a percentage of the average yield for the area, usually 50%-90%
percent of the area’s average yield (Hellmuth, 2009; Mahul and Stutley, 2010). An indemnity is
paid if the realized average yield for the area is less than the insured yield, regardless of the actual
yield on a policyholder’s farm. This type of index insurance requires historical area yield data on
which the normal average yield and insured yield can be established (Mahul and Stutley, 2010).

 Weather Index-Based

Weather index insurance is a coverage in which the indemnity is based on realizations of a specific
weather parameter that is measured over a pre-specified period of time at a particular weather
station (Mahul & Stutley, 2010). In addition, weather index insurance protect against index
realizations that are either so high or so low that they are expected to cause crop losses. An
indemnity is paid whenever the realized value of the index exceeds or falls short of a pre-specified
threshold, and more so, indemnity is calculated based on a pre-agreed sum insured per unit of the
index (Hellmuth, 2009; Mahul and Stutley, 2010).

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 Satellite Insurance

According to Mahul and Wright (2003), normalized deviation vegetation index or satellite
insurance refers to the insurance coverage constructed using the time series remote sensing
imagery. An example of how to calculate a normalized deviation vegetation index or satellite
insurance is the applications of false colour infrared waveband to pasture index insurance, where
the pay-out is based on a normalized dry vegetative index that relates moisture deficit to pasture
degradation (Hellmuth, 2009; Mahul and Wright, 2003).

6.4 Livestock Insurance

Roth & McCord (2008) define livestock insurance as the cover for losses resulting from death,
disease and accidental injury to livestock. There are four basic types of livestock insurance
products namely traditional animal accident and mortality cover, all-risk mortality insurance,
epidemic disease cover and life index mortality cover.

 Animal Accident and Mortality Cover

Named peril accident and mortality cover for individual animals is the most common traditional
livestock insurance product for insuring livestock. It covers death against natural perils such as
fire, flood, lightning, and electrocution, but normally excludes diseases, specifically epidemic
diseases. In this case premiums are set based on normal mortality rates within the permitted age
range plus risk and administrative margins, which makes them generally quite expensive (Mahul
and Wright, 2003; Hellmuth, 2009). On the other hand, herd insurance is a variation on individual
animal mortality cover for larger herds and in this case, a deductible is introduced where a certain
number of animals or a percentage of the total number of animals must be lost before an indemnity
is paid (Mahul & Stutley, 2010).

 All-Risk Mortality Insurance

This type of cover is provided to large commercial farmers that can demonstrate high levels of
animal husbandry and control over animal diseases. This product is usually offered for high-value
bloodstock or for herd insurance (Mahul and Wright, 2003).

 Epidemic Disease Cover

Epidemic disease insurance is offered in only a few countries, and it normally excludes insurance
of government-ordered slaughter or quarantine (Mahul and Wright, 2003). In this case, epidemic
disease insurance carries major and infrequent exposure to catastrophic claims necessitating a high
reliance on reinsurance for risk transfer. However, it is difficult to develop this type of insurance
and to obtain support from international reinsurers due to the difficulties of modelling the spread
of epidemic disease and financial exposures associated with this type of risk (Mahul & Stutley,
2010; Mahul and Wright, 2003).

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 Livestock Index Mortality Cover

Mahul and Wright (2003) contend that livestock index mortality insurance is where livestock
losses are highly correlated with an extreme weather event for which a weather index could not be
built. This may be a combination of low temperature, dry conditions and snowfall and thus, the
farmer will insure against losses arising from the changes in the mortality index.

6.5 Farm Implements Insurance

Farm implements insurance is viewed as an indirect form of agricultural insurance as it is not taken
on the actual crop or livestock, but rather on the farm assets used in production. This type of
insurance is taken by farmers to protect their farm implements or property against theft and fire,
and it may be taken on tractors, trucks, trailers, irrigation equipment, farm buildings and any other
farm equipment (Tsikirayi eta al, 2013).

7.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study incorporated positivism philosophy as this study is seeking facts (positivism) from the
A1 farmers, Agritex officers and insurance companies on the significance of agriculture insurance.
Furthermore, the philosophy of positivism was used in this study because it requires that the
researcher assumes the position of a natural scientist, who develops hypotheses that will be tested
and confirmed, making use of facts instead of impressions (Munyoro et al, 2018; Saunders et al,
2009). Consequently, the researcher developed a hypothesis which was tested using factual
collected data from the A1 farmers, Agritex officers and insurance companies to make this study
a success. In addition, the study took a controlled and structural approach in conducting this
research (Churchill, 1996; Carson et al, 2001; Kaboub, 2008) by identifying a clear research topic,
constructing appropriate hypotheses and adopting a suitable research methodology (Churchill,
1996; Carson et al, 2001 and Kaboub, 2008). In addition, a case study research design was used in
conducting this study because it is a master plan or blueprint of the research that specifies how the
study will be carried out, a research design indicates the methods that will used to collect and
analyse data during a research (Bryman & Bell, 2015; Burns and Grove, 2003). In addition,
Parahoo (1997), Sharjahan (2005) and Saunders et al (2007) indicate that a research design is an
operation or plan that stipulates the kind of information that is to be collected, from what source,
using what kind of procedure and also how it will be analysed. Giving a comprehensive
interpretation, Polit et al (2001) posit that a research design is the researcher’s overall strategy that
enables him or her to answer the research question or testing the research hypothesis, whilst Denzin
and Lincoln (2011) simply recognize it as a strategy of inquiry. Thus, the case study approach
facilitated the investigation of agricultural insurance within the Zimbabwean context (Munyoro et
al; 2017), to enable the establishment of its contribution to agricultural development. Cresswell
(2014). I addition, the case study design enabled the researcher to incorporate the views of the
farmers, Agritex officer and insurance companies without influencing their attitudes, whilst
permitting the exploration of their behavioral patterns as argued by Yin (2009 and Ihuah and Eaton
(2013).

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In carrying out a research, it was a must that the researcher be able to define the study population
before sampling can be done (Cooper, et al, 2006). The reason for this is that the characteristics of
the population determine the sample size, sampling frame and sampling methods to be employed
in drawing the sample for study. For example, census can be used where the population is too
small to use a sample. The reason for the need to have a better understanding of the population is
to make sure that the sample that will be used in a research is a true representation of the
population. Thus, Parahoo (1997) defines population as the total number of units from which data
can be collected such as individuals, artifacts, events or organisations. Hence, this study’s
population was made up of 21 572 farmers in Mashonaland Central province (GoZ, 2002), 624
Agritex officers in the province’s district and provincial offices (Agritex, 2017) and 100 insurance
representatives. This study adopted the convenience sampling method, a non-probability sampling
technique that is used on the basis of convenience due to time, cost and other resource constraints
as argued by Dornyei (2007). Besides, convenience sampling also involves respondents who are
willing to participate in a study and the drawing of samples that are easily accessible (Teddlie and
Yu, 2009). Hence, in this study, the choice of respondents was based largely on their accessibility
and willingness to participate in the study. Additionally, the convenience sampling technique
enabled the researcher to concentrate on reachable, supportive and accommodating farmers,
agriculture insurance companies and Agritex officers in order to complete the study within the
limited time. Furthermore, the convenience sampling procedure helped the researcher to save
money, as some remote areas in the province were difficult to reach due to poor and dilapidated
roads among other issues. Consequently, the sample size was made up of 500 respondents -a
collection of appropriate respondents that included 400 farmers, 60 Agritex officers and 40
insurance companies’ officials –all from Mash Central province in Zimbabwe. In addition, this
study made use of questionnaires in collecting data from the farmers, agriculture insurance
companies and Agritex officers (Sekaran and Bougie, 2012; Abawi, 2013). For the purpose of
effectiveness, semi-structured questionnaires that included both closed and open-ended questions
were used in this study as noted by Saunders et al (2009) and Cresswell (2014) and the reason for
using open-ended questions is to further explain the phenomenon that is limited by closed ended
questions (Mathers et al, 2009; Sekaran and Bougie (2012). Furthermore, questionnaires handle
the issue of anonymity well, thus allowing respondents to give unbiased answers without fear of
victimization (Cresswell and Clark, 2011). It is important to note that the researcher did test the
questionnaire before it was used to improve its reliability.
Apart from interviews, focus groups were used to probe the opinions of all respondents on the
significance of agriculture insurance to the development of agriculture in Zimbabwe in order to
enhance the results because focus groups gather more in-depth insights on participant attitudes,
thoughts, and actions (Kendall, 2008) by involving an interaction between one or more researchers
and more than one (Parahoo, 1997; Holloway and Wheeler, 2002). Furthermore, focus groups
were used because they are quick and a cheaper way of obtaining data (Parahoo, 1997).
Additionally, the dynamic interaction among participants in the focus groups stimulates the

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respondents’ thoughts and reminds them of their own feelings about the topic in the discussion
(Halloway and Wheeler, 2002).

8.0 Data Analysis Techniques and Procedure

Descriptive statistics analysis was done using the measures of central tendency and the measures
of variability such as arithmetic means, variances and standard deviations (Boslaugh and Watters,
2008). Whilst, correlation analysis and regression analysis was also done to examine the nature of
the relationship that exist between agricultural insurance and agriculture development (Bewick et
al, 2003). Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyse the quantitative
data (Bryman and Cramer, 2002). Qualitative data was categorized according to qualitative
questions in the questionnaire and involved an iterative process in order to emerge with themes
(Seidel, 1998; Munyoro, 2014). The responses were then coded in terms of certain subjects and
themes, namely the significance of agricultural insurance (Seidel, 1998; Gibbs, 2002; Munyoro,
2014). The research then analysed the meaning of the responses that were given in open-ended
questions and linked them to the research objectives and literature (Seidel, 1998; Gibbs, 2002;
Munyoro, 2014)..

9.0 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

A total of 500 questionnaires were issued to various stakeholders in the agriculture sector and a
total of 480 were returned thus the response rate was 96%, which is considered to be very good as
supported by Saunders et al (2009) who suggested that a response rate between 50% and 90% is
said to be good. In this research the respondents’ age varied from 24years to 61years with the
economically active group accounting for the majority of the respondents. From this study the age
groups 25-34 years and 35-44years had the highest number of respondents of 33.3% each of age
as shown in the table below. Those below 25years were 7.84% while above 55years were 11.76%

Hypothesis Summary

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Source: Authors

10.0 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

10.1 FINDINGS

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 Agriculture insurance is significant to farming development in Zimbabwe

This study revealed that agricultural insurance is significant to farming development in Zimbabwe
as supported by a mean score of 1.21 and an Anova p. Value of 0.42. This is slso supported by
Gresh et al (2012) who noted that agricultural insurance is significant to farming development as
it provides farmers with security, access to markets, profitable ventures and better livelihoods as
evidenced in other countries such as India, Egypt and South Africa. In addition, the World Bank
(2018) also underscores that agricultural insurance is strategically important for eradicating
extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity in the world, particularly developing agro-based
economies like Zimbabwe. Furthermore, Lubowski et al (2006) also revealed that increased crop
insurance subsidies in the mid-1990s developed extensive farming activity by motivating farmers
to expand cultivated cropland area into 48 states by an estimated 2.5 million acres (0.8 percent) in
1997, as it encouraged the planting of insured crops on fields that would not otherwise be
considered because of the potential for significant losses. Moreover, Sumner and Zulauf (2012)
suggest that agricultural insurances raised net revenue per acre in the United States of America
because of insurance subsidies. Hence, despite the low uptake of insurance by farmers in
Zimbabwe, they actually confirm that it is very important to be insured given the El Nino effects
that have caused widespread losses due to flooding and drought spells.

 Agricultural insurance enhances production

This study pointed out that agricultural insurance enhanced production with this claim being
supported by a mean score of 2.8 and an Anova p.Value of 0.13. As supported by Moyo (2004)
and Makamure (2014), agricultural insurance is also there to extend and improve the
productiveness of the agricultural sector, especially in the smallholder-farming sector such as A1,
which is still marginalised by other big players in the sector. Hatch et al (2012) also expound that
if farmers have the backing of an insurance policy, they will be in a better position to obtain credit
financing, adopt new technologies and mitigate the risks to which they are exposed, which will in
turn lead to improved productivity and a more profitable farming experience. Also in support of
these findings, Okunola (2014) revealed that farmers can increase their farm sizes as a result of
insurance, which can be related to their increased input consumption power ensured by the access
to credits, which also brings about increase in output.

 Agricultural insurance guarantees business survival and continuity

In this study the results show that agricultural insurance is seen as a guarantee for business survival
as indicated by a mean score of 2.6 and a standard deviation of 1.0 as well as Anova P.Value of
0.07. These results are supported by Punjabi (2005) who states that the availability of insurance
by big companies and the relationship that they have with small scale farmers such as A1 farmers
will guarantee the survival of small scale farmers. Mechler et al (2008) and Hazell (1992) confer
that insurance enables farmers to pay back debts, increase credit worthiness and access capital to
invest in high-returns agriculture. This is claimed to ensure sustainable access to more finance to
inject in the capital-intensive agriculture enterprise, hence ensuring continued survival.

 Agricultural insurance ensures better livelihoods for farming families

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This study also revealed that agricultural insurance ensured better livelihoods for farming families
and communities as a mean score of 2.81 was recorded. As supported by the BIF (2012) research
further reveals that small-scale farmers involved realised increased incomes and the improved
livelihoods of the farmers’ families as a result of adopting agricultural insurance in their ventures.

 Agricultural insurance policies are too expensive yet payment is slow

As observed by Vitoria et al (2012), insurance costs in Zimbabwe are seen to be too high as
premiums range from 8-15%, and therefore demand is weak amongst small-scale farmers. From
this study, it was revealed that insurance companies across all sectors are generally slow when it
comes to paying claims to their clients hence there is need to improve on time taken to compensate
on any claims submitted to the insurers (Chigunha, 2018).

10.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
 To Insurers
Insurance companies should embark on an insurance education and awareness exercise that covers
farm-to-farm visits, field days and mass media advertisements (Munyoro et al, 2016). This will
assist in disseminating information to farmers on the importance of insurance in their farming
activities (Chigunhah et al, 2018). In the current economic situation it is difficult for a farmer to
prioritise insurance when the premiums charged are still on the steep side. Consequently, the
insurance companies should revise their premiums to enable A1 farmers to afford buying their
products as well as a means of attracting more farmers to use this product for the benefit of the
insurance and agricultural sectors (Chigunha et al, 2018). As observed by Vitoria et al (2012),
insurance costs in Zimbabwe are seen to be too high as premiums range from 8-15%, and therefore
demand is weak amongst small-scale farmers. From this study, it was revealed that insurance
companies across all sectors are generally slow when it comes to paying claims to their clients
hence there is need to improve on time taken to compensate on any claims submitted to the insurers
(Chigunha, 2018).

 To farmers
Farmers should adopt agricultural insurance culture in their farming undertakings as this safe
guards them against unforeseen disasters that may leave them in poverty (Chigunha et al, 2018).
As observed by Ruete (2015) insurance is an instrument that improves the chances for access to
finance by farmers by insuring against droughts, floods, hail, crop failure, politics, theft and many
other similar misfortunes.

 To Government
All inclusive Regulatory policy
There is need for the government to come up with an inclusive policy that guides insurance
companies on their methods of operations across different sectors and at the same time the policy
should encourage or rather oblige any form of commercial agriculture to be insured against a
minimum set of risks so that the sector does not suffer when disasters strike.

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11.0 Conclusion
This chapter gave a summary of the intentions of this research by bringing to light the major
findings in relation to the significance of agricultural insurance to the agricultural sector in
Zimbabwe. Finally this chapter provided recommendations to various crucial stakeholders who
were deemed to be relevant to this study.

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