APTI Course SI:431 Air Pollution Control Systems for Selected Industries Self-instructional Guidebookeves tates ‘Air Pollution Training institute EPA 450/2-82-006 Environmental Protection June, 1963 gency Environmental Research Center Research Triengle Park, NC 2711 APTI Course S1:431 Air Pollution Control Systems for Selected Industries Self-instructional Guidebook Northrop Services, Inc. P.O. Box 12313, Research Triangle Park, NC 2709 Under Contract No. EPA Project Officer United States Environmental Protection Agency Offic of Al, Noise, and Radiation Quality Panning and Standards Research Tangle Pars NC iseou aw iNotice This is not an official policy and standards document. The opinions and selections are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency. Every attempt has been made to represent the present state of the art as well as subject areas still under evaluation. Any mention of products or organizations does not constitute endorsement by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The authors request that any material abstracted from this manual be appropriately referenced as a matter of professional courtesy in the following manner: Beachler, D. S.; Jahnke, J. A.; Joseph, G. T.; and Peterson, M. M. 1983. Air Pollution Control Systems for Selected Industries—Self-instructional Guidebook. APTI Course SI:431,. EPA 450/2-82-006.Table of Contents Course Introduction. Description Goals and Objectives. Requirements for Successful Completion Using the Guidebook ...........+.5 ; Instructions for Completing the Final Examination . Lesson 1. Air Pollution Control . . . Lesson Goal and Objectives .. Particulate Emission Control ‘Gaseous Emission Control . General Concerns ......... Lesson 2. Cyclones ... Lesson Goal and Objectives . Introduction ....... : Particle Collection Mechanisms Lesson 8. Fabric Filtration... Lesson Goal and Objectives. Introduction . : Bag Designs ............ Baghouses....... an Filtration Designs ‘Types of Bag Cleaning ..... Baghouse Components... Bag Failure . : Air-to-Cloth Ratios Industrial Applications of Baghouses Lesson 4. Electrostatic Precipitators Lesson Goal and Objectives . .. Introduction ESP Description .. Particle Collection ......... Precipitator Components... . ESP Operation iiiLesson 5. Wet Collectors Lesson Goal and Objectives . Introduction ............. Principles of Operation Wet Collector Devices. Advantages and Disadvantages of Wet Collection Control Systems Lesson 6. Adsorbers .. : Lesson Goal and Objectives . Introduction ... : . Theory of Adsorption ............ Adsorbent Materials Adsorption Process... Factors Affecting Adsorption Adsorption Control Systems . Lesson 7. Combustion Equipment Lesson Goal and Objectives Introduction ............ ‘Combustion Process... Combustion Equipment Used to Control Gaseous Emissions Applications : Lesson 8. Cénderisation ......... 81 Lesson Goals and Objectives . 81 Introduction es 81 ‘Condensation Principe. 82 Condensers ....... 82 Lesson 9. Fossil Fuel-Fired Steam Generators ......000000000c0ceeeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eens eee Qel Lesson Goal and Objectives .. : -O1 Introduction 91 The Boiler . : 9-1 Air Pollution Emissions . 9-10 Air Pollution Control Equipment 9-11 ‘New Source Performance Standards 9-13 Other Potential Emission Points 9-4Lesson 10. Steel Mills . seneeee ee LOL Lesson Goal and Objectives . 210-1 Introduction eae od 10-1 Coke Oven Batteries . 10-4 Blast Furnaces. +105 Steel Furnaces . 10-8 Sinter Plants en 10-12 Steel Processing. ee 10-12 Air Pollution Emissions 10-18 ‘New Source Performance Standards . : 10.26 Summary......0...6.. cere e ee 1027 Lesson 11. Petroleum Refineries . Wl Lesson Goal and Objectives . Ml Introduction . . 4 Refining Process . AL Air Pollution Emissions 11-9 Air Pollution Control Methods .. 11-13 Air Pollution Regulations 1-15 Lesson 12. Portland Cement Plants . 121 Lesson Goal and Objectives . 12-1 Introduction........ 12-1 Producing Cement .... “22 Air Pollution Emissions 12-7 Air Pollution Control Equipment... er a a6 12-10 New Source Performance Standards . 12-11 Lesson 18. Acid Plants ..... . “18-1 Lesson Goal and Objectives ...... ASI Introduction .....6.0.26005 18-1 Sulfuric Acid Manufacture . 13-1 Nitric Acid Manufacture . . 113-4 Air Pollution Emissions .. “18-7 Air Pollution Control Methods . 13-8 New Source Performance Standards . 18-11 Lesson 14. Municipal Incinerators Lesson Goal and Objectives . Introduction .. . Incinerator Operation .. Air Pollution Emissions Air Pollution Control Equipment New Source Performance Standards aco 14-1 14-1 14-1 14-12 - 1413 1414Page Lesson 15. Kraft Pulp Mills 15-1 Lesson Goal and Objectives . 15-1 Introduction .......... 15-1 Kraft Method ... : 15-2 Air Pollution Emissions .... vee B13 Air Pollution Control Methods 2-15-14 New Source Performance Standards... = 15-17 216-1 16-1 16-1 16-2 = 16-9 -16-19 -16-20 16-21 Lesson 16. Nonferrous Smelters Lesson Goal and Objectives Introduction Basic Operations of Nonferrous Metal Production - Extracting Metals from Sulfide Ore : i Air Pollution Emissions from Extraction Operations. Air Pollution Control Methods ......... New Source Performance Standards. Lesson 17. Asphalt Concrete Plants . . WA Lesson Goal and Objectives . 17-1 Introduction 17-1 Producing Asphalt 172 Air Pollution Emissions 17-8 Air Pollution Control Methods ......... : pebaoao6e -17-10 New Source Performance Standards...........2.0000ce0 cecee eect eee e eee en eee ATACourse Introduction Description This course is an introduction to the fundamental operating characteristics of particulate and gascous pollutant emission control systems. It reviews physical, chemical, and engineering principles of con- trol devices and the application of control systems to several industrial processes. Major topics include: * Principles of gaseous emission control equipment, including absorbers, combustors, condensers, and adsorbers * Principles of particulate emission control equipment, including cyclones, fabric filters, elec- trostatic precipitators, and scrubbers ‘* Application of control equipment to selected industries— power plants, municipal incinerators, asphalt batch plants, cement plants, acid plants, steel mills, petroleum refineries, kraft pulp mills, and smelters Goal and Objectives Goal To familiarize you with the operation of air pollution control equipment and with nine industrial Processes, their air pollution emission points, and equipment used to reduce their emissions. Objectives Upon completing this course, you should be able to: 1. describe the collection mechanisms used to capture particles and gases. 2. identify and describe the operation of four types of air pollution control devices used to reduce particulate emissions from industrial sources. 3. identify and describe the operation of four types of air pollution control devices used to reduce gaseous emissions from industrial sources. 4, name one air pollution control device used to collect both particles and gases emitted from industrial sources. 5. briefly describe the operation of industrial processes discussed in this course, such as acid plants, steel mills, and cement plants. 6. recognize the major air pollution emission points of these nine industrial processes. 7. describe air pollution control techniques for industrial sources presented in this course. Requirements for Successful Completion In order to receive 5.0 Continuing Education Units (CEUs) and a certificate of course completion, you must: 1. take a mail-in final examination. 2. achieve a final examination grade of at least 70%.Materials Reading ‘This guidebook—supplementary reading materials are not required. Using the Guidebook This book directs your progress through the course. The first eight lessons describe particulate and gaseous emission control equipment. The next nine lessons describe nine large industrial sources and the control equipment used to reduce emissions for each. To complete a review exercise, place a piece of paper across the page covering the questions below the one you are answering. After answering the question, slide the paper down to uncover the next question. The answer for the first question will be given on the right side of the page separated by 2 line from the second question, as shown here. All answers to review questions will appear below and to the right of their respective questions. The answer will be numbered to match the question. Please do not write in this book. Complete each review exercise in the lessons. If you are unsure about a question or answer, review the material preceding the question. Then proceed to the next section. Review Exercise 1. Question lowe, Ie ello yl 1. Answer 2. Questionol oul h shes 3. Question + ey ll tle lt Instructions for Completing the Final Examination Contact the Air Pollution Training Institute if you have any questions about the course or when you are ready to receive a copy of the final examination. ‘After completing the final exam, return it and the answer sheet to the Air Pollution Training Insticute. The final exam grade and course grade will be mailed to you. Air Pollution Training Institute Environmental Research Center MD 20 Research Triangle Park, NC 27711Lesson 1 Air Pollution Control Lesson Goal and Objectives Goal To provide you with a brief history of air pollution control regulations and introduce some fundamental concepts under- lying the use of control devices on industrial sources for both particulate matter and pollutant gases. Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1, recognize categories of Federal standards that specify air pollution emission limits for industrial sources. 2. recognize collection mechanisms in control devices for particulate matter. 5. recognize collection mechanisms in control devices for pollutant gases. 4. identify the three main parameters used for either judging the performance of or designing air pollution control equipment. Overview Industrial sources can emit a significant amount of particulate matter and pollutant gases into the atmosphere. In order to improve and protect the quality of the air, these emissions can be reduced by using different types of control devices. Air cleaning devices have reduced particulate and gaseous pollutants from various industrial sources for many years. Originally, air pollution control equipment was used to control pollutants only if they were a nuisance, were highly toxic, or if they had some recovery value. Now, because of legislation such as the 1970 Clean Air Act and the 1977 Clean Air Act Amend- ments, more stringent control is required for many major industries. ‘The Federal government has set standards for pollutant levels in the ambient air. These standards, known as the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), are specified for pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO,), carbonmonoxide (CO), ozone (Os), nitrogen dioxide (NO), par- ticulate matter, and lead (Pb). In order that these ambient stan- dards can be attained, industrial source emission standards have also been set. These source standards limit the pollutant concentration that can be emitted, and in some cases, specify the efficiency of the control equipment that must be installed on the source. Many new industrial sources are subject to regulations called New Source Performance Standards (NSPS). A new source is one that is contracted and installed at a facil- ity after the date emission standards are proposed for that industry. New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) that have been promulgated are first published in the Federal Register and then in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. NSPS are set for a number of industrial source categories such as acid plants, cement plants, and fossil-fuel-fired steam generators. NSPS regulations specify emission limits and occasionally the type of control equipment that must be installed on various industrial sources. In most cases, air pollution control equipment is installed on industrial sources to reduce emissions in order to meet regula tions. However, it is possible to reduce emissions by other methods. Changing fuel sources, modifying or changing raw materials, or using alternative production procedures also can reduce emissions without adding on control equipment. These methods are usually considered before installing expensive con- trol equipment. Particulate Emission Control Cyclones, baghouses, electrostatic precipitators and wet scrub- bers are used to reduce particulate emissions from industrial sources. All of these devices collect particulate matter (par- ticles) by mechanisms involving an applied force. The simplest collection force is gravity. Large particles moving slow enough in a gas stream can be overcome by gravity and be collected. Gravity is responsible for collecting particles in a simple device such as a settling chamber. The settling chamber was one of the first devices used to control particulate emissions; however, it is very rarely used today. Because its effectiveness in collecting particles is very low, it cannot be used to meet most air pollution regulations. However, the settling chamber can be used as a precleaner for other particulate emission control devices—to remove very large particles. A typical settling chamber is presented in Figure 1-1. The unit is constructed as a long horizontal box with an inlet, chamber, outlet, and dust collection hoppers. The velocity of the particle-laden gas stream is reduced in the chamber. All 12particles in the gas stream are subject to the force of gravity. At the reduced gas velocity in the chamber, the large particles (greater than 40 jm in diameter) are overcome and fall into the hoppers. ‘Another collection force used for particle capture is centrifugal force. The shape or curvature of the collector causes the gas stream to rotate in a spiral motion. Larger par- ticles move toward the outside of the wall by virtue of their momentum (Figure 1-2). The particles lose kinetic energy there and are separated from the gas stream. Particles are then over- Gu come by gravitational force and collected. Centrifugal and gravitational forces are both responsible for particle collection in a cyclone. res In both fabric filters and wet collectors, three separate forces are responsible for particle collection: "impaction, direct Figure 1-2, Centrifugal force. interception, and diffusion. In a fabric filter, the target object for particle capture is a stationary filter bed supported by the fabric. In a wet collector, the target object is a water droplet. 13Consider the case of an individual fiber in a fabric filter. Impaction occurs when the particle is so large that it cannot follow the gas streamlines around the stationary impaction target. It hits or impacts on the fiber (Figure 1-8). Direct interception is a special case of the impaction mechanism. The center of a particle may follow the streamlines formed around the fibers. A collision will occur if the distance between the particle center and the collection surface is less than the par- ticle radius (Figure 1-4), Particles below 0.1 am in aerodynamic diameter undergo Brownian motion, randomly moving or diffusing throughout the gas volume. The mechanism of diffusion is responsible for the collection of par- ticles which are so small that they become affected by collisions of molecules in the gas stream. The randomly moving particles then move or diffuse through the gas to impact on the fiber and are collected (Figure 1-5). ‘The other primary particle collection mechanism involves electrostatic forces. The particles can be naturally charged, or, as in most cases involving electrostatic attraction, be charged by subjecting the particle to a strong electric field. The charged particles migrate to an oppositely charged collection surface (Figure 1-6). This is the collection mechanism responsi- ble for particle capture in both electrostatic precipitators and charged droplet scrubbers. In an electrostatic precipitator, par- ticle collection occurs because of electrostatic forces only. In a charged droplet scrubber, particle removal occurs by the com- bined effects of impaction, direct interception, diffusion, and electrostatic attraction. Particles are charged in these scrubbers to enhance both diffusion and direct interception. Particle collection can occur from the combined effect of the mechanisms discussed. In addition, particles can agglomerate or grow in size through cooling or increasing humidity or from electrostatic effects. Agglomerated particles thus have a larger 14 om, Panicle gy ‘Gas sreamlines Figure 1-5. Diffusionaerodynamic diameter and can be collected by impaction, interception, or gravitational forces. Many factors influence the choice of a control device used to reduce industrial particulate emissions. If emitted material can be used or reused in the process, dry collection should be used. If the pollutant has little economic value, collection should be accomplished and the pollutant disposed of safely and economically. The industrial process and potential control devices must both be carefully reviewed. The conversion of an air pollution problem into a water pollution problem can create a more difficult disposal problem. Gaseous Emission Control Gaseous pollutants are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Those frequently controlled include sulfur dioxide (SO;), nitrogen oxides (NO,), nonmethane organics (NMO) and carbon monoxide (CO). Absorbers, adsorbers, combustors (incinerators), and con- densers are used to control gaseous emissions. The use of a par- ticular device depends on the physical and chemical properties of both the pollutant and the exhaust stream. More than one device may be able to control emissions from a given source. For example, vapors (gaseous emissions) generated from loading gasoline into tank trucks may be controlled by any of these devices. On the other hand, absorbers are most com- monly used for reducing SO, emissions generated as a result of burning fossil fuels. As with particle collection, gases are collected by various mechanisms. Gases can be removed by an operation called absorption — gases are dissolved in a liquid. A gaseous pollutant exhaust stream contacts and is dissolved by the liquid (Figure 1-1), The liquid used most often is water since it is inexpensive, readily available, and can dissolve a number of pollutants. Gases can also be removed by an operation called adsorption —gaseous pollutants adhere to a solid surface (Figure 1-8). Activated carbon is the solid most often used since many hydrocarbon vapors and odorous organic com- pounds from industrial exhaust streams adhere to the carbon. Gaseous pollutants can also be controlled by burning a gaseous pollutant (organic) in a chamber to form harmless products—carbon dioxide and water. Auxiliary fuels are burned in the chamber in order to raise the pollutant’s temperature to the point where it will readily oxidize. Natural gas and oil are commonly used as auxiliary fuels to incinerate gaseous pollutants. Figure 1-8. Adsorption.Gaseous vapor can be condensed into liquid droplets. This is usually accomplished by reducing the temperature of the pollutant-laden gas stream until liquid droplets form. Con- densers are used to remove water vapor and also condensible ‘organic compounds from industrial exhaust streams. General Concerns Collection Efficiency The performance of air pollution control equipment is often judged in terms of its collection efficiency. Collection efficiency is defined as the percentage reduction in pollutant concentra~ tion between the inlet and outlet of the control device; or pollutant concentration _ pollutant concentration. Sse at the inlet ‘at the outlet cflicency = she ile the x 100% reste) pollutant concentration at the inlet A high value for efficiency indicates that a greater degree of control is achieved on the source. A low value indicates that lesser control occurs with more pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. Emission_limits are usually set by existing air pollution regulations. The control to be achieved depends on the allowed outlet concentration and the quantity of emissions generated from the process. For example, assume that a source emits 1800 mg/m? particulate matter from its stack (uncontrolled). If the regulation states that the maximum allowable emission rate cannot exceed 90 mg/mt, then the collection efficiency must be: Collection _ 1800-90 efficiency ~ 1800 = 0.95 oF 95% In order to meet the regulations in this case, a control device having 95% collection efficiency must be installed on this source. Air pollution control equipment is often designed specifically for the industrial source on which it is installed. Several design factors should be considered. One is the concentration or grain loading of particulate pollutants in the process exhaust stream. Pollutant concentration is typically expressed in terms of pounds per cubic foot (Ib/ft?), grains per cubic foot (gr/ft?), and grams per cubic meter (g/m*). For gaseous pollutants, concentration is expressed in terms of parts per million (ppm) by volume, ¢.g.. m*/10%m*, 9/10’. Both the level and fluc: tuation of grain loading are very important. Some control devices, such as fabric filters, are relatively unaffected by high levels or great fluctuations in particle concentration. Others, 16such as electrostatic precipitators, generally do not function effectively with large fluctuating concentration levels. Another related problem can occur when the exhaust gas velocity changes rapidly. Some control devices are designated to operate at specific exhaust gas velocities. Large changes in gas velocities can drastically affect the unit's collection efficiency. Particle Characterization Particle characteristics such as size, shape, and density must be considered when designing control systems. Particulate matter is the finely divided solid or liquid material that exists as par- ticles in the stack gas. Particle size is usually expressed in terms of the aerodynamic diameter. The aerodynamic diameter describes how the particle moves in a gas stream. Particle diameters are measured in units of micrometers (um). Particles with large diameters (>10 um) can be collected in cyclones. Particles having small diameters (<5 ym) must be collected in more sophisticated devices such as scrubbers, baghouses, or electrostatic precipitators. Thus, the collection efficiency of a specific control device depends on the size of the particles in the exhaust stream. Devices called impactors are commonly ‘used to determine the particle size distribution of exhaust streams from industrial sources. The impactor is inserted into the stack and a sample stream is pulled into the impactor. Par- ticles impact on collection or impaction plates according to their aerodynamic size. Additional information on particle size devices can be obtained from APTI Course 418 Control of Par- ticulate Emissions—Student Manual EPA 450/2-80-066. Pressure Drop Another important characteristic of control devices is the effect they have on the flow of exhaust gas in an industrial process. A resistance to the flow of gas can build up, especially if the gas, must be forced through small constrictions or openings. Pressure drop is a measure of the air resistance across a system. Pressure drop, also called gas pressure drop, describes the pressure loss between the inlet and outlet sections of the control device. Collectors with large pressure drops would require larger fans (and greater power requirements) to either push or pull the exhaust gas through the system. An increase in Pressure drop means that there is a larger pressure loss in the system. Some control devices such as venturi scrubbers are designed to operate at high pressure drops [as great as 254 cm H,0 (100 in. H;0)]. On the other hand, electrostatic precipitators are designed to operate at much lower pressure drops [usually less than 2.54 cm H,0 (1.0 in. H,0)). L7In order to reduce pollutant emissions from industrial proc- esses, the control system should be designed to meet emission limitations at minimum cost with maximum reliability. The basic trade-offs involve decisions between collection efficiency, installation costs, and operating costs. This course will review the many control techniques which have been used to meet the requirements of air pollution regulations for various industrial sources. Review Exercise 1, Maximum pollutant levels set by the Federal government for specific air pollutants in the ambient air are referred to as a. New Source Performance Standards. b. Special Source Emission Standards. ¢. National Clean Air Act Regulations. d. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. 2. The NSPS regulations are designed to ensure that all new plants have a. the same minimum emission requirements. B. identical control devices. ¢. none of the above 1. d. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. 3. Impaction, direct interception, and diffusion can all be responsible for particle collection in a. fabric filters. b. adsorbers. c. condensers, d. incinerators. 4. All control devices used to collect particulate matter operate using a. electrostatic attraction. b. water. c. an applied force. 5. In a simple control device such as the settling chamber, large particles moving slow enough in a gas stream can be overcome by a. centripetal force. b. gravity. c. centrifugal force. 4. impaction. 18 2. a. the same minimum emission requirements. 8. a. fabric filters. 4. ¢. an applied force. 5. b. gravity.6. How does centrifugal force cause particles to separate from the gas stream? What shape encourages this separation? 7. If a particle is so large that it cannot follow the gas stream- The gas stream rotates lines around a fiber or droplet, it will the object. in a spiral fashion. The a. bypass particles’ momentum b. diffuse through causes them to break . impact on from the gas stream d. elecerically charge and hit the walls of the device. The device is usually in a curved or circular shape. 8, A high value of collection efficiency means that 7. ©. impact on a. the source does not need a control device. b. a high percentage of the pollutant is collected. c._a high percentage of the pollutant is emitted. 9. If ____ is large or constantly fluctuating, some control 8. b. a high percentage of devices may not function efficiently. a. particle concentration b. grain loading . gas velocity d. all the above the pollutant is collected. 10. Aerodynamic diameter describes how a particle moves in ‘a gas stream. It has a direct bearing on the collection efficiency of a specific control device. . the ability of the particle to be collected. ¢. both a and b . d. all the above 11, ______is a measure of the resistance to gas movement through a control device. a. Collection efficiency b. Particle-to-particle density ¢. Pressure drop d. none of the above 10. c. both a and b 12. An increase in pressure drop means that the pressure loss in the system is larger/smaller. Ml. . Pressure drop 13. True or False? All control devices must operate at high pressure drops to be efficient. 19 12, 18. larger FalseLesson 2 Cyclones Lesson Goal and Objectives Goal To familiarize you with the particulate-removal device used by many industries— the cyclone —its collection mechanisms, dif- ferent designs in use, and operating principles. Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. explain how particles are collected in cyclones. 2, list the four major cyclone design features. 3. recall why a variety of inlet designs have been developed. 4. identify different uses for different cyclone designs. 5. list three advantages of using cyclones to collect particulate matter. 6. list three possible problems associated with cyclone use. 7. relate efficiency and pressure drop to cyclone operation. Introduction ‘The cyclone is a simple mechanical device commonly used to” remove relatively large particles from gas streams. Cyclones, have a distinctive and easily recognized form (Figure 2-1) and can be found in almost any industrial area of a town or city—at lumber companies, feed mills, cement plants, smelters—and at many other industrial sites. They can be located on the roof of a plant or beside a building. They range in size from a few centimeters in diameter when used in analytical equipment to several meters in diameter when used for air pollution control. In industrial applications, cyclones are often used as precleaners for the more sophisticated air pollution control equipment such as electrostatic precipitators or baghouses. Cyclones are more efficient for removing particulate matter than are settling chambers, but are less efficient than either wet scrubbers, baghouses, or electrostatic precipitators. Cyclones used as precleaners are often designed to remove more than 80% of the particles that are greater than 20 ym in diameter. Smaller particles that escape the cyclone can then be collected by more efficient control equipment.Cyclones are relatively inexpensive to construct since they have no moving parts. Fans move the gas through the system but are an auxiliary device. They are usually inexpensive to operate. The first cyclone design was patented in 1886. This is the basic design shown in Figure 2-1. Since 1886, experience has led to both improved design and to unique modifications. Cyclones in series, or banks of small cyclones in parallel (multiclones), can be used to effectively remove particles having diameters of approximately 5 to 10 ym. Changing details in cyclone design and in relative dimensions has led to improved efficiencies without always increasing costs of operation. Particle Collection Mechanisms Cyclones force the incoming gas stream to twist and tum in a spiral fashion. Large particles entering with the gas stream cannot turn with the gas because of their momentum or iner- tia. As a result, they break out of the gas stream and hit the wall of the cyclone. The particles then fall down the wall and are collected in a hopper. Figure 2-2 shows a top view of this action. The spiral pattern of gas flow (Figure 2-3) is developed by the manner in which the gas is introduced. It enters along the side of the cyclone body wall and turns a number of times to spiral down to the bottom, much like the funnel of a tornado. ‘When the gas reaches the bottom of the cyclone, it reverses direction and flows up the center of the tube, also in a spiral fashion. This spiral or vortex pattern turns in the same direc- tion when it goes up as when it was descending. In the cylindrical section of the cyclone, particulate matter is forced to the wall. Or, in other words, the particles move towards the wall by the action of an “apparent” centrifugal force. In the cone section, the body is tapered to give the gas enough rotational velocity to keep the particles against the wall. This helps prevent reentrainment—the return of collected particles back into the gas stream. As the particulate matter falls to the bottom, it is collected in the hopper and is either continuously or periodically removed. 22 Figure 2-2. Cyclone particle collection. Figure 2-3. Gas flow in a cyclone.Review Exercise 1, The removal efficiency of cyclones is generally greater than that of a, electrostatic precipitators. b. baghouses, ¢. gravity settling chambers. d. all the above 2. Cyclones used as precleaners are normally designed to remove particles that are larger than ____ ym in diameter at better than ____ efficiency. a, 0.1 rm, 80% b. 20 um, 80% c. 1m, 90% 4. 5 um, 100% 1, . gravity settling chambers. ‘3. In the figure below, draw and label the direction of gas flow and indicate where the particles are collected. 2. b, 20 am, 80% 234. In cyclones, particles are collected a. because their inertia causes them to break through gas streamlines. b. because they are electrostatically attracted to the walls. c. because the gravitational forces overcome the centripetal forces. 4. by sieving action. 5. The cyclone is given its name because of the characteristic spiral motion of the gas in the device. How many direc- tions are present in a cyclone? a. one descending direction, only b. two directions: one descending and one ascending c. three directions: one descending, one in the hopper, and one ascending 4, a, because their inertia causes them to break through gas streamlines. 6. True or False? The upward gas spiral rotates in the same direction as does the downward gas spiral. 5. b. two directions: one descending and one ascending Cyclone Construction Cyclones can be designed in a number of different ways. The ‘most common design is the tangential entry cyclone already shown in Figure 2-3. This type of cyclone has four major design features: inlet, cyclone body, dust discharge system. and outlet (Figure 2-4). ’ Inlet Let us first consider different inlet designs. Gas coming into the cyclone must be transformed from straight flow into a cir cular pattern to form the vortex. Problems can arise in the inlet if turbulence develops and inhibits vortex formation. For this reason, modifications of the basic tangential entry have been used (Figure 2-5) Inlet deflector vanes added to a tangential entry can narrow and force the gas stream to move against the wall. Helical and involute entries can help provide a smoother transition of the gas into a vortex pattern. The success of these modifications is sometimes marginal, although increased efficiencies have been reported. 24 6. True“Tangential entry , ‘Tangential entry swith deflector vanes wos Dist dicharge Helical enury Tavolace entry Figure 2-4. Cyclone features. Figure 2-5. Cyclone entries. Body The particle removal efficiency of a cyclone depends to a great extent upon the cyclone’s dimensions. A designer of cyclones must first know both the anticipated volumetric gas flow rate through the system and what is expected in terms of removal efficiency. The most important dimension is the diameter of the body. A longer cyclone in relation to its diameter will pro- vide for more vortex revolutions and thus more chances for particle collection. Also, small-diameter cyclones collect small particles more efficiently than do large-diameter cyclones. ‘Smaller body diameters create larger separation forces. Cyclones less than 0.25 m (10 in.) in diameter are generally considered to have high efficiency, although efficiencies can vary depending on the relative cyclone dimensions. Figure 2-6 shows an example of relative dimensions in a high-efficiency tangential entry cyclone. Figure 2-6. High-efficiency cyclone dimensions.Dust Discharge System Collected particulate matter should be removed from the cyclone or else it will be reentrained and sucked back up in the inner vortex. A number of methods can be used for either periodic or continual removal of the collected material. A ‘manual slide gate (Figure 2-7) at the bottom of the cone is one of the simplest constructions allowing periodic removal (Figure 2.7). A rotary valve (Figure 2-8) can provide continuous removal. Outlet Modifications to gas outlets have been developed in attempts to improve the operating characteristics of the cyclone. The gas leaving a cyclone will normally continue moving in a circular pattern. If this flow could be straightened without producing turbulence, the amount of energy needed to move the gas through the system could be reduced. This has been accom- plished to some extent by outlet devices similar to those shown in Figure 2-9, the involute scroll outlet, and Figure 2-10, the outlet drum. 26 Figure 2-9. Involuee seroll outlet. Figure 2-10, Outlet drum,Other Configurations ‘We have just discussed a number of design features of the com- mon tangential entry cyclone. Other mechanical configura- tions, that can still take advantage of centrifugal action to remove particles from a gas stream, are possible. The large cyclonic separator shown in Figure 2-11 is a simple design that also uses the principle of centrifugal action. The cyclonic separator is often used after wet collectors— control devices that use water sprays to trap particles in large droplets. ‘These large water droplets contain entrained particulate mat- ter, and can be removed quite effectively by this simple cyclone. Here the gas and droplets enter tangentially at the bottom of the drum, forming a vortex. The large droplets are forced against the walls and drained off at the bottom. ‘The axial inlet cyclone shown in Figure 2-12 is used in the multicyclone arrangement. Here the gas inlet is parallel to the axis of the cyclone body. The gas enters from the top and is directed into a vortex pattern by the vanes attached to the cen- tral tube. This helps prevent the turbulence around the entrance that can be a problem in tangential entry cyclones. In the multicyclone (Figure 2-13), axial cyclones are arranged in parallel. The dirty gas enters uniformly through all of the individual cyclones. The large number of inlets enables small high Zfficiéncy cyclones to be used without greatly impeding the process gas flow. The inlet vanes are, however, prone to plugging. fe Figure 2-12, Axial inler cyclone. Figure 2-13. Multicyclone. 27Cyclone Operating Parameters In cyclones, collection efficiency generally increases as the pressure drop increases. The small openings that create high inlet pressure also produce a high gas velocity through the cyclone, This higher velocity results in greater centrifugal force on the particles, and thus greater collection efficiency. The pressure drop in conventional tangential cyclones can range from 5 to 40 cm (2 to 16 in.) of water. The pressure drop and efficiency depend on the relative dimensions of the cyclone. The effect of changes in these dimensions and changes in gas stream parameters is sum- marized in Table 2-1. ‘Table 2-1. Changes in performance characteristic. (Cylons and proven design changes Prowure drop | Etficiney increase cyclone se (D) ‘Deceaee ‘Decreases Lengten yinder(L) Decrease sighdy | Decrenest Lengthen cove (2) Decrease slghiy | tacreases tncrease ex tbe damerer(D,) Decreaes Decrees increase net area maintaining velocity Decrease eee Increse dus concern Decrease for | increases large inves tacrease parle se and/or demty No change ference ‘Source: Bhai and Cheremisnt, 197 ‘Some sade indicate ficiency doesnot away creme when the cylinder engbened. Cyclones provide one of the least expensive methods of removing relatively large particles from gas streams. They can be made of almost any type of material—a distinct advantage if condensed acids are present. They have been operated at temperatures higher than 1000°C (1832°F) using refractory linings, and have also been constructed to operate at high pressures. Capital costs are low, and operating costs are also low compared to those associated with more complicated systems. Problems do arise, however. Sticky or agglomerating materials can plug the smaller-diameter high-efficiency cyclones. Varying gas flow rates will affect cyclone performance since particle collection efficiency depends upon the incoming gas velocity. Also, hard, sharp-edged particles can rapidly wear the internal surfaces of the cyclone. Overall, cyclones are a common type of control device used to prevent particulate matter from entering the atmosphere. They are widely used in industry to control emissions from dryers, crushers, incinerators, and kilns: and as precleaners for the control equipment that we will be discussing in subsequent lessons. 2-8Review Exercise 1, List the four major design features of the cyclone. 2. Different types of inlets have been developed to avoid problems of ___. inlet © body © dust discharge system © outlet 8. Cyclones with smaller inlet and exit areas, or smaller body diameters, are more/less efficient than are cyclones with larger diameters. turbulence 4. What will eventually happen if particulate matter is not removed from the cyclone collection hopper? a. The gas will make more turns in the cyclone body. b. Cyclone efficiency will increase. ¢. Particulate matter will be reentrained into the inner vortex. 5. Axial cyclones are commonly used in a. conjunction with wet scrubbers. b. baghouses. c. multicyclones. 6. Areas to consider when designing a cyclone for a specific application, are a. size and relative dimensions. b. gas temperature. ¢. incoming gas volumetric flow rate. d. dust concentration. . all the above 4. ¢. Particulate matter will be reentrained into the inner vortex. 5. ¢. multicyclones. 7. Pressure drop is related to a. barometric pressure. b. the amount of energy needed to move gas through a con- trol device. . collection efficiency in a cyclone. 4. b and c only e. aand b only 6. e. all the above 2.9 7, d, band c only8. List at least three advantages of using a cyclone to collect particulate matter. 9. List at least three possible problems associated with the use of 8. cyclones for collecting particulate matter. low capital costs low operating costs © constraction with variety of materials © no moving parts 9. © possible plugging problems «© limited efficiency in collection of small particles © efficiency sensitive to varying inlet flow rates © wear problems References Bethea, R. M. 1978. Air Pollution Control Technology. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 117-144. Bhatia, M. V. and Cheremisinoff, P. N. 1977. Cyclones. Air Pollution Control and Design Hand- book. P. N. Cheremisinoff and R. A. Young, eds. pp. 281-316, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Caplan, K. 1964. All About Cyclone Collectors. Air Eng. Sept.: 28-38. Caplan, K. 1977. Source Control by Centrifugal Force and Gravity. Air Pollution Vol. IV Engineering Control of Air Pollution, A. C. Stern, ed. pp. 97-148, New York: Academic Press. Danielson, J. A., ed., 1973. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S Environmental Protection Agency. pp. 91-99. Doerschlag, C. and Miczek, G. 1977. How to Choose a Cyclone Dust Collector. Chem. Eng. Feb.: 64-72. Hesketh, H. E, 1979. Air Pollution Control. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, pp. 184-193. Koch, W. H. and Licht, W. 1977, New Design Approach Boosts Cyclone Efficiency, Chem. Eng. Nov.: 79-88, Lapple, C. E. 1950. Gravity and Centrifugal Separation, Industrial Hygiene Quarterly 11: 40-48. Leith, D. and Mehta, D. 1973. Cyclone Performance and Design. Atmos. Environ. + 527-549, Schneider, A. G. 1975. Mechanical Collectors. Handbook for the Operation and Maintenance of Air Pollution Control Equipment, F. L. Cross, Jr. and H. E. Hesketh, eds. pp. 41-68, Westport Technomic Publishing.Lesson 3 Fabric Filtration Lesson Goal and Objectives Goal To familiarize you with the particulate emission removal device used by many industries— the baghouse—its operating principles and different designs in use. Objecti ‘At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. explain how particles are collected in baghouses. 2. list five major baghouse components. 3. list three bag-cleaning mechanisms and recall how each works. 4. recall ewo ways fabric filters are constructed. 5. recall-che reason why different fibers are used to make bag fabric. 6. list three conditions that can shorten the operating life of a bag. 7. define air-to-cloth ratio, 8. list three industries that use baghouses to control par- ticulate emissions. Introduction Fabric filtration is one of the most common techniques used to collect particulate matter. Fabric filtration systems use a filter material such as nylon or wool to remove particles from industrial exhaust gas. The particles are retained on the fabric material, while the cleaned gas passes through the material. ‘The collected particles are then removed from the fabric filter by a cleaning mechanism: by mechanical shaking or using blasts of air. The removed particles are stored in a collection hopper until they are disposed of or are reused in the process. 31Design Fabric filters used in industry are usually called baghouses. A baghouse consists of the following components: filter medium and support * filter cleaning device * collection hopper * shell The particle collection surface is composed of the filtering ‘Ane-collape material and a support structure. Most U.S. baghouse designs ‘use long cylindrical tubes that contain felted fabric or woven. cloth as the filtering medium. The cloth can be supported at the top and bottom of the bag by metal rings or clasps, or by an internal cage that supports the entire bag (Figure 3-1). Dust Clasp is collected on either the inside or the outside of the fabric material depending on the baghouse design. Some European baghouse designs use an envelope filter arrangement as shown in Figure 8-2. The envelope filter con- sists of felted or woven fabric supported by a metal retaining cage. The metal cage keeps the fabric taut as the dust filters through and collects on the outside of the material. Clean air passes out the open end of the envelope. Recently, cartridge filters have been used for filtering par- ticulate matter from small industrial processes. The cartridge filters are similar to truck air cleaner filters and are approx- imately 0.61 m (1.86 ft) long (Figure 3-3), Dust is collected on the outside of the cartridge while clean air flows out through the center. Figure 3-2. Envelope filter. Figure 3-3. Cartridge fier, 3-2Baghouses Baghouses are usually constructed using many cylindrical bags that hang vertically in the baghouse (Figure 8-4). The number of bags can vary from a few hundred to a thousand or more depending on the size of the baghouse. When dust layers have built up to a sufficient thickness, the bag is cleaned, causing the dust particles to fall into a collection hopper. Bags can be cleaned by a number of methods. Particles are stored in the hopper and are usually removed by a pneumatic or screw con- veyer. The baghouse is enclosed by sheet metal to contain the collected dust and to protect the bags from atmospheric environmental conditions. a WY BEDS Ge SJ 33Review Exercise 1, The four major components of a baghouse are: —____, _____, ana ; 2. Baghouses use either __, ___, or as the filtering media. 1, filter medium and support, filter cleaning device, collection hopper, shell 3. Most U.S. baghouse designs use many cylindrical bags that in the baghouse. 2. bags, envelopes, cartridges 4, Dust cleaned from the bags is collected in a 3. hang vertically Filtration Designs ‘There are two filtration designs used in baghouses: interior filtration and exterior filtration. In baghouses using interior filtration, particles are collected on the inside of the bag. The dust-laden gas enters through the bottom of the collector and is directed inside the bag by diffuser vanes or baffles and also a cell plate. The cell plate is a thin metal sheet surrounding the bag openings. The cell plate separates the clean gas section from the baghouse inlet. The particles are filtered by the bag and clean air exits through the outside of the bag (Figure 3-7). In interior filtration systems, bags are held at the top by ferent types of attachments. For reverse air cleaning baghouses, this attachment is a spring and metal cap (Figure 3-8). For shaker cleaning baghouses, bags are attached at the top by a hook (Figure 3-9). 4. bopper 35 Figure 8-8. Reverse air bags.In exterior filtration systems, dust is collected on the outside of the bags. The filtering process goes from the outside of the bag to the inside with clean gas exiting through the inside of the bag (Figure 3-10). Consequently, some type of bag support is necessary, usually an internal bag cage or rings sewn into the bag fabric. Bags are attached at the top to a tube sheet and are closed at the bottom by an end cap. Types of Bag Cleaning A number of cleaning mechanisms are used to remove caked particles from bags. The three most common are shaking, reverse air, and pulse jet. Shaking Shaking can be done manually, but is usually performed mechanically in industrial-scale baghouses. Small baghouses handling exhaust streams of less than 14.2 m*/min (500 cfm) are frequently cleaned by hand levers. However, thorough Figure $10, Exterior filtration. cleaning is rarely achieved since a great amount of effort must be used for several minutes to remove dust cakes from the bags. In addition, these small units do not usually have a manometer-installed on them to give pressure drop readings across the baghouse. These readings are used to determine when bag cleaning is necessary. Therefore, manual shaker baghouses are rarely used for controlling particulate emissions. ‘Mechanical shaking is accomplished by using a motor that drives a shaft to move a rod connected to the bags. It is a low energy process that gently shakes the bags to remove deposited particles. The shaking motion.and speed depend on the ven- dors’ designs and the composition of dust deposited on the ba, Horizoneal Vertical ‘The shaking motion can be in either a horizontal ot vertical a. direction, with the horizontal being the most often used. The tops of the bags in shaker baghouses are sealed or closed and are supported by a hook or clasp. Bags are usually shaken at | the top by moving the frame where the bags are attached. This causes the bags to ripple and release the dust (Figure 3-11). The flow of dirty gas is stopped during the cleaning process. fea Therefore, the baghouse must be compartmentalized to be useable on a continuous basis. Shaker baghouses usually use interior filtration (dust collected on the inside of the bags). Shaker bags are usually 15.2 to 45.7 cm (6 to 18 in.) in diameter and up to 12.2 m (40 ft) in length, A typical shaker baghouse is shown in Figure 8-12. The bags are attached to a shaft that is driven by an externally mounted. motor. The bags are shaken, and the dust falls into a hopper Figure 3-11. Shaking.located below the bags. The duration of the cleaning cycle is usually from 80 seconds to a few minutes. The frequency of the cleaning depends on the type of dust, the concentration of dust, and the pressure drop across the baghouse. The baghouse usually has two or more compart- ments to allow one compartment to be shut down for cleaning. Figure $-13 is a detailed view of the shaking mechanism. ‘The bags are attached in sets of two rows to mounting frames across the width of the baghouse. A motor drives the shaking lever, which in turn causes the frame to move and the bags to shake. Shaking should not be used when collecting sticky dusts. The shaking force needed to remove sticky dust could tear or rip the bag. Bag wear on the whole can be a problem at the bot- tom of the bag where it is attached to the cell plate, but the greatest wear is usually at the top of the bag where the support loop attaches to the bag. Proper shaking frequency is also important to prevent premature bag failure. Reverse Reverse air, the simplest cleaning mechanism, is accomplished by stopping the flow of dirty gas into the compartment and backwashing the compartment with a low pressure flow of air. Dust is removed by merely allowing the bags to collapse, thus causing the dust cake to break and fall into the hopper (Figure 3-14). The cleaning action is very gentle, allowing the use of less abrasion-resistant fabrics such as fiberglass. Reverse air cleaning is generally used with woven fabrics. Cleaning fre- quency varies from 30 minutes to several hours, depending on the inlet dust concentration. The cleaning duration is approx- imately 10 to 30 seconds; the total time is 1 to 2 minutes for the valve to open and close, and for the dust to settle. Reverse air baghouses are usually compartmentalized to per- mit a section to be off-line for cleaning. Although dust can be collected on either the inside or the outside of the bag, it usually is collected on the inside. The bag is open at the bot- tom and sealed by a metal cap at the top. The bag contains ings to keep it from completely collapsing during the cleaning cycle. Complete collapse of the bag would prevent the dust from falling into the hopper. Bags are supported by small steel rings sewn to the inside of the bag. The rings are placed every 10 to 46 cm (4 to 18 in.) throughout the bag length, depending on the length and diameter of the bag. Reverse air baghouses use very large bags (as compared to shaker or pulse jet baghouses) ranging from 20 to 46 cm (8 to 18 in.) in diameter and from 6.1 to 12.2 cm (20 to 40 ft) in length. Occasionally bags in shaker baghouses are as large as those in reverse air baghouses. 3-7 Figure 3-14. Reverse air cleaning.Cleaning air is supplied by a separate fan—usually much smaller than the main system fan since only one compartment is cleaned at a time. A typical reverse air cleaning baghouse is shown in Figure 3-15. iN ( Figure 3-15. Typical reverse air baghouse. Pulse Jet A third commonly used bag-cleaning mechanism is pulse jet or pressure jet cleaning. Approximately 40 to 50 percent of the new baghouse installations in the U.S. use pulse jet cleaning. The pulse jet cleaning mechanism uses a high pressure jet of air to remove the dust from the bag. Bags in the baghouse compartment are supported internally by rings or cages. Bags are held firmly in place at the top by clasps and have an enclosed bottom (usually a metal cap). Dust-laden gas is filtered through the bag, depositing dust on the outside surface of the bag. Pulse jets are used for cleaning in an exterior filtra. tion system. The dust cake is removed from the bag by a blast of com- pressed air injected into the top of the bag tube. The blast of high pressure air stops the normal flow of air through the filter. The air blast develops into a standing or shock wave that causes the bag to flex or expand as the shock wave travels, down the bag tube. As the bag flexes, the cake fractures and deposited particles fall from the bag (Figure 3-16). The shock wave travels down and back up the tube in approximately 0.5 seconds. 3-8 Figure 3-16, Puls jet cleaning,‘The blast of compressed air must be strong enough for the shock wave to travel the length of the bag and shatter or crack the dust cake. Pulse jet units use air supplied from a common header that feeds into a nozzle located above each bag (Figure 3-17). Figure 3-17. Typical pulse jet baghouse with air supply. Most pulse jet baghouses have bag tubes that are 10.2 to 16.2 cm (4 to 6 in.) in diameter. The length of the bag is usually around 2.4 to 3.7 m (8 to 12 ft), but can be as long as 7.6 m (25 ft). Pulse jet baghouses use smaller bags than shaker and reverse air baghouses. Review Exercise 1, Mechanical shaking is accomplished by using a that drives a shaft to shake the dust-laden bags. 2, True or False? In a shaker baghouse, the flow of dirty air 1. motor into a compartment is shut down during bag cleaning. 2. True 39‘The shaking motion causes the dust cake to break and fall into the ___. 4, Bag cleaning frequency depends on the dust type, the dust 3. hopper concentration, and the ___ across the baghouse. 5. Reverse air cleaning is very gentle, allowing the use of less 4. pressure drop abrasion-resistant fabrics such as woven (—_. 6. Cleaning air in a reverse air baghouse is usually supplied by 5. glass (fiberglass) 7. Reverse air baghouses use large bags with lengths that 6. separate fan range from a. 3 to 5 feet. b. 20 to 40 feet. c. 5 to 10 feet. d. 75 to 100 feet. 8, True or False? During reverse air cleaning, the flow of dirty 7. b. 20 to 40 feet. air into the compartment is stopped. 9. Pulse jet cleaning is accomplished by 8. True a. shaking each bag in the compartment while the damper is closed. b. a blast of compressed air into each bag. c. reversing the flow of air into the baghouse compartment and gently shaking the bags. 10. Ina pulse jet baghouse, dust is removed from the 9. b. a blast of compressed of the bag when the bag is cleaned. air into each bag. 11, Ina pulse jet baghouse, the dust collects on the outside of 10. outside the bag. Therefore, the bag must be supported, usually by 12. True or False? Pulse jet air is supplied from a common 11, a metal cage (or rings) header that feeds into a nozzle located above each bag. 13, Pulse jet baghouses use bags that are usually 12, True a. 12 to 16 inches in diameter and 20 to 40 feet long. b. 4 to 6 inches in diameter and 8 to 12 feet long. ¢. 16 to 24 inches in diameter and 15 to 25 feet long 14, True or False? In pulse jet cleaning, the flow of dirty air 13. b. 4 to 6 inches in into the compartment must be stopped before cleaning is diameter and 8 to 12 initiated, feet long. 14, False 3-10Baghouse Components Bags ‘Tubular bags vary in length and diameter depending on baghouse design and manufacturer. The length varies from 3 to 12 m (10 to 40 ft) and the diameter is usually between 10 ‘Meal cap and 46 cm (4 and 18 in.). Bags are hung vertically in the baghouse (Figure 3-18). Reverse air baghouses use long bags, 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 ft), with large diameters, $0 to 46 cm (12 to 18 in). Pulse jet baghouses use smaller bags, 2.4 to 8.7 m (8 to Asci-colapee 12 fe) with diameters of 10 to 16 cm (4 to 6 in.). ‘og Housing Baghouses are constructed as single or compartmental units. ‘The single unit is generally used on small processes that are not Ora in continuous operation such as grinding and sanding proc- esses. Compartmental units consist of more than one baghouse Thimble compartment and are used in continuous operating processes with large exhaust volumes such as electric melt steel furnaces and industrial boilers. In both cases, the bags are housed in a shell made of a rigid metal material. Occasionally, it is Figure $18. Typical bag for reverse necessary to include insulation with the shell when treating ‘ir baghouse, high temperature flue gas. This is done to prevent moisture or acid mist from condensing in the unit since acid or water could cause corrosion and rapid deterioration of the baghouse. Hoppers Hoppers are used to store the collected dust temporarily before it is disposed of in a landfill or reused in the process. Dust should be removed as soon as possible to avoid packing that would make removal very difficult. Hoppers are usually designed with a 60° slope to allow dust to flow freely from the top of the hopper to the bottom discharge opening. Some manufacturers add devices to the hopper to promote easy and quick discharge. These devices include strike plates, poke holes, vibrators, and rappers. Strike plates are simply pieces of flat steel that are bolted or welded to the center of the hopper wall. If dust becomes stuck in the hopper, rapping the strike plate several times with a mallet will free this material. Hopper designs also usually include access doors or ports. Access ports provide for easier cleaning, inspection, and maintenance of the hopper (Figure 3-19). Figure $19. Hopper. 3-11Discharge Devices A discharge device is necessary for emptying the hopper and to close off the unit to the atmosphere. Discharge devices can be manual or automatic. Some discharge devices used on bag- houses include manual slide gates, rotary airlock devices, screw conveyors, and pneumatic conveyors. Pneumatic conveyors use compressed air or a blower to convey dust from the hopper. Filter Construction ‘Woven, felted, and membrane materials are used to make bag filters, Woven filters are made of yarn with a definite repeated pattern. They are used with low-energy cleaning methods such as shaking and reverse air. Felted filters are composed of ran- domly placed fibers compressed into a mat and attached to some loosely woven backing material. They are usually used with higher-energy cleaning systems such as pulse jet cleaning. Membrane filters are made by laminating various types of fibers together to form a membrane. Fibers The fibers used for fabric filters vary depending on the industrial application to be controlled. Some fibers are made from natural fibers such as cotton or wool. These fibers have temperature limitations (<212°F or 100°C) and only average abrasion resistance. Cotton is readily available —making it very popular for low-temperature, simple applications. Wool with- stands moisture very well and can be made into thick felts easily. Synthetic fibers such as nylon, Orlon®, and polyester have slightly higher temperature limitations and chemical resistances. Synthetic fibers are more expensive than natural fibers. Polypropylene is the most inexpensive synthetic fiber and is used in many industrial applications, such as foundries, coal crushers, and food industries. Nylon is the most abrasive- resistant synthetic fiber—making it useful in applications that filter abrasive dusts. Polyester or Dacron® has good overall qualities to resist acids, alkalines, and abrasion and is relatively inexpensive—making it useful in many industrial processes such as metal smelting or iron casting. Nomex® is a registered trademark of fibers made by DuPont. DuPont makes the fibers, but not the fabrics or bags. Nomex? is widely used because of its relatively high temperature resistance and its resistance to abrasion. It is used for filtering dusts from cement coolers, asphalt batch plants, ferroalloy furnaces, and coal dryers. Other fibers such as Teflon® and Fiberglas® (or glass) can be used in relatively high temperature situations. Teflon® has very good resistance to acid attack (except fluorine) and can withstand continuous temperatures of up to 230°C (445°R). 3-12Fiberglas® or glass is often used in baghouses that filter very high temperature (up to 260°C or 500°F) flue gas. Glass fibers are usually lubricated in some fashion so that they will slide over one another without breaking or cutting during the clean- ing cycle. Silicon graphite and Teflon are commonly used as lubricants and will help retain the upper service-temperature limits. Glass fibers are susceptible to breakage and require a very gentle cleaning cycle. Both Teflon and glass have been used to remove particulate emissions generated from industrial and utility coal-fired boilers. Another material used to make bags is Gore-Tex® mem- brane. Gore-Tex® membrane is laminated with a variety of fibers such as Fiberglas®, polyester, and Nomex® to produce felt fibers. Some reports have indicated very good emission reduction, relatively low pressure drops, increased bag life, and higher air-to-cloth ratios using this material in metal industries, chemical industries, food industries, and coal-fired boilers. Table 8-1 lists a number of typical fibers used for fabric filters. The properties of the listed fibers include temperature limits, acid and alkali resistance, and abrasion resistance. ‘Table $-1. Typical fabrics wed for bag. meee |, Ta Gree | ser [Somaree[ rears), Ai) Ata | tag a = Renee | Goes Pe fo Poe | To pow oral er ‘a lee Taisen | Ripe | TO] wR] A] wee [ey wd | eer oven Eo a coy = Potvamide | Nyi® fawase| se 107] we | TH] peorte | geod | cred ‘air | excllene wae oa paw Poe ie Pee ee | ee fan | So mer er es ee ee maar tor arpa ape epee — mr | ae rea ee foe es a oe = |= is Sala Ee Lee. ac cag ep oe eee | ee} wee wile Sources Bethea, 1978: EPA, 1979: Theodore and Buono, 1976 3-13Bag Failure Three conditions can shorten the operating life of a bag. They are abrasion, high temperature, and chemical attack. The chief design variable is the upper temperature limit of the fabric. The process exhaust temperature will determine which fabric material should be used for dust collection. Exhaust-gas cooling may be feasible, but one must be careful to keep the exhaust gas hot enough to prevent moisture or acid from con- densing on the bags. Another problem frequently encountered in baghouse opera- tion is that of abrasion. Bag abrasion can result from bags rub- bing against each other, from the type of bag cleaning used in the baghouse, or where dust enters the bag and contacts the fabric material. For instance, in a shaker baghouse, vigorous shaking may cause premature bag deterioration, particularly at the points where the bags are attached. In pulse jet units, the continual, slight motion of the bags against the supporting cages can also seriously affect bag life. This is the single biggest maintenance problem associated with baghouses. Bag failure can also occur by chemical attack to the fabric. Changes in dust composition and exhaust gas temperatures from industrial processes can greatly affect the bag material. If the exhaust gas stream is lowered to its dew point or if a new chemical species is created, the design of the baghouse (fabric choice) may be completely inadequate. Proper fabric selection and good process operating practices can help eliminate bag deterioration caused by chemical attack. Air-to-Cloth Ratios One important baghouse design variable is air-to-cloth ratio. Air-to-cloth (A/C) ratios describe how much dirty gas passes through a given surface area of filter in a given time. A high air-to-cloth ratio means a large volume of air passes through the fabric. A low air-to-cloth ratio means a small volume of air passes through the fabric. Air-to-cloth ratios are usually expressed in units of (cm*/s)/cm? of cloth [(ft#/min)/ft?]. Air to-cloth ratios vary depending on a number of factors such as the bag cleaning mechanism, the filter material, and the filtered dust particles. For instance, reverse air baghouses used for filtering flyash from boilers use glass or Fiberglas® bags. Fiberglas® bags cannot withstand high filtering stress (high air- to-cloth ratios). Too high an air-to-cloth ratio results in excessive pressure drops, reduced collection efficiency, bags becoming caked solidly with dust, and rapid bag deterioration. Therefore, the air-to-cloth ratio must be kept low, usually less than 1 to 3 (em*/s)/em* 314On the other hand, a pulse jet baghouse used for filtering asphalt-batch-plant dust usually uses thick felted ‘Table $-2. Typical airwo-cloch ratot. Nomex® bags. Since these bags are strong, they can withstand high air-to-cloth ratios—usually between 2.5 and 7.5 (cm*/s)/cm?. Typical air-to-cloth ratios for reverse air, shaker, Bephowe and pulse jet baghouses are given in Table 3-2. ‘dstaing ‘Aeserloch ration ‘method ‘Shaking | FS om/em® | F0 (emia Revene sit | 0.52.0 (emi“aemt | 1-4 (/min/ ft Pale jr | 2.57.8 (emivayem* | $15 /min 6 Industrial Applications of Baghouses Fabric filters have been used for particulate emission reduction for many industrial applications. Baghouses have been designed to collect particles in the submicron range with 99.9°% control efficiency. They have occasionally been used to remove particles and then recirculate the clean air back into the plant to help supplement heating needs. Baghouses have been used in the chemical, steel, cement, food, phar- maceutical, metal-working, aggregate, and carbon-black industries. One relatively new baghouse application is filtering flyash in both industrial and utility boilers. Here, baghouses are becoming as popular as electrostatic precipitators for removing 99.9°% of the particulate matter from the flue gas. ‘Nee: Airs cath radon are oceastonally given ms 2.071 Itaeed of 2.9 (em? em Review Exercise 1. Bag filters (bags) are made from or materials. 2, ____ filters are made from yam and have a definite . woven, felted repeated pattern. 8 filters are composed of randomly placed fibers . Woven that are compressed into a mat and attached to a loosely woven backing material. 4. The bags in a baghouse are housed in a that |. Felted is usually made of metal (steel). 5. Sometimes it is necessary to use _____ with the shell . shell to prevent moisture or acid from condensing in the baghouse. 6. The dust is temporarily stored in a |. insulation hopper 3-157. Two natural fibers used for fabric filters are ________ and 8. Wool and cotton are inexpensive but are susceptible to 7. wool, cotton failure at 9, Two fabrics that are good for use in high-temperature 8, high temperatures (> 200°C) industrial processes are a. Teflon® and Fiberglas®. b. nylon and wool. ¢. cotton and Orlon®. 4. polypropylene and Dacron®. 10, Three conditions that shorten bag operating life are 9. a. Teflon® and and. Fiberglas®. 10. abrasion, high temperature, chemical attack References Bethea, R. M. 1978. Air Pollution Control Technology: An Engineering Analysis Point of View. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Cheremisinoff, P. N. and Young, R. A., eds. 1977. Air Pollution Control and Design Hand- book, Part 1. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Cross, F. L. and Hesketh, H. E., eds. 1975. Handbook for the Operation and Maintenance of Air Pollution Control Equipment. Westport, CN: Technomic Publishing Co., Inc. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). October, 1981. APTI Course 413, Control of Particu- late Emissions, Student Manual. EPA 450/2-80-066. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). February, 1980. Survey of Dry SO: Control Systems. EPA 600/7-80-080. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1979. Particulate Control by Fabric Filtration on Coal-Fired Industrial Boilers. EPA 625/2-79-021 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1976. Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air Pol- lution Control Systems. EPA 450/3-76-014. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1973. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. 2nd ed. AP-40. Frederick, £. R. 1974. Some Effects of Electrostatic Charges in Fabric Filtration. J. Air Poll Control Assoc. 24:1164-1168. Hesketh, H. E. 1979. Air Pollution Control. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc. 3-16Kaplan, S. M. and Felsvang, K. 1979. Spray Dryer Absorption of SO; from Industrial Boiler Flue Gas. 86th National AICHE Meeting Paper, Houston, Texas, April, 1979. Kraus, M. N. 1979. Baghouses: separating and collecting industrial dusts. Chem. Eng. 86:94-106. McKenna, J. D. and Greiner, G. P. 1981. “Baghouses.” Air Pollution Control Equip- ment—Selection, Design, Operation and Maintenance, ed. by Theodore, L. and Buonicore, A. J. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc. Neveril, R. B., Price, J. U. and Engdahl, K. L. 1978. Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air Pollution Control Systems—I. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 28:829-836. Proceedings: Symposium on the use of fabric filters for the control of sub-micron particulates, April 8-10, 1974, Boston, MA. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 24:1139-1197, 1974. Proceedings: The User and Fabric Filtration Equipment III, October 1-3, 1978. Niagara Falls, NY. Air Pollution Control Association Specialty Conference. Reigel, S. A. and Applewhite, G. D. 1980. “Operation and Maintenance of Fabric Filter Systems.” Operation and Maintenance for Air Particulate Control Equipment, ed. by Young, R. A. and Cross, F. L. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science. Stern, A. C. ed. 1977. Air Pollution. Third Edition. Volume IV. New York: Academic Press. Sittig. M. 1977. Particulates and Fine Dust Removal Processes and Equipment. New Jersey: Noyes Data Corporation. Theodore, L. and Buonicore, A. J. 1976. Industrial Air Pollution Control Equipment for Par- ticulates. Cleveland: CRC Press. 3-17Lesson 4 Electrostatic Precipitators Lesson Goal and Objectives Goal To familiarize you with the particulate emission removal device used by many industries—the electrostatic precipitator— its operating principles, and the different designs in use. Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1, recall how particles are collected in an electrostatic precipitator (ESP). 2. list four major components of an ESP. 3. recall the location of a hot-side precipitator. 4. recognize three types of rappers and recall their operation principles. 5. define resistivity and recall how it can be altered to improve ESP performance. 6. define aspect ratio and specific collection area. 7. list three industrial applications for ESPs. Introduction Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) have been used to reduce par- ticulate emissions in many industrial applications for over fifty years. ESPs have been designed to collect particles with diameters of from 0.1 um to 10.0 um; collection efficiency is considered high, sometimes exceeding 99%. The ability of ESPs to handle large exhaust gas volumes at temperatures between 175 and 700°C (350 to 1300°F) makes them very attractive to many industries. This ability is particularly desirable for cement kiln emission reduction and for control of emissions from basic oxygen steel furnaces in the steel industry where flue gas enters the precipitators at temperatures greater than 350°C (60°F). ESPs are commonly used for particulate emission reduction for black liquor operations in the pulp and paper industry, for blast furnaces and sintering operations in the steel industry, and for fly ash control from industrial and utility boilers. 41ESP Description ‘An electrostatic precipitator, depicted in Figure 4-1, contains six essential components. Each of these components will be discussed in detail in this lesson: © discharge electrode * rapper * collection electrode * hopper * electrical system © shell The discharge electrode is usually a small-diameter metal wire. This electrode is used to ionize the gas (that charges the particles) and to create a strong electric field. The collection electrode is either a tube or a flat plate with an opposite charge relative to that of the discharge electrode. The collection electrode collects charged particles. The electrical system consists of high voltage components used to control the strength of the electric field between the discharge and collection electrodes. The rapper imparts a vibration or shock to the electrodes, removing the collected dust. Rappers remove dust that has, accumulated on both collection electrodes and discharge elec- trodes. Occasionally, water sprays are used to remove dust from collection electrodes. These precipitators are called water-walled ESPs. Hoppers are located at the bottom of the precipitator. Hoppers are used to collect and temporarily store the dust removed during the rapping process. The shell structure encloses the electrodes and supports the entire ESP. ESPs that use plates as collection electrodes are called plate precipitators. ESPs that use tubes for collection electrodes are called tubular precipitators. Shell Collection slectrode Figure 41. Typical electrosatic precipitator. 42Plate ESPs Plate electrostatic precipitators are used more often than tubular precipitators. A high voltage creates an intense electric field which charges the particles as the flue gas passes through the precipitator. Dirty gas flows into a chamber consisting of a series of discharge electrodes— wires equally spaced along the center line of adjacent plates (Figure 4-2). Discharge electrodes are approximately 0.13 to 0.88 cm (0.05 to 0.15 in.) in diameter. Collection plates are usually between 6 and 12 m (20 and 40 ft) high. The plates are usually spaced from 20 to 80 em (8 to 12 in,) apart. Tubular ESPs ‘Tubular precipitators consist of cylindrical collection electrodes (tubes) with discharge electrodes (wires) located in the center of the cylinder (Figure 4-3). Dirty gas flows into the tubes where particles are charged. Charged particles are collected on the inside walls of the tubes. Collected dust or liquid is removed by washing the tubes with water sprays located directly above the tubes. Tubular precipitators are generally used for collecting mists or fogs. Tube diameters typically vary from 0.15 to 0.31 m (0.5 to 1 ft), with length usually varying from 1.85 to 4.0 m (wish. Hot-side ESPs Hot-side ESPs are electrostatic precipitators placed in locations where the flue gas temperature is relatively high. They can be either tubular or plate. Hot-side precipitators are used in high temperature applications such as in the collection of utility and industrial boiler fly ash. A hot-side precipitator is located before the combustion air preheater in a boiler, whereas a cold-side precipitator is located after the air preheater. The flue gas temperature here for hot-side precipitators is in the range of 820 to 420°C (608 to 790°F), The use of hot-side pre- cipitators also helps reduce corrosion and hopper plugging. However, hot-side precipitators have some disadvantages. Since the temperature of the flue gas is higher, the volume of gas to be treated in the ESP is larger. Consequently, the overall size of the precipitator will be larger. Another major disadvantage includes structural and mechanical problems that occur in the precipitator shell and support structure. Structural distortions seem mainly from differences in thermal expansion between the shell and the support structure. 43 Figure 4-2. Gas flow through 2 plate precipitavr.Particle Collection Charging the Particles in the Precipitator Since the majority of precipitators have plates as collection electrodes, plate ESPs will be used for this discussion. Particles suspended in flue gas are charged as they pass through elec- trostatic precipitators. A high-voltage, pulsating, direct current is applied to an electrode system consisting of a small diameter discharge electrode and a collection electrode. The discharge electrode is usually negatively charged. The collecting plate is usually grounded. The applied voltage is increased until it pro- duces a corona discharge which can be seen as a luminous blue glow around the discharge electrode. The corona causes gas molecules to ionize. The negative gas ions that are produced migrate toward the grounded collection electrode. The negative gas ions bombard the particles suspended in the flue gas stream, imparting a negative charge to them. Negatively charged particles then migrate to the collection electrode and are collected (Figure 4-4) Figure 44. Particle charging, Discharging the Particles at the Collection Electrode When a charged particle reaches the grounded collection elec: trode, the charge on the particle is only partially discharged ‘The charge is slowly leaked to the grounded collection plate. A. portion of the charge is retained and contributes to the inter- molecular cohesive and adhesive forces that hold the particlesonto the plates. Particles are held to che plates by adhesive forces. Newly arrived particles are held to the collected par- ticles by cohesive forces. The dust layer is allowed to build up on the plate to a thickness of 0.08 to 1.27 cm (0.08 to 0.5 in.), ind then the rapping cycle is initiated. Rapping cycles are initiated on a set-timed cycle. Rapping the Particles into the Hopper Periodically rapping the precipitator plates is necessary to maintain the continuous flue gas cleaning process. The plates are rapped while the ESP is on-line; the gas flow continues through the precipitator and the applied voltage remains con- stant, In wet-walled precipitators, tubes are cleaned by water sprays. In most other precipitators, deposited dry particles are dislodged by sending mechanical impulses or vibrations to the plates. Plates are rapped when the accumulated dust layer is relatively thick (0.08 to 1.27 cm). This allows the dust layer to fall off the plates as large aggregate sheets and helps eliminate dust reentrainment. Most precipitators have adjustable rappers so that rapper intensity and frequency can be changed. according to dust concentration in the flue gas. Dislodged dust falls from the plates into the hopper. The hopper is a single collection bin with sides sloping approx- imately 60° to allow dust to flow freely from the top of the hopper to the discharge opening. Dust should be removed as soon as possible to avoid (dust) packing. Packed dust is very difficult to remove. Most hoppers are emptied by some type of rotary discharge device, screw conveyor, or pneumatic con- veyor. A typical hopper with a screw conveyor is shown in Figure 4.5. Hopper and screw Figure 4-5. coaveror. Review Exercise 1, In an electrostatic precipitator, the electrode is, normally a small-diameter metal wire. 2. The charged particles migrate to and are collected on 1. discharge the 3. _____are used to remove dust from both the collection electrodes and the discharge electrodes. 2. collection electrode 45 3. Rappers4, Ina single stage, high voltage ESP, the applied voltage is increased until it produces a(an) a. extremely high alternating current for particle charging. b. corona discharge which can be seen as a blue glow around the discharge electrode. c. corona spark that occurs at the collection electrode. 5. True or False? Particles are usually charged by negative gas ions that are migrating toward the collection electrode. . b. corona discharge which can be seen asa blue glow around the discharge electrode. 6. As dust particles reach the grounded collection electrode, their charge is a. immediately transferred to the collection plate. b. slowly leaked to the grounded collection electrode. . cancelled out by the strong electric field. True 7. Particles are held onto the collection plates by a. a strong electric field force. b. a high pulsating direct current. ¢. intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces. 4. . electric sponsors. b. slowly leaked to the grounded collection electrode. 8. True or False? During the rapping process, the voltage is turned down to about 50% of the normal operating voltage to allow the rapped particles to fall freely into the hopper. c. intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces. Precipitator Components Discharge Electrodes The discharge electrodes in many U.S. precipitator designs are thin round wires varying from 0.13 to 0.38 cm (0.05 to 0.15 in.) in diameter. Most common designs use wires approximately 0.25 cm (0.1 in.) in diameter. The discharge electrodes consist of vertically hung wires supported at the top and held taut and plumb by a weight at the bottom. The wires are usually made from high carbon steel, but have also been constructed of stainless steel, copper, titanium alloy, Inconel®, and alumi. num. The weights are made of cast iron and are generally 11.4 kg (25 Ibs) or more. Discharge wires are usually supported to help eliminate breakage from mechanical fatigue. The wires move under the 46 Falseinfluence of aerodynamic and electrical forces and are subject to mechanical stress. The weights at the bottom of the wire are attached to guide frames to help maintain wire alignment. Attaching the weights will prevent them from falling into the hopper in the event that the wire breaks (Figure 4-6). The bot- tom and top of each wire are usually covered with a shroud of steel tubing. The shrouds help minimize sparking and conse- quent metal errosion by sparks at these points on the wire. The size and shape of the electrodes are governed by the mechanical requirements of the system. Most U.S. designs have traditionally used thin, round wires for corona generation. Some designers have also used twisted wire, square wire, barbed wire, or other configurations. Some of these are illustrated in Figure 4-7. Figure 47. Typical discharge European precipitator manufacturers favor the use of rigid support frames for discharge electrodes. The frames may con- sist of coiled spring wires, serrated strips, or needle points mounted on a supporting strip. An example is shown in Figure 4-8. The purpose of the rigid frame is to eliminate the possible swinging of the discharge wires. These designs have been used as successfully as the U.S. wire designs. Many U.S. vendors are now using rigid frame discharge electrodes. Figure 48. Rigid frame discharge electrode design,Collection Electrodes Most U.S. precipitators use plate collection electrodes because they treat large gas volumes and usually have high collection efficiency. The plates are generally made of carbon steel. However, plates are occasionally made of stainless steel or an alloy steel for special flue gas stream conditions. The plates range from 0.05 to 0.2 cm (0.02 to 0.08 in.) in thickness. Plates are spaced from 20 to 80 cm apart (8 to 12 in.). Normal spacing for high efficiency ESPs is 20 to 28 cm (8 to 9 in, Plates are usually between 6 and 12 m (20 to 40 ft) high. Collection plates are constructed in a number of shapes as shown in Figure 4-9. These plates are solid-sheets that are sometimes reinforced with structural stiffeners to increase plate strength. In some cases, the stiffeners act as baffles to help reduce particle reentrainment losses. Shell The shell structure encloses the electrodes and supports the precipitator components in a rigid frame to maintain proper electrode alignment and configuration (Figure 4-10). The sup- port structure is especially critical for hot-side precipitators because precipitator components can expand and contract when the temperature differences between the ESP (400°C) and the ambient atmosphere (20°C) are large. Excessive temperature stresses can literally tear the shell and hopper joints and welds apart. Collecting plates and discharge electrodes are normally sup- ported from the top so that the elements hang vertically because of the force of gravity. This allows the elements to expand or contract with temperature changes without binding or distorting. Shells, hoppers, and connecting flues should be covered with insulation to conserve heat, and to prevent corrosion due to water vapor and acid condensation on internal precipitator components. Insulation will also help minimize temperature differential stresses, especially on hot-side precipitacors. Ash hoppers should be insulated and heated. Cold fly ash has a tendency to cake; therefore, it is extremely difficult to remove. The precipitator should also be designed to provide easy access to strategic points of the collector for internal inspection of electrode alignment, for maintenance, and for cleaning elec- trodes, hoppers, and connecting flues during outages.Dust that has accumulated on collection and discharge elec- trodes is removed by rapping. Dust deposits are generally dislodged by mechanical impulses or vibrations imparted to the electrodes. A rapping system is designed so that rapping inten- sity and frequency can be adjusted for varying operational con- ditions. Once the operating conditions are set, the system must be capable of maintaining uniform rapping for a long time. 49Hammer Collection plates are rapped by a number of methods. One rapper system uses hammers mounted on a rotating shaft as, shown in Figure 4-11. As the shaft rotates, the hammers drop (by gravity) and strike anvils that are attached to the collecting plates. Rappers can be mounted on the top or on the side of collection plates. Rapping intensity is controlled by the weight of the hammers and the length of the hammer mounting arm. The frequency of rapping can be changed by adjusting the speed of the rotating shafts. Thus, rapping intensity and frequency can be adjusted for the varying dust concentration of the flue gas. Figure 4-11. Typical hammer/anvil rappers for collection plate. Magnetic Impulse Another rapping system used for many U.S. designs consists of magnetic impulse rappers to remove accumulated dust layers from collection plates. A magnetic impulse rapper has a steel plunger that is raised by a current pulse in a coil. The raised plunger then drops back, due to gravity. striking a rod con- nected to a number of plates within the precipitator as shown in Figure 4-12. Rapper frequency and intensity are easily regulated by an electrical control system. The frequency may be one rap every few minutes to one rap an hour with an intensity of 10 to 24 g's (Katz, 1979). Magnetic impulse rappers usually operate more frequently but with less intensity than do rotating hammer/anvil rappers. Figure 412. Typical magnetic impulse rappers for collection plates. 410Electric Vibrator The discharge or corona electrodes must also be rapped to pre- vent excessive dust deposit buildup that will interfere with corona generation. This is usually accomplished by the use of air or electric vibrators that gently vibrate the discharge wires. Vibrators are usually mounted externally on precipitator roofs and are connected by rods to the high tension frames that sup- port the corona electrodes (Figure 4-13). An insulator, located above the rod, electrically insulates the rapper while mechanically transmitting the rapping force. Tumbling Hammers for Rigid Frame Discharge Electrodes Rigid frame discharge electrodes are rapped by tumbling ham- mers. The tumbling hammers operate similarly to the hammers used to remove dust from collection electrodes. The hammers are arranged on a horizontal shaft. As the shaft rotates, the hammers hit an impact beam which transfers the shock, or vibration, to the center tubes on the discharge system, causing dust to be removed (Figure 4-14). Transformer-Rectifier Sets High voltage equipment controls the strength of the electric field generated between the discharge and collection electrodes. This is accomplished by using transformer-rectifier (T-R) sets. ‘The transformer steps up the voltage from 400 volts to approx- imately 20,000 to 70,000 volts. This high voltage helps to increase particle movement to the collection plates. The rec- tifier converts alternating current to direct current. Direct (or undirectional current) is required for electrical precipitation. Most modern precipitators use solid-state silicon rectifiers and oil or askerel-filled high voltage transformers. Figure 4-14, Tumbling hammers for rigid frame discharge slectrodes. 411Review Exercise . The discharge electrodes in most U.S. precipitator designs are a. thin plates usually between 20 and 50 feet high. . thin round wires varying from 0.05 to 0.15 inch in diameter. . rigid frames. . Collection plates are usually spaced a. more than 15 inches apart. b. from 8 to 12 inches apart. . less than 4 inches apart. . b, thin round wires varying from 0.05 to 0.15 inch in diameter. . Two rappers used for removing accumulated dust from collection electrodes are a. electric vibrator rappers. b. pneumatic rappers. ¢. magnetic impulse rappers. . hammer and anvil rappers. b. from 8 to 12 inches apart. |. True or False? Occasionally, discharge electrodes must be rapped to prevent excessive dust deposits on them that inter- fere with corona generation. ¢. magnetic impulse rappers. d. hammer and anvil rappers. The transformer-rectifier sets are used a. to step down the voltage and convert alternating current to direct current. d. to step up the voltage to approximately 20,000 to 70,000 volts and to convert alternating current to direct current. ¢. to step up the voltage to approximately 70,000 volts and to convert direct current to alternating current. True . True or False? Electrostatic precipitators cannot be used for collecting dust from cement kilns or basic oxygen steel fur- naces because the flue gas temperatures are too high b. to step up the voltage to approximately 20,000 to 70,000 volts and to convert alternating cur- Tent to direct current. - FalseESP Operation ESPs have been used in many industrial applications. The design of the ESP depends on various process variables such as flue gas temperature and flow rate, dust concentration, and the physical and chemical properties of the dust. Resistivity Particle resistivity is a condition of the particle in the flue gas that can drastically affect ESP collection efficiency. Resistivity describes the resistance of the collected dust layer (on the plates) to the flow of electric current. Particles that have high resistivity are more difficult to collect than those having normal resistivity. This is because the collected dust layer tends to break down the flow of electric current from the discharge electrode to the collection electrode. Particles that have high resistivity do not leak their charge to ground upon arrival at the collection plate. Consequently, ESP performance is reduced. High resistivity problems occur most frequently when low sulfur coal is burned in boilers. The collection efficiency of some ESPs has been reduced as much as 50% due to resistivity problems (White, 1974). High resistivity can be reduced by adjusting the temperature and moisture content of the flue gas flowing into the ESP. Par- ticle resistivity can be decreased by increasing the gas temperature above 260°C (500°F) or by reducing it below 150°C ($00°F). Hot-side precipitators have frequently been used to combat resistivity problems, where the flue gas temperature into the ESP is greater than 260°C. However, it has been reported that the efficiency of hot-side ESPs is quite sensitive to the composition of fly ash, and since the composition of fly ash is highly variable, reliable operation can be difficult. Increasing the moisture content of the flue gas also lowers resistivity. This can be accomplished by spraying water or inject- ing steam into the duct work preceding the ESP. In both temperature adjustment and moisture conditioning, the flue gas must be above the dew point to prevent corrosion problems to the precipitator. Other conditioning agents such as sulfuric acid, sulfur triox- ide, ammonia, sodium chloride, and soda ash have also been ‘used to reduce particle resistivity (White, 1974). For coal fly ash, the resistivity can be lowered by injecting approximately 10 to 30 ppm sulfur trioxide into the flue gas ducts preceding the ESP. Specific Collection Area The specific collection area (SCA) is defined as the ratio of the collection surface area to the gas flow rate into the ESP. Increasing the surface area for a given flue gas flow rate will 413generally increase the collection efficiency of the precipitator. Typical designs use an SCA of 20 to 25 mt of collecting surface for every 1000 m*/hr gas flow rate (850 to 400 ft" per 1000 acim). The general range of SCA is between 11 and 45 m* plate surface area per 1000 m*/hr gas flow rate (200 to 800 ft* per 1000 acfm). Aspect Ratio Large ESPs typically use plates that are 9.2 m (80 ft) high. The length of the plates varies, but generally, the longer the plates are, the better the collection efficiency will be. The aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the total length to height of col- lector surface. The aspect ratio for ESPs can range from 0.5 to 2.0. For 99.5° percent collection efficiency, the precipitator design should have an aspect ratio of greater than 1.0. Therefore, if the plate is 9.2 m high, the length should be at Teast 9.2 m. ESPs have been used in many industries to reduce par- ticulate emissions. ESPs have been installed on over a thousand power plants throughout the U.S. to control fly ash emissions. ‘These units have been designed in some cases to collect micron-sized particles and have collection efficiencies exceeding 99%. ESPs are generally more efficient in collecting very small particles thin cyclones and scrubbers. ESPs are relatively inex- pensive to operate compared to baghouses and scrubbers since the pressure drops across ESPs are low. ESPs also are very useful for filtering high-temperature flue gas, such as in a power plant or cement kiln, Review Exercise 1. When the collected dust layer resists the flow of electric current, the condition is called a. normal resistivity. b. high resistivity 2, True or False? A change in particle resistivity can affect ESP performance. 3. High resistivity can be reduced by a. burning low sulfur coal. b. increasing the temperature above 260°C. c. spraying water or injecting steam into the duct work that precedes the ESP. d. all the above . b and c only 44 1. b. high resistiviey. 2. True 3. e. b and c only4. Increasing the collection surface area for a given flue gas flow rate will generally increase/decrease the collection effi- ciency of the precipitator. 5. The ratio of the total length of a collection surface to its 4. increase height is called the a. specific collection area. b. corona discharge ratio. c. acm. d. aspect ratio. €. none of the above 6, The ____ for ESPs can range from 0.5 to 2.0. 5. d. aspect re Collection efficiency is generally better when this is greater than___. 6. aspect ratio, 1.0 References Anderson,-E. 1924. Report, Western Precipitator Co., Los Angeles, CA, 1919. Trans. Amer. Inst. Chem. Eng. 16:69. Bethea, R. M. 1978. Air Pollution Control Technology—an Engineering Analysis Point of View. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Cheremisinoff, P. N. and Young, R. A., eds. 1977. Air Pollution Control and Design Handbook Part 1. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Cross, F. L. and Hesketh, H. E., eds. 1975. Handbook for the Operation and Maintenance of Air Pollution Control Equipment. Westport, Conn.: Technomic Publishing Co., Inc. Deutsch, W. 1922. Ann. Phys. (Leipzig) 68:335. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1981. APTI Course 413 Control of Particulate Emissions— Student Manual. EPA 450/2-80-066. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1979. Particulate Control by Fabric Filtration on Coal Fired Industrial Boilers. EPA 625/2-79-021 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1976. Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air Pollution Control Systems. EPA 450/3-76-014. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1973. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. 2nd ed. AP-40 Hesketh, H. E. 1979. Air Pollution Control. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc. Katz, J. 1979. The Art of Electrostatic Precipitators. Munhall, Pennsylvania: Precipitator Technology, Inc. Rose, H. E. and Wood, A. J. 1956. An Introduction to Electrostatic Precipitation in Theory and Practice. London: Constable and Company.Schmidt, W. A. 1949. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 41:2428. Sittig, M. 1977. Particulates and Fine Dust Removal Processes and Equipment. New Jersey: Noyes Data Corporation. Stern, A. C. ed. 1977. Air Pollution. Third Edition. Volume IV. New York: Academic Press. Theodore, L. and Buonicore, A. J. 1976. Industrial Air Pollution Control Equipment for Particu- lates. Cleveland: CRC Press. White, H. J. 1977. Electrostatic Precipitation of Fly Ash. APCA Reprint Series. J. of Air Poll. Control Assoc. White, H. J. 1974. Resistivity Problems in Electrostatic Precipitation, J. of tr Poll. Control Assoc. 24:315-338. White, H. J. 1963. Industrial Electrostatic Precipitation. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. 4-16Lesson 5 Wet Collectors Lesson Goal and Objectives Goal ‘The purpose of this lesson is to familiarize you with the con- struction and operation of wet collectors—control devices used. to remove particulate matter and pollutant gases from exhaust ‘gas streams. Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. describe the principles involved in the collection of par- ticles by using water droplets. 2, list at least three factors that affect the absorption of gases in liquids. 5. list at least two methods in which power can be applied to collect particulate matter in a wet scrubber. 4. describe the construction of a spray tower and its use in collecting particulate matter. 5. explain what happens in a venturi throat. 6. describe the design of a packed tower and its use in col- lecting gaseous pollutants. 7. list three advantages of using wet collectors for pollu- tion control. 8. list three disadvantages of using wet collectors for pollution control. Introduction Wet collectors provide a versatile means of removing both par- ticles and pollutant gases from the exhaust stream of many industrial processes. These devices use water to make small, hard-to-collect particles easier to collect by incorporating them in larger water droplets. Gases can be absorbed by virtue of their solubility in water or by adding chemicals to the water. Wet collectors can be constructed in all sizes. They can be small enough to accommodate low volumetric gas flow rates of small chemical processes, or they can be designed large enough to remove gases such as sulfur dioxide from large coal fired power boilers. 5-1Wet collectors can achieve a wide range of efficiencies for the removal of either particulate matter or gases. A multitude of different types of scrubbers are commercially available. For removing particles, a very important design parameter is the power input into the scrubber, or pressure drop across the scrubber. Generally, the more power you use to run a wet col- lector, the more particles you can remove. On the other hand, ‘wet scrubbers constructed to remove pollutant gases such as '$0z, NO, or HCl depend more heavily on mechanical and chemical engineering design, and not so much on the pressure drop across the scrubber. The versatility of scrubbers does not come without problems. Requirements for higher efficiencies for either the removal of gases or particles lead to higher operating costs. By-products are hard to recover and an air pollution problem can quickly be transformed into a water pollution problem. For particulate matter removal, wet collectors are more effective than settling chambers or cyclones, but generally less efficient than baghouses or electrostatic precipitators unless operated at high pressure drops. ‘Wet scrubbers provide an alternative to incineration, adsorp- tion or condensation devices, if the pollutant gases are soluble or can be made to react with chemicals in the scrubbing liquid. Principles of Operation Collection of Particles There are two principle wet scrubber collection mechanisms. The first is inertial impaction. When droplets are i into a gas stream, moving particles cannot always avoid hitting them. Because of their inertia, the particles can't follow the streamlines around the droplets (Figure 5-1) and as a result, impact into the droplet. The particles become trapped in the larger drops which allows them to be more easily collected. Very small particles can also be collected by the diffusion mechanism. Particles are continually bombarded by gas molecules as they move in a gas stream. This bombardment can cause them to first move one way and then another in a random manner (diffuse through the gas). This random motion can eventually cause the particles to bump into a water droplet and be collected (Figure 5-2). Wet collector systems must provide for two operations for pollutant removal. One is the process of bringing the pollutant (cither particles or pollutant gases) into contact with the liquid. The other operation is to remove the liquid from the gas stream (Figure 5-3). The removal of the liquid may at first appear relatively simple, but small water droplets can be dif- ficult to separate from the gas. 5-2 Figure 51. Inertial impaction. Figure 5-3. Contact and separation.Many mathematical expressions have been developed to help design and describe the performance of scrubbing systems. For particle collection, one basic concept has been widely used. This is che concept of contact power, and states: “When compared at the same power consumption, all scrubbers give substantially the same degree of collection of a given dispersed dust regardless of the mechanism involved and regardless of whether the pressure drop is obtained by high gas flow rates or ‘high water flow rates.” In other words, you pay for what you get. As more power is applied, more particles are removed, assuming that the power is applied effectively. There are, however, several exceptions to this generalization. Collection of Gases Pollutant gases such as SO; or HC! move about because of their thermal activity and because they are bombarded by other molecules. When a molecule such as HC! diffuses over to a water droplet or to a liquid surface, it can become absorbed or dissolve in the liquid. A system designed to remove gases by the absorption process must provide an absorbent (the liquid) which will readily incorporate the absorbate (the gas, HCl). In absorption systems, the gases and liquid are contacted by slow, turbulent mixing. This is important for several reasons. First, in most absorption systems, the conditions are selected so that the process is gas phase controlled. This means that the rate of removal depends upon how fast it takes the pollutant gas molecule to reach the absorbing liquid—not on how long it takes for it to be absorbed (since this is chosen to be rapid). The turbulent mixing helps contact the gas molecules with the liquid. ‘Secondly, gases are absorbed better in clean liquid. If, through turbulent mixing, fresh liquid contacts pollutant gases, absorption is improved. And thirdly, slow mixing allows greater time for diffusion to occur—for the gases to migrate to liquid droplets or to liquid films. A number of process variables are also important for gas absorption. For example, as shown in Figure 5-4, the gas, solubility will increase if the pressure is increased. However, the gas solubility decreases as temperature is increased. Chemicals ‘can also be added to the liquid to react with the gases and “Temperatare— remove them. For example, many of the flue gas desulfuriza- tion (FGD) systems use lime or limestone to react with SO; to form sulfates which are then removed. Solubiticy— Solubility Figure 54. Process variables. “Reference: Lapple, C. E. and Kamack, H. J. 1955. Perfor- mance of Wet Dust Scrubbers. Chem. Eng. Prog. 51:110-121. 53,‘The mathematical expressions developed to describe the removal of pollutant gases by liquid scrubbing are basically the chemical engineering expression of gas-liquid equilibrium. Temperatures, pressures, solubility, and types of reactants (if any) must be specified in order to calculate removal effec- tiveness using these expressions. Review Exercise 1. Wet collectors are pollution control devices that use a liquid to remove ____ or _____ from an exhaust gas, stream. 2. True or False? Wet scrubbers can be designed for small locations. - particles pollutant gases 3. Wet scrubbers designed to remove pollutant gases depend mostly on a. mechanical and chemical engineering design. b. hopper design. . power input. 4. body diameter. . True ~ 4, List at least three problems associated with wet scrubbers. 5. Wet collectors use large/small water droplets to capture large/small dust particles. 6, Inertial impaction is the a. primary mechanism for collecting gases in wet scrubbers. . process of random motion of molecules in a gas. ¢. primary mechanism for collecting particles in wet scrubbers, a. mechanical and chemical engineering design. © by-products hard to * water pollution problems * high operating costs for high efficiencies large, small . ¢. primary mechanism for collecting particles in wet scrubbers.7. Diffusion is a physical process a. in which small particles move randomly to bump into a target. b. in which gas molecules will move to a liquid surface. ¢. resulting from the collision caused by the thermal motion of molecules. 4, all the above 8. The concept of contact power states that a, as more hardware is added to a scrubber, the efficiency will increase. bb. the greater the solubility of a pollutant gas, the greater the removal efficiency. c, as more power is applied to a scrubber, more SO; will be removed. . as more power is applied to a wet collector, more particles will be removed. 7. all the above 9. Scrubbers designed to remove gases generally use liquids in which the gases are a. insoluble. b. very soluble. 8. d. as more power is applied to a wet col- lector, more particles will be removed. 10. As the temperature of a liquid increases, gas solubility increases/ decreases? 9. b. very soluble. Wet Collector Devices Wet collectors are constructed in all shapes and sizes. They can vary from a simple chamber fitted with spray nozzles to com- plicated systems using baffles, motors, sprays, and other hard- ware. One classification system categorizes wet collectors by the way in which contact is made between the gas stream and the water. For example, spray scrubbers send water at high pressure through nozzles to generate the droplets that bombard incoming dust particles. Here, the energy is applied to force water through the nozzles. Four categories can be used to classify wet collectors in this manner (Figure 5-5). In removing pollutants, wet collectors can use energy from the liquid stream, the gas stream, a mechanically driven rotor, or a combination of these methods. 55 10. decreases Liquid Combination Figure 5-5. Energy sources.In this section, examples of scrubbers in each of these categories will be discussed (Table 5-1). ‘Table 51. Serubber categories. Energy ure Once serebber ‘eral pray oe org bed srabben| Packed wee 6 ‘The components used to construct wet scrubbers are limited in number. The designer of scrubbing systems may utilize only one or seveTal of the design features listed below: Spray nozzles Venturi throats Impingement surfaces © plates © baffles * packing Spray inducing orifices Cyclonic openings Mechanically driven rotors The combinations possible among these items have led to many commercially available scrubbers. Spray Towers Spray towers are simple in design and construction. They generally consist of a cylindrical or rectangular chamber with one or more levels of spray nozzles as shown in Figure 5-6. The nozzles produce droplets that fan out into the chamber to impact the particulate matter or to absorb gases contained in the polluted gas stream, The flow is generally countercurrent, as shown in this figure. That is, the direction of gas flow is ‘opposite to the direction of liquid flow. 56 Figure 56. Spray tower,Several different types of spray nozzles can be used (Figure 5-7). In the impingement nozzle, high pressure liquid strikes a plate or pin to give a spray of uniformly-sized droplets. The helically shaped solid cone nozzle can provide a wide spray and be less subject to plugging than the impingement nozzle. The principal energy requirements of spray towers come from the need of forcing liquid through the nozzles at high pressure so that the fine droplets will be produced. Spray towers can be used effectively for gas absorption if the contaminant gas is highly soluble. For example, spray towers are used to remove HCI gas from the tail gas exhaust from the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. Spray towers are adequate for the collection of coarse particles larger than 10 to 25 um in diameter. Smaller size particles can also be collected if the liquid inlet nozzle pressure is increased. Venturi Scrubbers ‘Venturi scrubbers provide a means of using the energy of a moving gas stream to atomize liquid into droplets. In the ven- turi, gas is forced through a constriction which narrows the gas flow (Figure 5-8). In order to get through this narrow part of the device, the gas must move at a relatively higher velocity. If water is introduced into this narrow throat, the high velocity gas will shear it‘into droplets. These droplets then serve as targets for particle collection. 5-7 Figure 5-7. Spray nozzles.Venturi scrubbers can have the highest collection efficiencies for particles of any wet scrubbing system. The gas pressure drop across the device can range from 2 to 40 cm of water (5 to 100 in. of water) in commercial systems, although pressure drops of 8 to 24 cm of water (20 to 60 in, of water) are more common. The velocity of the gas in the throat can range from 30 to 250 m/s (100 to 800 ft/sec) as a result of the pressure difference across the throat. Operating at a high pressure drop, a venturi can remove particles less than 0.5 wm in diameter. ‘The venturi is merely a system designed to use the energy in the gas stream to atomize liquid. The water droplets incor- porating particulate matter must be collected after leaving the venturi. Large bottom inlet cyclonic separators are often used for this purpose (Figure 5-9). Mist eliminators are often included in wet scrubbing systems to remove liquid droplets before the gas enters the atmosphere. Figure 5-10 shows examples of wire mesh and chevron mist eliminators. Droplets impinge upon their surfaces and drain off (due to gravity) for collection. Figure 5-10. Mist eliminators. Venturi scrubbers can also be used for the absorption of pollutant gases, The short time that the gas is in contact with the liquid, however, limits the collection efficiency of the device for gases. For the collection of particulate matter, increased energy input increases collection efficiency in the venturi. For gas absorption, almost the direct opposite holds true. An increase in pressure drop decreases residence time, usually allowing less time for absorption. Venturi scrubbers hhave been used successfully in power plants to remove both fly ash and SO;. There are many variations to venturi design. Systems have been constructed where water is sprayed in at the throat (Figure 5-11), where the throat size can be adjusted to accommodate varying gas flows (Figure 5-12), or where a series of rods placed close together give a series of small venturi throats (Figure 5-13). 58 Figure 59. Venturi scrubber wich ‘botiom inlet eyelonic separator. Figure 5-11. Spray venturiOrifice Scrubbers Another method of utilizing gas stream energy is to design a system in which the process gas is forced through a pool of liquid. The gas moves through a restricted passage or orifice to atomize the water. The larger particles in the incoming gas stream impinge upon the surface of the pool and are collected. Smaller particles impact upon the droplets produced by the high velocity gas skimming over the surface of the water. In the orifice scrubber shown in Figure 5-14, baffles serve as impingement surfaces for droplet collection, The drops fall to the bottom of the scrubber and the particulate matter settles out to form a sludge that must be periodically removed. Orifice scrubbers are used principally for the collection of particulate matter, especially sticky or agglomerating materials. ‘As a medium pressure drop device, they have a moderate col- lection efficiency for particles around 1 um in diameter (better than 50% efficiency). Figure 5-14, Orifice serubber. 59