STRENGTH OF MATERIAL * Normal stress When: o,, co, & Tare given. O, = 2 6,46, [G,=6, . = a * |cos 20 + t,,sin20. 6,-6,). Tangential Stress: a=-( 2 + )ina0 +, cos 2 6, +0, O,+6,) , Space! Fin = —t = oh, Important Points: y shear plane (1) Principle plane (a)Note: On principle plane, shear stress will always 0. x rnin na Radius of Mohr’s Circle (z,, ,.): Re Cassa, 2 . oO; +o, Normal stress at Location of (t,,,.): |On = 2 = Volumetric Strain of Rectangular: Volumetric Strain of Cylindrical: |&, =€, +2) Volumetric Strain of Spherical: |e, = 3¢,, Relationship Between Elastic Constant E |i. = _3k-2G] |, __9kG ~ 2040] | 30-20] | ek 2G] | 3k4G Number of independent Elastic Constant: Homogenous & Isotropic = 2, Anisotropic = 21, Orthotropic = 9 ie BE AE|’ Axial Elongation of the Prismatic Bar: 2PL, Al-- (for Instantaneous loading)© Deflection In Non-Prismtic Bars. 1. Stepped Bar 2. Circular Tapering Bar AL © Defection of Composit Bar: AE, +A.E iE, +A,E, ADSAL,,A=— Pe ¢ Deflection due to Self Weight of Bar: 1, Prismatic Bar: 2. Conical Bar: a= Wh 2AE 1 NE]? 2AE| 2E’ aye 6E e Thermal Expansion: o = EaAT, A=LoAT Coefficient of Thermal expansion (Aluminium > Brass > Copper > Steel) e In case Of Pure Bending: (Cy) a= _M _32M Zz nD* Tapp 32 e Bending Equation: y. a _M_E I sRSlope & Deflection ——2)) e— ML Pi WL Oe seer Bo DEI 95 24ET We ML’ mer en wit a BEI ‘A 3EI 8 30EI Sea A B poche (Garin vind) See are wl ML ML On GEL 9,= Os= Ser 9. 85> 24EI Ie wl! _ ML 9 - ML B8EI max @U2 SET © 12EI A_L2 L2_B PL? 8. O5= TéET ee PL © 48EI wim alll, WL 5 WL B 24EI 94> Os= T95* ET0,= a ®,= 8,= 6.= 0 o.= 8,= 6.=0 Db PL’ WL Aun ® % c 192EI A-@ 12 seaBT ML from A Tn Pp b—>B Us A aan) ft: Pa? , Pa® 4, Pa’ b ML ML’ 8c= Fe Pc= BET app (c= 9s) n= BRT Anes = OB EI Pa? ML 1 1 =—= AEN AEN INS ty One errs oe Pa Pa? L —— +b. —— == 3” 3EI2EI Awi@ Ya froma, Given by Suitable for Brittle Maximum Principle Rankine Stress or Maximum Normal stress Maximum Principle Strain] St. Venant Brittle and Ductile Maximum shear Stress Guest & Treseca | Suitable for Ductile Maximum Strain Energy | Haigh & Beltram} Ductile Maximum shear Vonmises and Ductile Strain energy Hencky Can be use for¢ Pure Torsion Equation For Circular Shaft: « Combined Bending & Torsion: max — nD? Cine = = [Mim +t | max Ber] l tae ¢ Equivalent Moment: |M., = 5M +VM?+T? | ¢ Equivalent Torque: |T., = [v M?+T? ] e Shear Stress: Shear stress a3 Tax = 2 T=1,,, at distance from neutral axis d/2V3(b) Triangular (d) (e) Hollow circular section a Il 38. mx 8 St “tat h/2) 31 who Ta Tag 331, ve Distance betwen NA. & 7... location = h/6 4 co Zi Sl 33 c (Au 2 distance from neutral axis) il 4/. es ave co | Oo ‘max ‘avgThin Cylindrical Pressure Vessels: pd 2t |? Where ©, = Hoop Shress 6, = Longitudinal stress. pb D Lat F Oy = Tax 8. Hoop Strain: |&1 = PP 0- LW) pD itudi in: |@, = 2—(1-2 Longitudinal Strain: |. ag HH) Thin Spherical Pressure Vessels: Euler’s Buckling Load:e End Condition of column. End One end fixed | Both end | Both end | One end fixed condition |oneend free | Hinged Fixed one end Hinged ion Bs L L2 io (Theoretical) Na 2L 0.8L Ly (As per IS code.) L 0.65L e Shaft In seriess: 0 i 0 0 0 () = TynLan + Tacbne + TopLen ap = Yan tne Bc} Gat, Gaclue Gente TLL ¢ Shaft In parallel: |0, =9)|/G 7 ~ GJ mi 2 Spring 32P°R'n 64PR'n ¢ Strain Energy: |U=——,—|, |}6=——,—; js Gd? ao ipa 64Rin e Stiffness: |S = 64R'n|’ ¢ Flexibility: ed® ij 1 1 1 K, Koga = K, + K, + K3 +...K, (In Spring) Note: It a spring is cut down by K times, then its strain 1 energy decreased by k times, its stiftness is increased by K 1 times, and its flexibity decreased by — time. k 24,2 1. Shear centre = a (Channel Section) 2. Semi Circular € =——~ emi Circular 7/2 Force Method Displacement Method 1. Unknown are taken redundants/| 1. Unknowns are taken displacement. reactions. 2. To find unknown forces or 2. To find unknown displacement joint redundants compatibility equilibrium conditions are written. equations are written. 3. The number of compability 3. The no. of equilibrium conditions equations needed is equal to needed is equal to degree of kinematic degree of static indeterminacy. indeterminancy.4.D.< D, 4. D, < D, Force Method/Flexibility Method/|Displacement Method/Stiffness Compatibility Method Method/Equilibrium Method 5. Examples 5. Examples: (i) Virtual work/Unit load (i) Slope deflection method method (ii) Method of consistent (ii) Moment distribution method deformation (iii) Elastic centre method (iii) Minimum potential energy method (iv) Column analogy method (v) Three moment theorem (vi) Castigliano’s theorem of minimum strain energy (vii) Maxwell-Mohr equation. | Type of Structure | Degree of Indeterminacy D, | 2D (plane) frames (3m+1)-3) 3D frames (6m + r)-6j 2D (plane) . pin-jointed truss (m+r)-2j 3D truss (m+r)-3} Torsional strain energy 2 U l i T. Le * nas Voli f shaft => == —= x 2 TO 71 G 4 olume of shaft Strain energy 1 So, Strain energy density = Volume of shaft > 2 x eyNote: On principle plane shear stress will always 0. Sr —S; = Sm ~Fmin _ Rs a Tenax, Radius of Mohr’s Circle (c,,,,): 2 Normal stress at Location of (t__) (t.-max shear max? Snax _ 5, +9; stress): |% ~~ 3 Volumetric Strain of Rectangular: AV _ _| (a, +9, +5.) . x Beets) lc 21) Volumetric Strain of Cylindrical: |& = +2¢» Volumetric Strain of Spherical: |. =3€ Relationship Between Elastic Constant: 9kG k +2G} ? 3k+G G= E K= E 2(0+p)] > 3(1—21)| > Number of independent Elastic Constant: Homogenous & Isotropic = 2, Anisotropic = 21, Orthotropic = 9 Axial Elongation of the Prismatic Bar: L ; (for Instantaneous loading) Deflection In Non-Prismtic Bars: 1. Stepped Bar:Type of Structure | Degree of Indeterminacy D, 2D (plane) frames (3m+r)-3) 3D frames (6m + r)-6j 2D (plane) 9; pin-jointed truss (m¥)-2) 3D truss (m+r)-3j Slope Deflection Equations M. 3E1€ dv Mon =Maa “3879 88TH Important Points y shear plane (t Map = Myag t+ 2E1(20, + +0_- 3) (Continuous Beam) (one end is pin supported) Principle plane (o)ONLY 6-stress components are required to define conditions of stress at a point. 8. In 2-D condition, 4 stress elements exist (6,, 6,, 6,,, 6. i) but ONLY 3-stress components are required to define & conditions of stress at a point. Design of members: Allowable stress= os Margin of safety = FOS-1 For Ductile material: FOS is applied on yield stress For Brittle material: FOS is applied on Ultimate stress. Normal Strain: 1. Deformation per unit length AL SL 2. Strain = —— or — rain = —~ or = I L 1 p—— 3. Measured by EXTENSOMETER It is a dimensionless quanity Mathematical definition of strain e= 4 Normal strain in y= Ot + OH = Shearing strain in x Ox wo Ox Oy x-direction xy plane f= by Normal strain in Yer = we m = Shearing strain in y-direction xz plane dw = dw av 5 e3 af Normal strain in Ye= yy + == Shearing strain in y-direction yz planeStress-strain Curve of mild steel (Low carbon steel-Ductile Steel) in Tension Shess ~ Stssk 0.12% 1.2-1.2%% 10-15% 20-30%% OA= Linear curve A= Proportional limit B =Elastic limit C =upper yield point D=lower yield point DE = plastic region EF =strain hardening region FG = Neeking region F = ultimate stress point G =Fracture point. Ly =Gauge length) | stross—P. strai = Initiai length Ay Pp Salient points: (1) Volume of specimen increases from O to D (2) Lower yield point should be used to determine the yield strength of material (3) From D to E, large deformations but volume of specimen does not changes. (4) From E to F, its strain hardening, i.e material undergoes changes in its crystalline structure.(5) F to G, diameter of portion decreases due to instability called Necking. (6) Cup cone failure occurs at 45° with the load in ductile material. Mild steel in compression (1) The stress strain curve will eventually be same through its initial straight line portion and through the beginning of the portion corresponding to yield and strain hardening 0 Tension Compression (2) Modular of Elasticity in Tension= Modular of Elasticity in compression 0 = 0.2% of proof stress Stress Quenched, Tamponed alloy steel High strength low alloy steel Garbon steel Pure iron Stein 0.2% 0.4% 10-15% 20-25% Stress-strain curves for other materials (1) All of them possess some Modulas of Elasticity. (2) As yield strength increases, Ductility falls. (3) For ductile materials like Aluminium and Copper, do not have defined yield point. Yield strength is defined by offset method. 1 (4) Ex. = 3B. Stress-strain diagram for Brittle material (1) o=6 (2) Linear Elastic range in compression is more than Tension (3) Rupture stress = Ultimate stress(4) No Necking occurs. Compression TRICK: to Remember failure surface:- Remember any one of the 4 given below and change at least two columns every time keeping the one constant. (1) Ductile Tension 45° (2) Ductile Torsion 90° (3) Brittle Tension 90° (4) Brittle Torsion 45° Eg. Remember Ductile Tension 45° Same Change Ductile Torsion 90° Brittle fracture: (1) Duetile material at normal temp. may become brittle at very low temp. (2) A Brittle material at low temp. may become ductile at very high temp. True stress strain curve __ True curve Engineering curve Erigineering curve Compression(1) True stress curve is below Engineering stress in compression because resisting area in compression increases (2) Engineering stress = PF True stress = # Ay A ea 6 AL Engineering stress = L, True stress = 1 0 A,, L, > Original Area & length Relation between True stress and Engineering stress Ay In Tension: 14k In compression 5 =6,(1 + &) Properties of Materials Elasticity:- Property by virtue of which material deformed under the load is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is removed. s Elastic limit Loading L 4 Unloading Linearing elastic material Nortiearing elastic material Permarett_Elestic Set et Plasticity:- The characteristics of material by which it undergoes inelastic strain beyond those at the elastic limit. Reloading:- Proportional limit increases from B to C but ductility decreases from ‘B to F’ to ‘C to F”Creep: Property by virtue of which a material undergoes additional deformation (over and above due to applied load) with passage of time under sustained loading with in elastic limit Relaxation:- The decrease in stress in steel as a result of creep with in steel under prolonged strain Strain Elastic ‘Stress recovery Permanent Elastic plastic strain ‘strain Time Time Fatigue:- Deterioration of a material under repeated cycles of stress or strain resulting in progressive cracking that eventually produces fracture. Endurance limit:- Stress level below which even large number of stress cycle cannot produce fatigue failure. For Non-ferrcur meterils. No of cycle Cycle Stress Endurance \ limit For ferrous material For structural steel, Endurance limit = $x ultimate strength Resilience:- Property of material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then upon unloading to have this energy recovered. Modular of Resilience: Elastic strain energy stored per unit volume te elastic limitAL Oy => XG, X= 2 °° E mu - 2E Toughness:- Ability to absorb mechanical energy upto failure. F Fracture paint Area of shaded portion = modular of toughness = Toughness —> Resists fracture Hardness — Resists scratch or abration Tenacity:- Property of material to resist fracture under the action of tensile load Visco-Elastic material Materials having both Viscous and Elastic properties and exhibit time dependent strain. Approximate stress-strain curves W—- F Lk Elastic — Plastic Elastic = Plastic Ideal — Fluid Ideal rigid with strain hardving behaviour Hooke's law:- (a) Homogenous |o = E.E (b) Isotropic (c) Linearly elastic materials Deformation of member under axial load a) L | A PL Load P is acting then = —— oad P is acting then(2) ALE, Ly ALE, ke Ay Esha Load Pis acting then |§ PL, + Pyby ra PsLs | ALE, AE, A;E, Pax = bacon | de —- dx x p or | (3) 8 Fore = P(x) is (4) (a) In prismatic bar due to self weight Tx 2B AE(b) Conical bar due to self weight 2 1 c= x “5 (deflection of prismatic bar of same 6 length and same density) * __ 4PL ~ (he zD,D.E 8p PLiog.( 44, | ~~ Et(By-B,) % 2 2 2 Ye Lite oe wk, oo Why Composite Bars —p(1) Principle of superposition is applicable only when stress is within proportional limit (2) If temperature is increased and member is restrained, then force produced is compressive. If temperature is decreased the force produced is tensile. (3) Temp t>more value of « — compression Temp +> more value of « > Tension Nut and Bolt problem: Extension of Bolt + Contraction of Tube = Movement of nut Jol , rl _ EB, 5 P| n=no. of rotations of bolt p=pitch of thread. Poisson’s Ratio:- For Homogenous and isotropic material, Elongation (or contraction) produced by any Axial Force in the direction of force is accompanied by contraction (or elongation) in all transverse directions and all such contractions (or elongations) are same. Sy oy Lateral Strai: Axial Strain n=O for cork n= .1 — 0.2 for concrete Al’ |n=0.5 Perfectly elastic rubber Volume of rod remains unchanged as a result of combined effect of elongation and transverse condition.Dilation, Bulk modulas:- ( e, = Bet ep +e 2) If Tt 2 Hydrostatic Pressure (1) Stretching of material in one direction ie due to Ux will lead to increase in volume (2) During plastic deformation, volume of specimen remains constant. Shearing Strain:- (1) Hooke’s law for shearing stress and strain s, (2) Modulas of rigidity or shear modulas G, E E as |0 0.5 then |— 2 (2) Orthotropic (wood) > 9 (3) Anisotropic — 21 Saint-Venant Principle: Except in the immediate vicinity of application of loads, the stress distribution may be assumed independent of the actual mode of application of loads. Plastic deformation:- When yield stress of material is exceeded, plastic flow occurs. ~ Ruphere // — Unloading curve Idealised curve for elasto plastic material Residual stress:-When some part of an indeterminate structure undergoes plastic deformation, or different part undergoes different plastic deformation the stress in various parts of the structure will not return to zero after the load has been removed. These stresses are called Residual stresses Thermal Stress and Strain:- o=EoAT A=LaAt Laat ant Strain = Onrerainviet cs Brass > copper > Asoc TRICK A>B>C>S When bar is not restrained, then there will be no induced temperature stresses due to change in temperature.