UNIT 8 INTEGRAL CALCULUS Structure 8.1 Introduction Objectives 8.2. Antiderivatives 8.3 Basic Defi jons 83.1 Standard Integrals 83.2 Algebra of Integrals 8.4 Methods of Integration 8.4.1 Integration by Substitution 8.4.2 _ Integration by Parts 8.5 Integration of Rational Functions 8.5.1 Some Simple Rational Functions 8.5.2 Partial Fraction Decomposition 8.6 Integration of Irrational Functions 8.7 Integration of Trigonometric Functions 8.8 Definite Integrals 8.9 Fundamental Théorem of Calculus 89.1 Area Function 8.9.2 First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus 89. 8.94 Evaluatioi of a Definite Integral by Substitution Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus 8.10 Properties of Definite Integrals 8.11 Applications 8.12. Summary 8.13. Answers to SAQs 8.1 INTRODUCTION “_: In this unit, we shall introduce the notions of an tives, indefinite integral and various methods and techniques of integration. The unit will also cover definite integrals which can be evaluated using these methods, We know that one of the problems which motivated the concept of a derivative was a geometrical one — that of finding a tangent to a curve at a point. The concept of integration was also similarly motivated by a geometrical problem ~ that of finding the areas of plane regions enclosed by curves. Some recently discovered Egyptian manuscripts reveal that the formulas for finding the areas of triangles and rectangles were known even in 1800 BC. Using these formulas, one could also find the area of any figure bounded By straight line segments. But no method for finding the area of figures bounded by curves had evolved till much later. In the third century BC, Archimedes was successful in rigorously proving the formula for the area of a circle, His solution contained the seeds of the present day integral calculus. But it was only later, in the seventeenth century, that Newton and Leibniz were able to generalize. Archimedes’ method and also to establish the link between 87Calculus 88 differential and integral calculus. The definition of the definite integral of a function, which we shall give in this unit, was first given by Riemann in 1854. We-will also acquaint you with various application of integration. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able ta * compute the antiderivative of a given function, © define the indefinite integral of a function, © evaluate certain standard integrals by finding the antiderivatives of the integrals, © compute integrals of various elementary and trigonometric functions, ‘+ integrate rational functions of a variable by using the method of partial fractions, © evaluate the integrals of some specified types of irrational functions, * define the definite integral of a given function as a limit of a sum, ‘* state the fundamental theorems of calculus, + learn the different properties of definite integral, . use the fundamental theorems to calculate the definite integral of an integrable function, and * use the definite integrals to evaluate areas of figures bounded by curves. 8.2_ ANTIDERIVATIVES In Unit 7, we lave been occupied with the problem of finding the derivative of a given function, Some of the impgrtant applications of the calculus lead to the inverse problem, namely, given the derivative of a function, is it possible to find the function? This process is called antidifferentiation and the result of antidifferentiation is called an antiderivative. The importance of the antiderivative results partly from the fact that scientific laws often specify the rates of change of quantities. The quantities themselves are then found by antidifferentiation. To get started, suppose we are given that f” (x) = 9, can we find f(x)? It is easy to see that one such function fis given by f() = 9x, since the derivative of 9x is 9. Before making any definite decision, consider the functions 9x + 4, 9x ~ 10, 9x + V3 Each of these funetions has 9 as its derivative. Thus, not only can f(x) be 9x, but it can also be 9x + 4 or 9x ~10, 9x + 4/3 . Not enough information is given to help us determine which is the correct answer. Let us look at each of these possible functions a bit more carefully. We notice that each of these functions differs from another only by a constant. Therefore, we can say that if Sf’ (x) =9, then f(x) must be of the form f(x) = 9x +c, where c is a constant, We call 9x rc the antiderivative of 9. More generally, we have the following definition Definit Suppose fis a given function. Then a function F is called an antiderivative of f F= fx We now state an important theorem without giving its proof.Theorem 1 Integral Calculus ff F, and F; are two antiderivatives of the same function, then F, and F; differ by a constant, that is F(x) = F(x te Remark From above Theorem, it follows that we can find all the antiderivatives of a given function, once we know one antiderivative of it. For instance, in the above example, since one antiderivative Of 9 is 9x, all antiderivative of 9 have the form 9x +c, where'c is a constant. Let us do one example, Example 8.1 Find all the antiderivatives of 4x. Solution We have to look for a function F such that F"(x) = 4x. Now, an antiderivative of 4x is 2x*, Thus, by Theorem I, all antiderivatives of 4x are given by 2x7 + c, where cis a constant, SAQI id all the antiderivatives of each of the following function ) f= 10x Gi) f@)= 11x" SQ)= ~ Sx 8.3, BASIC DEFINITIONS We have seen, that the antiderivative of a function is not unique. More precisely, we have seen that if a function F is an antiderivative of a function f, then F +c is also an antiderivative of, where c is any arbitrary constant, Now we shal! introduce a notation here : we shall use the symbol J f (x) dx to denote the class of all antiderivatives of f. We call it the indefinite integral or just the integral of: Thus, if F (x) is an antiderivative of f(x), then we can write J SQ) dr= F(x) +e. Here c is called the constant of integration. The function f(x) is called the integrand, £(x) dx is called the element of integration and the symbol J stands for the integral sign. The indet itegral J f(x) dx is a class of functions which differ from one another by constant. It is not a definite number; it is not even a definite function. We say that the indefinite integral is unique up to.an arbitrary constant. Thus, having defined an indefinite integral, Jet us get acquainted with the various techniques for evaluating integrals. 89Cateutus 90 8.3.1 Standard Integrals We give below some elementary standard integrals which can be obtained directly from our knowledge of derivatives. Table 8.1 SI. No. Function Integral 7 7 i +ene-1 . nel 2 sinx —cosx te 3 cos x sinx+e 4 sec?x tanx+e Ss cosec” x -cotxte 6 see x tan x secx+e 1 cosec x cot x —cosee x + ¢ 8 sin x +e or ~cos!x+e u tan xte or cot y+ | io) sec! x +6 or —cosee! x +e " In{x|te 12 ere 13 a te inja] Now let us see how 10 evaluate some functions which are linear combination of the functions listed in Table 8.1. 8.3.2 Algebra of Integrals You are famitiar with the rule for differential of sum of functions, which says Liason dgent= a4 foo+eZ tel ‘There is a similar rule for integrati Rule 1 flare + bewlde=a f se) de+d [ @@) de This rule follows from the two theorems. Theorem 2 ff is an integrable function, then so is K f(x) and J Kf (x)de=K fre@a, where K is a constant.Proof Integral Calculus ~ Let J f@dr=Fey+e “Then by definition, 4 LF) +e)= fa) 7 AIK(Fe) + = KF) Again, by definition of antiderivatives, we have [Ks00 de= KLFG) +el=K J fede ‘Theorem 3 + Iffand g are two integrable functions, then f+ g is integrable, and we have Jiro + georare f poo de+ J go ae. Proof 7 Let J ferdr= Foy +o, f eo) dr= Ge) +0, Then LUPE + GO) + l= f+ a) ‘Thus, Jy@ + g@)] dv =[F(x) + ]+1GQ) + 4] =f redc+ f geod Rule (1) may be extended to include a finite number of functions, that is, we can write Rule2 JK AG + Kr O04... 4 Ky fy Olde Kf i@de+ kf AWde+..+K, f horde We can make use of Rule (2) to evaluate certain integrals which are not listed in ‘Table 8.1. Example 8.2 Letusevatuate f (2+ 42-4 3sin x + de") de =2fdevaf xdes3f sinxdrsd [ef dx = 2x 42x? —3cosx+de* +e Example 8.3 Suppose we want to evaluate 91Cateutus And now some exercises for you, SAQ2 Write down the integrals of the following using Table 8.1 and Rule 2 f(a+2hy dat hat 2h, My Pai = f(a+n=1h) MB = f(6) We consider the left end points of these sub regions and construct rectangles 1,2,3,.. «27 as shown in Figure 8,1 Area of the first rectangle = h f(a) Area of the second rectangle = h f(a + h) Area of the third rectangle =h f(a + 2h) Area of the nth rectangle = h f(a +n—1h) Sum of these areas =f f(a) +h flath)+...+h f(atn-1h) We note that this ares the number of sub. s approximately equal to the area of the region AMNB. Further as visions increases, the estimation becomes better. Let the subdivisions become very large, i.e. n >, then h = > 0, which in turn implies that the area of the region AMNB = Ly nif @+ sat hs Seat 2H) + wt f(atn-1h)] oO) The expression on the R. H. $ of Eq, (1) is called the definite integral of f(x) from a 10 and is denoted by [ JS (x) dx, where a is called the lower limit and b is called the upper limit, Thus, £ P08) de = LPC) + flat 2) bo. fla r=1 hy), where nh= B~a, Cor. f F(x) dx =the area of the region below the curve y= f(x) above the x-axis and bounded by the ordinates x = a and x = b. Remarks For simplicity of the above concept, we have taken non-negative values of (x). In fact it makes sense for negative values of f(x) as well. mnCatewlus Example 8.21 Evaluate [ve as the limitof a sum, Solution [ ee= Lim AL C@) + flash) +...+ Slat A), where nh= b~ aand f@=x. , ie. ff Pac=zim nf? + arm 4 (0429 + ra rnaimy] = Lim iia? +a 4... a) 2ah (1+2434..,+0-1) 402 +2743 4.. +n) i] ) n [2¢ peal = Lim [= nh + a (nh) {nh — hy 4 mh (nh ~ h) nh — »| 2 +t 50 = Lim > [w? +2an =fig[2e- 9) 406-9 6-4-9 +2 0-0 0-0-1 Ob=a- ») rat =a?(b~a)+a(b-a)? +4- 0? 26-a(6-a) =(b~a)[a? + aba) +36- a ]=2 6" -a) Example 8.22 2 Evaluate [° e% dx as a limit of a sum. Solution Here b-a=2-0..nh=2, ie he? and f(x) ff ede =Lim [7+ fla+ny+ wet f(atn-1h)} > Lim hfe? +e%th eet teat(n-I)h] sLimh[e? +e* +e + ...4e"-*] asa=0 0 m0 oh é = Lim A| =! . [s | using the formula for the sum ofa G. P. =Limh 90 M2,Example 8.23 . Integral Calewlus Evaluate [" sin x dx as the limit of @ sum, Sotution Here f(x) =sin x, =0,6 f(a) = f (0) =sin0=0 eae S (a+ 2h) = f(2h) = sin 2h S(atn—Th)=sinn—th Pf sin rae = Ufo +sinn + sin2h +...+sin@= 19] to =u —t i [2sinasin + 2sinzh sink « s. 2sin (mh ~ A) sin 1909 gin 2 2 2. , cos! -exs(ma 4) 2 2) > h h ae [soe 4-cos(2—4]] am Ls SAQT7 Evaluate the following definite integrals as a limit of a sum : 6 @ [eta (i) f cos x dx (iii) f (2 =I) dxCatewlus 4 8.9. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 8.9.1 Area Function We have defined f £ (2) dx as the area of the region bounded by the curve y = f(x). x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. Let x €[a, 6}. Then [" /(2) de represents the area of the shaded region in Figure 8.2 (Here it is assumed that f(x) > @ for x €[as6].) y Figure 8.2 ‘The area of this shaded region depends on x, i.e. in other words is a function of x. We denote it by A (x) A(x) = £ Sa) de We will now state two fundamental theorems of integral calculus, 8.9.2 First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus Let the area function be defined by A(x) = £ f(x) dx for all x > a, where the function Sis continuous on (a, 6]. Then 4'(x) = f(x) forall x €[a, 5). (We assume it without proof.) 8.9.3 Sccond Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus Let fbe a continuous function defined on an interval [a, b] and F is an antiderivative of f then frba-ro-F@ (We assume it without proof.) Remarks @ £ F(x) dx = (value of an antiderivative at the upper limit b) — (value of the same antiderivative at the Jower limit a). (ii) This theorem is very useful as it gives us a method of calculating a definite integral more easily without calculating the limit of a sum, For convenience (6) ~ F(a) is denoted by FOi) If we consider F (x) + v to be an antiderivative value of f(x) instead of Totegral Cateulus F(a), then fre@a=tre rat = (F(b) +e) - (F(a) ~e) =F (b)~ F(a) Hence, there is no need to keep the integration constant ¢ in definite integrals. Example 8.24 . 3 Evaluate [) 3? de Solution Example 8.25 A tan”! x Evaluate { 0 +x Solution (Let tan"! Example 8,26 5 sin 2x . Evaluate [? — "= de sin' x + cost Solution p a p 2sze2 © sin x + cos x de sin‘ x + cos‘ x NsCalculus 116 E 2 tan x sec? x tan‘ « +l 2 2 ne fee ae tants +1 tan"! (an? x) 2tan sec? x dt aoa J oeen's) tan?x+t / P41 (Put tan? x ~ Dtan x sec? xdx = de and f x de = tan“ (tan? x) |? sin? x + cos* x bi = (0) aon 8.9.4 Evaluation of a Definite Integral by Substitution ‘When we use the method of substitution for evaluating an integral S F() de, we follow the following steps : Step 1 Substitute x= (p). Step2 Integrate the new integrand with respect to y. Step3 Resubstitute the value of yin terms of x in the answer. Step 4 Find the value of the answer in Step 3 at the given limits and find the difference. In order to quicken this method we can proceed as follows : After performing Step 2, there is no need for Step 3. Instead the integral will be kept in the new variable y and the limit of the integral will be accordingly changed. Example 8.27 Evaluate [| 5x4 yx5+1 de. Solution Let ¢=x°+1, then dt = 5x‘ dx When x =1,¢219 + and when x=—-1,f=(-1D° +1=-1+1=0. 4 fs re [Ve riae= P lew 3 =22 2 3° boSAQB (a) Evaluate @ Pp cos x de fy £ Sa 4d af > ay (iii) [f (sit £000? 2) a (b) Evaluate (i) fE sinx cos ae c dx 3+ 4 cosx (iii) £ a 2cos x+4sin x 8.10 PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS We consider below some important properties of the definite integral. These will be useful in evaluating the definite integrals more easily. Property } fre@ae~f sora Property 2 Crea sede [ford toracces Property 3 fi repar= [ sa- sar Property 4 £" fooae=2 [perder if f0a-0= 109) “0 if fQe-H=~F@) Property 5 fl, F0 de=2 fP £(9) de itis an even function. =0 — iffisan odd function. Antegral Caleulus 17