Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of water on the triaxial behavior under dynamic loading of asphalt

concrete used in impervious barriers
Alexandra Ossa a, Alberto Gaxiola b,⇑
a
Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 3000, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico
b
Facultad de Ingeniería Mochis, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Fuente de Poseidón C.P. 81210, Los Mochis, Sinaloa, Mexico

h i g h l i g h t s

The stiffness of asphalt concrete, after the saturation, remained constant.

No change was recorded in the dynamic response after 12 months of saturation.

Saturation cases an average decrease of 6.5% in the maximum shear modulus.

Saturation cases an average increase of 16.1% in the minimum damping ratio.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Dams with an asphalt concrete core are a viable alternative in the construction of rockfill dams; therefore,
Received 9 August 2018 characterization of the materials used in their construction is required. Part of this characterization
Received in revised form 27 February 2019 requires obtaining the response parameters upon applying cyclic loads under different stress and temper-
Accepted 28 February 2019
ature conditions.
The objective of this research is to determine the effect of water on the dynamic properties of asphalt
concrete after prolonged contact. To this end, an extensive program of laboratory tests was carried out in
Keywords:
which specimens of this material were prepared, saturated and exposed to water. After the saturation
Asphalt concrete core dams
Asphalt concrete triaxial tests
process, the results of the tests indicated that the asphalt concrete presented a decrease in the shear mod-
Dynamic load ulus of 6.5% and an increase in the damping ratio of 16.1%, on average, with respect to the values obtained
Moisture damage for the dry material. No significant change in the mechanical response was observed as a result of expo-
sure to water for a period of up to 12 months.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In rockfill dams, clay cores or concrete faces are normally used
as an impervious element. In some countries, asphalt concrete
cores and asphalt concrete external barriers have been used in this
type of structure for several decades. Of these latter two, asphalt
concrete cores are more commonly used since they are protected
from the effects of weather, sun and collisions with floating objects
if the material is placed on the surface of an embankment.
To determine the performance of asphalt concrete when it is to
be used in the construction of an impervious element, information
on its characteristics and behavior is needed. Hydraulic and
mechanical studies of the material must be carried out. Mechanical
studies can be divided into two types: tests under static loading
and tests under cyclic loading. Asphalt concrete is a material sen-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: alberto.gaxiola@uas.edu.mx (A. Gaxiola).
sitive to the viscous characteristics of the asphalt binder and pre-
sents a satisfactory performance when used as an impervious
barrier: it is resistant and flexible and has the virtue of self-
sealing in the case of cracking [1,2]. Detailed analyses have shown
that these structures present a satisfactory response to the static
and dynamic effects produced during the construction stage, first
filling of the reservoir and earthquakes [3–7].
According to the International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD) [5], until 1992, 42 dams with dense graded asphalt con-
crete (DGAC) cores existed in the world, with a height of at least
15 m, and most of these dams were in Europe. However, the con-
struction of this type of dam has spread around the world, with
the dimensions of these structures increasing day by day. At pre-
sent, some dams of this type with heights between 125 and
170 m exist, such as the Yele and Quxue dams in China [6]. Due
to the increasing number of dams with asphalt concrete cores
around the world, there is a need to have information on the
mechanical behavior of the cores as response to loads that may

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.02.176
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
334 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342

Table 1 Table 4
Asphalt binder characterization. Grain size distribution and asphalt concrete volumetrics.

ASTM Result Mesh size Percent Volumetric

Method passing (%) characteristics
(in) (mm)
Rotational viscosity at 135 °C (cP) D4402 [14] 488
3/4 19.0 100 Gsb 2.617
Flash point (°C) D92 [15] 318
1/2 12.5 76 Gmm 2.427
Dynamic shear modulus of the original asphalt D7175 [16] 1.44
3/8 9.5 63 Va (%) 1.7
(kPa)
1/4 6.3 48 VMA (%) 14.7
Mass loss by heating (%) D2872 [17] 0.536
No. 4 4.75 41 VFA (%) 88.1
Dynamic shear modulus after RTFO (kPa) D7175 [16] 5.91
No. 8 2.36 28 Pb (%) 6.0
Dynamic shear modulus after PAV (kPa) D7175 [16] 3307
No. 16 1.18 19 Gsb = Bulk specific
Slope of the stiffness curve m D6648 [18] 0.3
No. 30 0.60 13 gravity
Creep stiffness S (MPa) D6648 [18] 135
No. 50 0.30 9 Gmm = Maximum
No. 100 0.15 6 specific gravity
No. 200 0.075 4 Va = Volume of air voids
VMA = Volume of voids
Table 2
in the mineral
Mineral aggregate characterization.
aggregate
ASTM Method Result VFA = Volume of voids
filled with asphalt
Water absorption of coarse aggregate (%) C 127 [19] 1.61 Pb= Asphalt binder
Water absorption of fine aggregate (%) C 128 [20] 1.63 content by total mass
Resistance to degradation, Los Angeles machine (%) C 131 [21] 16 of the mixture
Soundness by sodium sulfate (%) C 88 [22] 1
Fractured particles (%) D 5821 [23] 100
Uncompacted void content of fine aggregate (%) C 1252 [24] 42
Sand equivalent value (%) D 2419 [25] 69 Wang and Hoeg [6] carried out a series of triaxial tests under
cyclic loading for specimens with a diameter of 10 cm and a height
of 20 cm, in which sinusoidal loads were applied with a frequency
of 1 Hz and the cell pressure and temperature were controlled in
cause damage or poor performance, especially considering that
the ranges of 0.2–1.5 MPa and 3.5–9 °C, respectively. In these tests,
these barriers are designed to remain in prolonged contact with
the authors used cyclic strain values of less than 0.3%, while the
water, which can oxidize the asphalt and cause aging. Therefore,
damping ratio reached values between 7 and 30%, depending on
the effect of water on the evolution of the mechanical response
the temperature and cell pressure. In this study, the temperature
of this material under dynamic load must be considered in the
had an important effect on the shear modulus; i.e., values of
design stage of these structures.
900 MPa, 1900 MPa and 2500 MPa were recorded for temperatures
of 20 °C, 9 °C and 3.5 °C, respectively (maintaining the cell pressure
1.1. Mechanical response of asphalt concrete in tests under dynamic constant at 1 MPa).
loading Feizi-Khandandi et al. [9] carried out cyclic triaxial tests on
asphalt concrete specimens in which they applied cell pressures
One of the critical situations for a dam is the occurrence of an of between 85 and 500 kPa to represent the conditions to which
earthquake, and the performance of the dam in this situation must the upper part of the asphalt concrete core of a dam would be sub-
be anticipated. To this end, the mechanical characteristics of the jected; the temperatures used for the tests were 5 and 18 °C. The
materials must be analyzed by laboratory tests in which parameters recorded values of the damping ratio and the shear modulus were
such as the shear modulus and the damping ratio are determined. used to subsequently model the behavior of this type of structure.
With respect to asphalt concrete, dynamic characterization studies The modeling results indicated that the asphalt concrete, under the
that have been performed are presented below. conditions evaluated, presents damping ratios between 5 and 35%,
In addition to triaxial tests under monotonic loading, Akhtar- shear stiffness moduli between 500 and 1600 MPa, and a
pour and Kodaii [8] carried out an important series of triaxial tests maximum value of the cyclic strain of 0.6%.
under cyclic loading in which they analyzed some fundamental
aspects of the mechanical behavior of asphalt concrete cores in 1.2. Moisture damage and aging
dams. These tests were carried out with cell pressures of 250 and
500 kPa. The load frequency was 2 Hz in most of these tests; how- Due to the function of the asphalt concrete core in a dam, it will be
ever, some were carried out with frequencies between 2 and 5 Hz in prolonged contact with water, which could cause important
to evaluate the effect of this variable on the shear modulus. The changes to its mechanical characteristics and modify the chemical
shear moduli of the asphalt concrete were between 200 and composition of the asphalt binder. This process, known as moisture
350 MPa and showed a tendency to decrease as the shear strain damage, is a mode of asphalt concrete deterioration due to the
increased. combination of physical, chemical, thermodynamic and

Table 3
Density and absorption of coarse aggregate.

Particle size Gsb Gsss Gsa Water Absorption (%) ASTM Method
Inches mm
1/2” 12.5 2.608 2.649 2.270 1.586 C 127 [19]
3/8” 9.5 2.613 2.654 2.726 1.586 C 127 [19]
1/4” 6.3 2.608 2.653 2.729 1.691 C 127 [19]
#4 4.75 2.602 2.647 2.723 1.697 C 128 [20]

Gsb = Bulk specific gravity.

Gsss = Saturated surface dry specific gravity.
Gsa = Apparent specific gravity.
 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342
mechanical processes. This process leads to degradation of the
mechanical properties due to the presence of water [10], that is, a
decrease in stiffness if the analysis is carried out from the point of
view of dynamic properties. Apeagyei et al. [11] stated that moisture
damage in asphalt concrete is caused by a loss of cohesion of the
mastic and/or adhesion between the binder and the mineral aggre-
gate caused by the presence of thin layers of water (35–45 nm) in the
interface. On the other hand, the prolonged contact of asphalt with
water makes it susceptible to chemical changes known as aging.
The aging of asphalt is a complex process that involves changes in
its chemical structure, which leads to modification of the mechani-
cal properties and is reflected in a fragile behavior [12]. This phe-
nomenon develops during different stages of asphalt use, starting
at the mixing, transport, and laying, and a slow process that occurs
when the material is in service. Aging caused in the last stage is
attributed mainly to oxidation, which is caused by contact with
the oxygen in air and water accelerated by other factors, such as
temperature and ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
1.3. Research scope
Water causes damage to asphalt concrete when in contact with
it. However, as mentioned in the previous sections, asphalt
Fig. 1. Saturation devices with asphalt concrete cylindrical specimens.
Fig. 2. Sinusoidal load wave and displacement record in response to a 70 kN amplitude load.
335
concrete has been used for different functions, including the con-
struction of impervious barriers. This damage causes uncertainty
in the engineering community when asphalt concrete is used in
this way.
In spite of all the studies mentioned above and the exhaustive
review of the literature carried out by the authors, no previous
research was found in which the changes in the dynamic response
of asphalt concrete as a function of the time of exposure to water
were studied (prepared to satisfy the characteristics of an impervi-
ous barrier).
To measure the effect of water on the dynamic response of
asphalt concrete, in this investigation, specimens with characteris-
tics similar to those used in impervious barriers were mixed and
compacted in the laboratory; later, they were saturated and kept
submerged in water for a period of up to 12 months to simulate
the effect that water has on this material when they remain in con-
tact for a long period of time. Finally, the mechanical properties
were recorded after carrying out triaxial compression tests on
cylindrical specimens. The detailed process for the preparation of
the specimens and the characterization of the material is presented
in the following section. The obtained results will give the reader a
better understanding of the level of damage that moisture can
cause to asphalt concrete prepared with the characteristics of an
impervious barrier.
Fig. 3. Hysteresis loop for damping calculation.
336 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342

2. Material and methods 2.1. Material

To achieve the objectives of this study, triaxial compression tests under cyclic
loading were carried out on specimens prepared with asphalt and basalt aggregates.
These tests were performed on dry specimens and later on specimens subjected to a
process of saturation and prolonged exposure to water. The characterization of
these materials is presented in the following section.
The asphalt binder used in this investigation is graded as PG 64-22 according to
ASTM D6373 [13]. Its properties in the original and aged states are presented in
Table 1.
The mineral aggregate has nominal maximum size (NMAS) of 19.0 mm; the
results of the characterization are presented in Tables 2 and 3.

Fig. 4. Shear modulus (G) and damping ratio (D) as a function of shear strain (c) in dry and initial saturated conditions.
 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342 337

2.2. Selection of the mixture and preparation of the specimens
To define the design mix, the permeability must be considered as an acceptance
or rejection parameter. However, a flexible and ductile behavior must be obtained,
ensuring that the material does not present strain softening [4]. According to ICOLD
[5], asphalt concrete with an air void content of less than 3% is considered
impervious.
To ensure that the mixture exhibits the required volumetric characteristics, the
particle size distribution, the asphalt content and the level of compaction must be
determined. If these parameters do not lead to an impervious material, they must
be modified until a mixture with the desired characteristics is obtained, which is
achieved by increasing the proportion of fine aggregate or asphalt content. Usually,
the level of compaction remains constant.
In the literature, various values of the asphalt content used to prepare impervi-
ous asphalt concrete have been presented. Akhatarpour and Khodaii [8] indicated
that the asphalt content should be in the range of 5.5–7.0%, although they recom-
mended using 6.5–7.0% with respect to the mass of the mineral aggregate. Zhang
et al. [2] used a 6.5% asphalt content with respect to the total mass of the mixture.
Wang and Hoeg [6] suggested using asphalt contents between 6.5 and 8.5% with
respect to the mass of the mineral aggregate. Hoeg [26] stated that the asphalt

Fig. 5. Maximum shear modulus (Gmax) and minimum damping ratio (Dmin) in dry specimens.

Table 5
Shear modulus Gmax and damping ratio as a function of temperature and time of exposure to water.

T (°C)* r3 (MPa)** Specimen I.D. Time (Months)*** Gmax (MPa) Dmin (%) Specimen I.D. Time (Months)*** Gmax (MPa) Dmin (%)
5 0.5 DRY-5T-0.5S Dry 490 3.31 6M-5T-0.5S 6 437 4.52
5 1.0 DRY-5T-0.5S 496 3.19 6M-5T-0.5S 449 4.37
5 1.5 DRY-5T-0.5S 487 3.48 6M-5T-0.5S 443 4.68
15 0.5 DRY-15T-1.0S 401 6.51 6M-15T-1.0S 374 7.33
15 1.0 DRY-15T-1.0S 420 6.19 6M-15T-1.0S 389 6.48
15 1.5 DRY-15T-1.0S 416 5.34 6M-15T-1.0S 384 6.91
25 0.5 DRY-25T-1.5S 340 7.47 6M-25T-1.5S 288 9.76
25 1.0 DRY-25T-1.5S 352 7.27 6M-25T-1.5S 298 7.80
25 1.5 DRY-25T-1.5S 360 6.67 6M-25T-1.5S 325 7.84
5 0.5 0M-5T-0.5S 0 466 4.05 9M-5T-0.5S 9 493 4.60
5 1.0 0M-5T-0.5S 499 3.68 9M-5T-0.5S 470 4.11
5 1.5 0M-5T-0.5S 493 3.87 9M-5T-0.5S 506 4.48
15 0.5 0M-15T-1.0S 401 7.31 9M-15T-1.0S 396 7.13
15 1.0 0M-15T-1.0S 410 6.86 9M-15T-1.0S 393 6.82
15 1.5 0M-15T-1.0S 444 6.24 9M-15T-1.0S 382 7.13
25 0.5 0M-25T-1.5S 310 10.12 9M-25T-1.5S 311 9.69
25 1.0 0M-25T-1.5S 325 8.75 9M-25T-1.5S 310 8.72
25 1.5 0M-25T-1.5S 343 8.63 9M-25T-1.5S 313 7.96
5 0.5 3M-5T-0.5S 3 445 4.55 12M-5T-0.5S 12 506 4.02
5 1.0 3M-5T-0.5S 477 4.18 12M-5T-0.5S 492 3.95
5 1.5 3M-5T-0.5S 461 4.08 12M-5T-0.5S 480 3.88
15 0.5 3M-15T-1.0S 387 6.11 12M-15T-1.0S 402 7.31
15 1.0 3M-15T-1.0S 382 6.47 12M-15T-1.0S 382 5.80
15 1.5 3M-15T-1.0S 398 6.14 12M-15T-1.0S 402 6.45
25 0.5 3M-25T-1.5S 304 8.71 12M-25T-1.5S 309 9.28
25 1.0 3M-25T-1.5S 316 8.26 12M-25T-1.5S 320 8.09
25 1.5 3M-25T-1.5S 308 7.99 12M-25T-1.5S 332 7.90
*
Test temperature.
**
Cell pressure.
***
Time of exposure to water after the saturated condition.
338 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342
content should be between 5.5 and 6.0%. ICOLD [27] indicated that the smallest
asphalt content used should be 5.1%. The diversity of values used and recom-
mended should be noted. In these studies, several types of mineral aggregates were
used, which can absorb different amounts of asphalt depending on the type of rock.
In the present study, cylindrical compacted specimens were prepared using a
Superpave Gyratory Compactor, due to the compaction process carried out in the
field is satisfactorily simulated [28]. This compactor applies a pressure of 600 kPa
to the hot asphalt mixture placed in a mold with an internal diameter of 15 cm
(6”) inclined at 1.25 degrees with respect to the rotating base, which rotates at
30 rev/min while applying the load. If the previous parameters are kept fixed,
then the level of compaction is governed by the number of gyrations applied,
in this case 50 gyrations since it corresponds to a level of compaction that is
easily reached in the field and is typically applied to urban roads and low traffic
roads in which the traffic of heavy vehicles is prohibited. Initially, specimens
with a diameter of 15 cm and a height of 20 cm were prepared, from which
10 cm diameter specimens were drilled. The final dimensions of the cylindrical
specimens subjected to the series of triaxial compression tests were 10 cm in
diameter and 20 cm in height.
All specimens were made with an asphalt content (Pb) of 6.0% with respect to
the total mass of the mixture. Previous studies determined that with this asphalt
content, the mechanical and hydraulic characteristics are optimized [29,30].
The distribution of the particle sizes and volumetric properties of the speci-
mens, obtained by ASTM D2726 and ASTM D1188, are presented in Table 4. Fifty-
four cylindrical specimens of identical asphalt concrete were prepared to carry
out the triaxial compression tests with different cell pressures, temperatures and
periods of exposure to water.
With the particle size distribution and asphalt content indicated in Table 4, the
volumetric characteristics were satisfied, and the asphalt concrete specimens did
not present strain softening when tested at triaxial compression under monotonic
load, using the same temperatures and cell pressures. The volumetric characteris-
tics of the asphalt concrete cylinders prepared in this study were similar to those
of the asphalt concrete of some dams that have been recently constructed, which
are operating with a satisfactory performance [2,6]; i.e., the volume of air voids
(Va = 1.7%) is similar to the volume of air voids measured in the Xiabandi, Longtoush
and Qiapuquhai dams (Va = 0.9–2.3%). The degree of asphalt saturation in the mix-
ture in this study, which is defined by the volume filled with asphalt (VFA), is 88.1%,
while VFA = 87.6–94.6% in the mentioned dams. The volume of voids in the mineral
Fig. 6. Maximum shear modulus (Gmax) as a function of time of exposure to water.
aggregate (VMA) of the mixtures used in this study was greater than 13% in all
cases; this value is recommended by The Asphalt Institute [31] to guarantee an ade-
quate durability of the mixture.
2.3. Saturation and water exposure of asphalt concrete specimens
To simulate the saturation process to which asphalt concrete is subjected once
it is placed in the core of a dam, the cylindrical specimens were submerged in water
in acrylic cells similar to those used in the triaxial compression tests, and a pressure
of 500 kPa was applied. To record the amount of water absorbed, the specimens
were removed from the cells daily, surface dried and weighed. Then, they were
returned to the saturation cells. They were considered to be saturated when an
increase in the mass of the specimen was not registered in a 24-hour period. This
criterion was fulfilled after 30 days; all specimens underwent the saturation pro-
cess for this period of time.
Subsequently, the specimens were removed from the saturation cells and kept
under water at atmospheric pressure and room temperature until the set water
exposure time was met, and mechanical tests were carried out.
The periods of exposure to water, which were defined as the amount of time
that the specimens remained under water after 30 days of saturation, were 0, 3,
6, 9 and 12 months. A photograph of the asphalt concrete specimens inside the
pressure cells is shown in Fig. 1.
2.4. Triaxial compression tests under cyclic loading
To carry out the triaxial compression tests on the cylindrical specimens (10 cm
in diameter and 20 cm in height), a GCTS loading frame and a FSTX-100 triaxial
compression device were used. These tests were carried out at temperatures of 5,
15 and 25 °C, considering that the temperature of the core of a dam remains con-
stant after its construction, with a minimum value of 5 °C in a subarctic climate
and a maximum of 20 °C in a subtropical climate [32]. To condition the specimens
and reach a uniform temperature inside, they were covered with a latex membrane
and placed inside the pressure cell to carry out the triaxial test. The cell was filled
with oil, with which the cell pressure was applied to the specimen, and the test
temperature was set for a minimum of 8 h before applying the cyclic loads.
 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342
Fig. 7. Minimum damping ratio (Dmin) as a function of time of exposure to water.
The triaxial compression tests were performed under different cell pressures r3
(0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 MPa) to simulate a wide range of normal stresses that occur in this
type of structure [32].
The tests were carried out by applying controlled sinusoidal loads similar to
Fig. 2a, which correspond to a load of 70 kN in amplitude. The typical measured
strain response is presented in Fig. 2b. During these tests, load amplitudes of 15–
70 kN, with load increments of 5 kN, were used; 70 kN is the limit at which the load
device operates safely at the applied frequency. Cyclic loads below 15 kN resulted in
a large dispersion due to the accuracy of the strain sensor.
The applied frequency was 2 Hz, which, according to Feizi-Khankandi et al. [9],
is the frequency at which the highest seismic energy is released in a typical 60-m
dam, and the number of cycles for each applied load was 50, which corresponds
to the load induced by an earthquake of magnitude 7.5, according to Kramer [33].
3. Results and discussion
The analysis of the results was based on obtaining the shear
modulus (G) and the damping ratio (D) for each of the test condi-
tions. From the values of the cyclic stress (r) and axial strain (e)
obtained from the triaxial compression tests, the hysteresis loops
were plotted for each of the load cycles (see Fig. 3). For each stress
condition, the cyclic elastic modulus (E) was defined as the mean of
the slopes for the last five load cycles applied to the specimen.
Based on the modulus of elasticity values, the shear modulus (G),
shear strain (c) and damping ratio (D) were calculated by Eqs.
(1)–(3). For these calculations, the Poisson’s ratio value was
assumed as typical values for asphalt concrete depending on the
temperature: m = 0.21 for a temperature of 5 °C, m = 0.26 for a tem-
perature of 15 °C and m = 0.34 for a temperature of 25 °C [34].
E diate temperature of 15 °C, Gmax varied between 389 and 403 MPa;
G¼ ð1Þ
2ð1 þ mÞ
339
The damping ratio was calculated with Eq. (2), in which the
damping energy of the load cycle is defined by the area of the hys-
teresis loop (A), and the equivalent elastic energy is determined by
the area of the triangle (AD), as indicated in Fig. 3.
1 AD
D¼  100 ð2Þ
4p A
c ¼ ð1 þ mÞe ð3Þ
Once the values of the shear modulus were calculated, they
were plotted according to the shear strain for each of the evaluated
stress levels. Fig. 4 presents the graphs that correspond to the dry
specimens and the initial saturated state, that is, without having
undergone a prolonged exposure to water after the saturation pro-
cess. In these graphs, the shear modulus and the damping ratio of
the saturated material remained constant for shear strain values
lower than 0.9, 0.7 and 0.5% for temperatures of 5, 15 and 25 °C,
respectively. Above these shear strain values, the stiffness of the
material began to decrease, and therefore, the damping ratio
tended to increase. The dry specimens showed the highest values
of G and the lowest values of D; in addition, most of the dry spec-
imens did not show degradation of the stiffness of the material.
As seen in Fig. 5 and Table 5, the Gmax values of the dry speci-
mens decreased as the temperature increased; the highest values
were obtained from the tests at 5 °C, in which modulus of elasticity
values between 453 and 462 MPa were obtained. For the interme-
at 25 °C, the values obtained for this parameter were between 350
and 371 MPa.
340 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342
Fig. 8. Maximum shear modulus (Gmax) for dry and saturated specimens.
The damping ratio showed a tendency to increase as the tem-
perature decreased; at 5 °C, the lowest values were recorded
(between 3.2 and 3.5%), while the highest values were recorded
at 25 °C (between 5.3 and 7.5%).
3.1. Effect of prolonged exposure to water on the dynamic response of
asphalt concrete
After carrying out the triaxial cyclic tests on cylindrical asphalt
concrete specimens saturated and exposed to water for a pro-
longed time, the maximum shear modulus and the minimum
damping ratio were recorded for each conditioning period, that
is, 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months after saturation. The results are shown
in Figs. 6 and 7, in which the trends indicate that the material
maintained its mechanical characteristics (Gmax and Dmin) during
the entire period in which it remained in contact with the water
after the saturation process.
3.2. Effect of saturation on the dynamic response of asphalt concrete
The comparison of the dynamic parameter results obtained
from the dry and saturated concrete indicate that the stiffness of
the dry specimens is higher than that of the saturated specimens.
As seen in Fig. 8, the mean shear modulus (G) of the dry specimens
is 6.5% higher than that recorded for the saturated specimens.
On the other hand, the minimum damping ratio (Dmin) results
for the saturated specimens were 16.1% higher than those recorded
for the dry specimens, as shown in Fig. 9.
4. Conclusions
In this research, the effect of prolonged contact between water
and asphalt concrete prepared to meet the required characteristics
of impervious cores of dams was evaluated. Triaxial compression
tests under cyclic loading were carried out on cylindrical speci-
mens of asphalt concrete, which were prepared with the volumet-
ric characteristics required for a low permeability, i.e., Va <3% and
VFA and VMA values similar to those used in the construction of
impervious cores in dams currently in operation with a satisfactory
performance. During the execution of these tests, the temperature
and cell pressure values used represented the real conditions in
these structures.
The results of these tests indicate that temperature has a major
effect on the cyclical response of asphalt concrete; i.e., as the tem-
perature decreases, higher values of the shear modulus G and
lower values of the damping ratio D are recorded, while, to a lesser
extent, the cell pressure causes an opposite effect.
The stiffness values obtained for the asphalt concrete after the
saturation process remain approximately constant during the per-
iod of exposure to water, which indicates that the water does not
cause any significant progressive changes in the dynamic response
of impervious asphalt concrete for a period of up to 12 months of
exposure. This conclusion is important, as it indicates that asphalt
concrete is a material that maintains its mechanical properties in
these conditions, which can be attributed to the volumetric charac-
teristics with which it was prepared (mainly the low volume of air
voids), although moisture damage caused by the saturation process
must be considered. This saturation caused an average decrease of
6.5% in the maximum shear modulus and an increase of 16.1% in
the minimum damping ratio compared with the results obtained
 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342
Fig. 9. Minimum damping ratio (Dmin) for dry and saturated specimens.
for the dry specimens. These changes caused by the saturation pro-
cess must be considered when designing structures that use
asphalt concrete as an impervious barrier.
Conflict of interest
None.
References
[1] W. Wang, K. Höeg, The Asphalt Core Embankment Dam: a Very Competitive
Alternative, in: 1st Int. Symp. Rockfill Dams, Chengdu, China, 2009, pp. 1–11.
[2] Y. Zhang, K. Höeg, W. Wang, Y. Zhu, Watertightness, cracking resistance, and
self-healing of asphalt concrete used as a water barrier in dams, Can. Geotech.
J. 50 (2013) 275–287, https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2011-0443.
[3] K. Hoeg, Earthquake Resistance of Asphalt Core Embankment Dams, Oslo,
Norway, 2005.
[4] W. Wang, K. Höeg, Y. Zhang, Design and performance of the Yele asphalt-core
rockfill dam, Can. Geotech. J. 47 (2010) 1365–1381, https://doi.org/10.1139/
T10-028.
[5] ICOLD, Bituminous Cores for Fill Dams, Paris, 1992. https://www.icold-cigb.
org/GB/publications/bulletins.asp.
[6] W. Wang, K. Höeg, Cyclic behavior of asphalt concrete used as impervious core
in embankment dams, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 137 (2011) 536–544,
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000449.
[7] J.-W. Seo, D.-W. Park, T.H.M. Le, Development of an asphalt concrete mixture
for Asphalt Core Rockfill Dam, Constr. Build. Mater. 140 (2017) 301–309,
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2017.02.100.
[8] A. Akhtarpour, A. Khodaii, A Study of the Seismic Response of Asphaltic
Concrete Used as a Core in Rockfill Dams, 16 (2014) 169–184. http://www.
jseeonline.com/index.php/jsee/article/view/358.
341
[9] S. Feizi-Khankandi, A.A. Mirghasemi, A. Ghalandarzadeh, K. Hoeg, Cyclic
triaxial tests on asphalt concrete as a water barrier for embankment dams,
Soils Found. 48 (2008) 319–332, https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.48.319.
[10] S. Caro, E. Masad, A. Bhasin, D.N. Little, Moisture susceptibility of asphalt
mixtures, Part 1: Mechanisms, Int. J. Pavement Eng. 9 (2008) 81–98, https://
doi.org/10.1080/10298430701792128.
[11] A.K. Apeagyei, J.R.A. Grenfell, G.D. Airey, Moisture-induced strength
degradation of aggregate-asphalt mastic bonds, Road Mater. Pavement Des.
15 (2014) 239–262, https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2014.927951.
[12] J.A. Hernández Noguera, H.A. Rondón Quintana, W.D. Fernández Gómez, The
influence of water on the oxidation of asphalt cements, Constr. Build. Mater.
71 (2014) 451–455, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2014.08.064.
[13] ASTM, ASTM D6373 – 16 Standard Specification for Performance Graded
Asphalt Binder, (2016). doi:10.1520/D6373-16.
[14] ASTM, ASTM D4402/D4402M – 15 Standard Test Method for Viscosity
Determination of Asphalt at Elevated Temperatures Using a Rotational
Viscometer, (2015). doi:10.1520/D4402_D4402M-15.
[15] ASTM, ASTM D92 – 18 Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by
Cleveland Open Cup Tester, (2018). doi:10.1520/D0092-18.
[16] ASTM, ASTM D7175 – 15 Standard Test Method for Determining the
Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer,
(2015). doi:10.1520/D7175-15.
[17] ASTM, ASTM D2872 – 12e1 Standard Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air on
a Moving Film of Asphalt (Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test), (2012). doi:10.1520/
D2872-12E01.
[18] ASTM, ASTM D6648 – 08(2016) Standard Test Method for Determining the
Flexural Creep Stiffness of Asphalt Binder Using the Bending Beam Rheometer
(BBR), (2016). doi:10.1520/D6648-08R16.
[19] ASTM, ASTM C127 – 15 Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific
Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate, (2015). doi:10.1520/C0127-15.
[20] ASTM C128 – 15 Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity)
and Absorption of Fine Aggregate, (2015). doi:10.1520/C0128-15.
[21] ASTM C131/C131M – 14 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation
of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles
Machine, (2006). doi:10.1520/C0131_C0131M-14.
342 A. Ossa, A. Gaxiola / Construction and Building Materials 208 (2019) 333–342
[22] ASTM C88/C88M – 18 Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by
Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate, (2018). doi:10.1520/
C0088_C0088M-18.
[23] ASTM D5821 – 13(2017) Standard Test Method for Determining the
Percentage of Fractured Particles in Coarse Aggregate, (2017). doi:10.1520/
D5821-13R17.
[24] ASTM D1252 – 06(2012)e1 Standard Test Methods for Chemical Oxygen
Demand (Dichromate Oxygen Demand) of Water, (2012). doi:10.1520/D1252-
06R12E01.
[25] ASTM D2419 – 14 Standard Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and
Fine Aggregate, (2014). doi:10.1520/D2419-14.
[26] K. Hoeg, Asphaltic Concrete Cores for Embankment Dams, Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute, 1993.
[27] ICOLD, Bituminous Concrete Facings for Earth and Rockfill Dams, 1982.
[28] Z.A. Khan, H.I. Al-Abdul Wahab, I. Asi, R. Ramadhan, Comparative study of
asphalt concrete laboratory compaction methods to simulate field compaction,
Constr. Build. Mater. 12 (1998) 373–384, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-0618
(98)00015-4.
[29] A. Gaxiola, A. Ossa, Influencia de la granulometría en la permeabilidad del
concreto asfáltico para presas, in: D. Manzanal, A. Sfrizo (Eds.), From Fundam.
to Appl. Geotech., Buenos Aires, Ar, 2015, pp. 2386–2393, https://doi.org/
10.3233/978-1-61499-603-3-2386.
[30] A. Gaxiola-Hernández, A. Ossa-López, Effect of water exposure on the
physicochemical properties of impervious asphalt concrete, J. Mater. Civ.
Eng. 30 (2018) 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002437.
[31] The Asphalt Institute, Superpave Series No. 2 (SP-2), U.S.A., 2001.
[32] W. Wang, K. Höeg, Simplified material model for analysis of asphalt core in
embankment dams, Constr. Build. Mater. 124 (2016) 199–207, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.077.
[33] S.L. Kramer, Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Upper Saddle River, NJ,
1996.
[34] J. Zak, J. Stastna, J. Vavricka, K. Milackova, L. Kasek, L. Zanzotto, Poisson’s Ratio
of Hot Asphalt Mixtures Determined by Relaxation and Small Amplitude
Oscillation Test, in: Geo-Hubei 2014 Int. Conf. Sustain. Civ. Infrastruct.,
Yichang Hubei, China, 2014, pp. 49–58, https://doi.org/10.1061/
9780784478462.007.