The Crisis of Public Communication Jay G. Blumler and Michael Gurevitch London and New Yorki Contrts Coneasin 15 The ers of communication for cizenhi: in and out of he ashes? Notes References Indes BSS B IntroductionChapter 1 The crisis of civic communication ‘Tis book appears atte of increasing concer abou the ways polite {s communiated tothe publi. Such concerns have been exprested by ‘media researchers and ober scademics engage inthe sdy of politog 5 well as by some media professionals and poltcine both in the US fndin Briain (the evo countries whose pola communication yer: ‘We have flowed most eloaly) and cbewhere, in many other era. ‘emocrati societies Tt would be no ckaggeration to describe this sale of afais a8 a crs of eve communication: emergence is deeply wonic With the defeat ofthe Axis powers in “World War Twit the clase of Communism fom the lte 1960, and with the discrediting and topping of tater and mary regimes Throughout the Third World, democracy ha become the domiaat seo logy of modern politcal fe (Duna, 199). Yet the gaps between ideology and practice are now so glaring that serious observers fel increasing bound to ak, "Are me able to Believe even in the possi of wale for mast communication in the furterance of democratic Meals? (Ettema nd Clas, 1984) “Thus confidence in the noms of citizenship is waning. Tactics of polit ‘al eampsining appear ever ss savoury. The watchdog ole of journals ‘ten shunted into chsnnele of personalisation, dramatization, mite hunters soupoperatcs and sundry tities It fel for unconven- tional opinions fo break ilo the extabihed “marketplace of est, and pial arguments are often reduced to slogans and taunts Stxpcion ‘St manipulation is fle, and cynics & growing The public interes onprutive civic communication bas been shortchanged. ‘Such problems primal tem, however, nt from the shortcoming and {sures of particular individuals or groups but trom profound insittional Sources efor they can be propety understood, researched and ‘Mressed by reforms thowe structural foundations mst be clad ‘This book aims to make two main contributions to tit task. Fist, ‘fers through a eed collection of some of our past writings what we "epard san een way of thinking about communication a demoxsacy2 seston namely thin age, complex, indorsed sites pola messages ‘innate fom rly formed polical communication systems. Tas dies {rom other prominent oremations to polital communication analysis Tucologcl approaches, for example, tnd to ascribe a subordinate pos tion tothe mass media politic, performing a andmaiden'sservge tO ‘dominant poial isons and eax In sontast, we regard politcal ‘Sommuniction at iasution in is own ight, interweaving pola find media forces and projecting is own characierste influences, con: Straits and problems Second, in one of several freshly writen essays ‘ee aply that perspective tothe present eis of ie communication, ‘Bentying i systemic origins and suing the prospect or its easement (Chapter 15) UNDERLYING SOURCES [A least two proces on & broad, scetal proces the other more ‘Desay elated, ay be detied a having contributed 0 the WSs ot cic communica The frst ts act of asforations in Semograpic end soos satonsipe and the consequent emergence of stat for wan tober term) may be omiered mass democracies ‘The second hos todo ath the evolution of the plea! communion ‘fem: in these sooetee Tis tay. of couse be regated not a 8 ne proesy bu ar as one of the cmequecrs at fhe come ‘Shon ive ofthe enugenc of mus demas We nevertheless Stig tot bre che es the Bear lhe aa pesented in om promi rroundit al trends has bec ‘Mow prominent among the surrounding scl wends has ben 2 sclave bo apart teveribe Saslatn of wadonal ties tt {Gt that prowoudy Urine ssaing ent and ahortatve information for many people, suctured thir pial preferences and Spine the proces of democratic powerseking ~ poably poli purtinthe acer fame tates region, neighboutiond and {ovlaypeupings all pve wand insane and noes fn heir ‘aces more compoe and ragmete society hs developed replete wth TRatpog itret groups a contending vr onntatons (Lahmann, {ots Swanson end Mans, 198). Such fends have been acompanied by accelerating moi, sot only geographical, occupational and social Rie bo pyc arr ature ad aes ese options fd soc neiieg 8 decline In toa cscs and a incesing {Se of communes to paris fn imagined communities etching ond ones cal oorsep (ats 192) In tee condtons, gover oor mote dieu, pops suppor more contingent and elec TA the tame tthe oe played bythe mass med in pts hs ‘Tho ots of che crmuniatlon 9 also evolved. Over the past quarter of entry the media have gradually ‘moved from te roe of reporting on and abou plies irom the outside Sit were, (otha of being an ative partpant shaping nuence upon, Indeed an integral part of the polncal process. This ind of intervention Specialy vnible during cleston campalgns since the pital fonctions ‘ofthe media ~ and especial of television ~astume renter visbty and signileance during periods of intensified poitea!communistion, But i ‘Sy no means confined to election commlniativn, Taken together. these developments have resledin he Increased dependeney of both plicans land voters om the media and the mesages they provide, The Kind of democracy we now inhabit a6 fsul i well epitomized by the lable ‘that diferent scholars have applied to san age of press poli’ (Kal 1992}; one of media polis’ (Arterto, 1985} one of mented politics! (Bennet, 1985) one dominated by apolitical medi complet’ (Sraason, 1992). As MeLeed, Koichi and McLeod (1958) have concded, “The center ofthe new policl sytem appears tobe the media” "Various strctral consequences ow rm this ituation irs, organi tions ave been imported into key postions inthe politcal arena — ‘notably television and the press - whowe editorial and reporting pois ‘ate not necessary determined by Give considerations (Paterson, 1980, 4993). Second, this obliges pliins who wis fo attrac the attention and sport of voter to doSoby fist attracting the attention and interest ‘t jourmalits and editor who aze nck necesariy politically minded, ‘Third, the difcalt and specaized sates requirements of pursuing sich 4 twofold tsk have brought forth the increased professionalzation of the production and dissemination of political messges wo that election campaigns, for example, are increasingly conducted and controled by ‘media consultants and campaign managers Fourth, a highly complet ‘web of relationships hs grown up between plticans, thei profesioal ‘vises and media professlonals which so matalypreoecpying that ‘rdinary cizens’ needs ean fll far trom wight. Hence (at Weaver (1, P3S1) notes) Regardless of which side seems 1 be more in control of he campsign agenda, if tis agenda is peresived ts monly controled by pois {pd the pres without much rea inp rom the publi then neestng Slienaton and eyicism of ctizen key to ofc. ‘The realty of the crisis tht affics our democracies is no sceet. The svidence for iis clearly visible. At a Washington Pos columnist hat ‘escribed it (Harwood. 1998) I cizenship is defined as active and informed paricpation in pubic alfuissnd the poiteal press they the you impartial Bove become nonctzens along with milion of toi elders While Gurpolcians and editorial writers preach to the world about the joys hd success of democracy, half the American clectorte ignores oUF presidental cecons Voter turouts in of year ongresonal elections (tall Kings ave an iterations joke “The obvious question are: Whose fire si? Ae the eitiaons at fault for being uninterested lazy, stupid or negligent inthe pursuit of thet Stizerahip duty to be poltcally informed? Does the fait ie with the pcan, wh fil in their obligation to inform the eitenry propery? ‘Gr are the moda, the imitations entrusted withthe tak of fforming the publi gully of dereltion of du? ‘ch a search forthe Blameworthy is of course, futile. Ina sense the bent answer to sich a question i probably al ofthe above" To quote rarsood (954) agin, There are cose relationships amoag the dele [Of clzenship the Scine of intrest in traditional deintons of “ews” nd the decline of journal's larger eoe inthe ile ofthe sci’ But to pows the ss io these tenn may pont towards a diferent answer. ‘Tee roots of the crt are stm ~ that they inbere in the ery ‘trectures and functioning of proent-day politcal communication ye tem This © why we live that examining polideal communication process ia stem terns iv exon for understanding that css and ‘Shy much of our work inthis ares over the pst two decades as revolved ‘Tound the concept of pot! communication stems. ‘We fist developed this notion in an essay published in 1977 ented ‘Linkages between the Mase Media and Politics: A Model or he Analysis of Polite! Communkation Systems” (See Chapter 2 below). Init we explained “The postion taken in thi paper thatthe study of political commeni- Caton could be enriched by adoption ofa systems outlook. As con- ‘Shed hore, this regarded not av compedtive with other research Spproaces but as capeble of incoqportng them. Taree benefits could ‘have fom attempts to place olla communication phesomens in Systems framework. Fis, it inks diverse Boies of evidence in broader halyeal perspectives Second, there would bean antidote agaist the tendeng to under overampbisize any single element ofthe poi ‘St communication sytem (eg the audience). Third, by drawing aten- ton to sytem factors which might have macrodevel consequences thi Could be measured and compared, ctosnationl investigation would be facitates. ‘An underiying assumption of sich an approach is that the main features of the poltieal communiction process maye regard as if they formed a spt, such that variation ia one Of Hs components ‘would be sorintod with variation nthe Behaviour ofits ther compo ‘The tl fee carmen § eats In very broad terms, the main components of » poll om ‘uniaton stem may be lestd it: 1 Pita instutions i thee communication pest. 2 Media istiaons in thei politcal aspects 3 Audience orientations to plies! communication, 4 Communietion-televant pects of potieal clr, ‘Terni back o that statement almost two decades later we might have expected that, given the passage of time, the changes that hve wanspced. ‘over the years inthe conduct of politcal communication almost erey- ‘wher, apd development isthe srademic investigation of politcal cont talon rst tv ave ened he aie oman Fe joe repairs Yet looking a tain today, appears to ts to be impressively resent In spite of the many changes tat have since taken plac, the conceptual mapping of the components of he sytem i in our judgement. sill valid and usefully applicable for concepealiing the study of poltical communication systems Such stems can sill be analysed in tems of the tsangula eationhip between poiicans media ‘rgatizations and audience members. And the basi structures of the Interactions between these compononts ofthe system ae tll hose that Inspired our thinking isthe 1970 ‘THE APPROACH AND PLAN OF THE BOOK In the following popes we Bes out this ide in two broad ways ‘Te essays in Part Ideal largely with the srctre of potial eom- ‘munication stems, both analyocally and empincaly. Chapter? oullines 2 overall model for ther examination, Chapter 3 offers a0 in-depth ‘tamination of relationships between politicians and journals, eating thse a derived trom thet respective organizational and eve rles. ‘Chapter 4 that femework guides an emparical analysis of British road ‘asters’ atudes to coverage ofthe UK Parament, the rete of which le the generalized wo sues how journalist might react iferentlly {oa broad ange of soil and poll inittions slong acetal and ‘pragmatic dimeasioas However. sine poitalcommaniation stems ome in dierent shapes and sen varying with different soe pol ‘al ealtres, polical sysems and meds systems, comparative analy land research are eset. Chapters 7 poset aumber of dimensions to guide comparative research along which the pois! communication Processes of siferent societies may vary. as Well ap Several example of Such research in which the authors have engaged. Fal the implications ‘of systemically rgasized pois! communication arngemente forthe Fealaation of democrat vals ate ducued in Chaper ‘Although uta system festores of polis! communication gea oe rset erties eee ect tne Petco ne ores Bee mea creme aie ey eS i ct ae ane ae ceri i oe rn B,D ot eae ce cr 1, eee ea Boe meee cee oe eres apres re a ee tel eres Se eee oan ae eee eee Cn a er Soro ete Eee a eo te a tle ernie ce eee Se acme cae ee ee eae em ee ee ate nate spec ee oe oy en ee Se Re ete ence os te a oe te ig cer ee ea Se A ea rea en Le a eo ae a eer a ert nat Se ee le ie ane Sette cee cer clare ee eee Si Oe a cease as ata ge a i ren et ea Ce a eee oer ae i ng tn a tae eens rection tee a ot te ee ane wg senna sy er ee ee eee Pere pet peer eenar on ET ahs enn men ed rm inn Te at en a acs Peper oe ape a ee era ameaees a eae “nee of comenniaon 7 ‘ofthat group or ofthe eter given insttton, but from the interplay of politcal msiutions media stutions and audiences An impliction = that (in Swanson’ (992, p. 399) words) "Atemps to reform pic] ‘communication are unlikely to add up to anything more than retranging the deck chairs on the Thani unles they recopsize the isitational troundings of objectionable practices" Ths isnot to advise scholars to Withdraw from the strug for communication forms that serve een Ship but to sree that propored changes to stand chance of succes ‘ms have system relevance and beable to harest systemic suport ‘But ithe normative impulee tht animates these esa eval, te te concepts that we fashioned in earir years sil relevant fod, or a they time Bound and therefore wholly oF partly oles ori need {of updatiog? Some ofthe evadence whieh formed the bess for cet of the eer essays assembled ere indeed ed to etme apd place, and ‘may no longo rect present-day conditions In fact, it ute sobering to consider how diferent ~and nt for the better ~ present-day crim Stance for pollcal communication ae compared to twenty or even jt tea years age Thus fr example, with hindsight and comparatively speak ing the 1970s appear to have sen a period ta which both the insttatons ‘of politics and the modia were stable sod generally enjoyed 8 rear Imeasue of ust om the public than they do today. Their mail Felatonship Was les fraught wth tension, eruptions af open confit and 2 consequent legacy of mistrust. Television at that tine wat mite ‘hae! medium, and its dominance ofthe plea communication scene teas much less pronounced and visible tha it today. More generally “he cve ature i both Britain and the US appeared to have been ih olerable repair, less affictd by the malaise af media Teeding fenies (Gabato, 1991) and public aati and indiflerene apparent toda ‘These diferent conditions clay shaped the theorang abd concept formation which underlie these extaye “Awareness of these changes has confronted us withthe question of whether our approsch tothe analysis of polis communication syets quired any conceptual mosieation. Readers wil form ther owa dee ‘ments, but ur answer to this rather vexing qhetion isa mined "ye and to" In gst we now consider thal our pat exayr were song on the ysis of stuctures but weak im considering, and dealing with the amis of change in pial communication satems ‘Wer have sought to sorrest this by including inthis book two new fesays One isthe aforementioned examination in Chapter It of the ‘voltion of the Brish election communication sstem over the pst {quarter century. Our concuding shaper, however, ares the dynamics (of change at a more abiract lve. opening with an analysis of some of the sources of istably that ae but ito the orpantion of pital ‘communication systems More pertinem. tht chapter goes onto argue2 reicton thatthe deepening ofthe current css of civic commanicatin can be Best explained presely in systemic terms that stems of developmen in the relations Between poltiians and journals, between te ie {ations of politics and ofthe media, viewed in the context af the si politcal environment, Le is the context of the relationship of these {ostituions with an increasingly dhatfeted and fragmented audience! publicize. But above and beyond the reasons outlined above he principles which guided our work ~'bolste rather than fagmenied approach to this eld of study. the emphasis on comparative analysis and an understanding ofthe evolution and change of poial communication stems within # broader socio-political and cultural ontet ~are already present, fly fleshed in our 1977 statement, If nothing ele. i isa testimony tothe reslece of the concept whose career tried in this Book Part | StructureChapter 2 Linkages between the mass media and politics* INTRODUCTION Assumptions sbout the poll impact ofthe mass modia have played 2 formative part in guiding the ection of mass communication research ver snc i ception. In 4 far a the poner investigators accepted Popular impressions ofthe medias omnipotent and capable of being nplojed for manipulative purposs it was tual that much research [tention shuld have bees pid to communication inuences on people’ Dolcl opinions and atta I equally obvious why rich x preoes pation with peruasive effects should ave resulted in an imbalance of Testy favouring studies ofthe audience atthe expense of ther elements inthe communication process Dramatic examples of secmingy succes tre ofthe mas media to propagate politcal Belief and ideologies in ‘orld War [andthe 1930, pls the growth of polical science interest {in empires analysis of voting behaviour, gave eto and reinforced the conviction that the prime target for rescareh should be processes of ‘pinion and atte change among individual receivers of mass-commu- shed menages "The subsequent erosion ofthe myth of the medias iresinibe powers of| persuasion through the pubbeation of contary evidence had two related Fepercusions forthe stdy of politcal communication. Fiat, there was @ Inarked broadening and divercaton of the problems regarded s open to enquiry. Conseqvent, pole! communieton provides «fete els fof study nowadays for researchers steeped in 4 wide fang of disciplines {nd methodologies (26 Swanton and Nimmo, 1990 fF an overview). Sezond in some cases hore shift of foes rested i a vital ejection ofthe audience av am object of research iaterest. This stemmed mainly {Hom the ansmption thatthe orignal seekers alter persuasion elects had ‘not only exhausted that partial seam of engl but had returned from their endeavour wth precious ile god to show for their rouble “The position taken ths stay f thatthe study of ola com- ‘munication ould be enriched by adoption of systems outlook. AS12 _ sneer ‘onctved hee, thi is regarded not at competing wih ater research approaches but as capable of incorporating them. The benefits could ‘nave fom altempts fo place pole comminication phenomena i 3 Systems framework. Fist it inks diver bodies of evidence ia broader Shalytieal perspectives Second, there would be an saidte against the tendency 19 under or overemphasze any single element of the political ‘Sommunletion system (eg the suiene), Tid, by drawing nention (0 ‘stem factors which might ve macrosevel consequences that could be Imessured und compared. con-ntional investigation would e feitated. ‘THE ELEMENTS OF A POLITICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM [An underlying assumption of such an approach i thatthe main Featares ‘ofthe politcal communication proces maybe regarded asi they formed ‘stem, sch that variation in one f its components would be associated ‘nth varoton inthe behaviour of otber components In very broad {erm the main componente of» poltcl communication sjtem may be Teese i 1 Plt insitations in hee communication aspects? 2 Media iatittions in thei pli aspects 5 Audiene orientations to pial communication, ' Commonieation elevant specs of politcal clr Expressed somewhat diferent if we lok at a pola communication system, what we se i two sets of institutions ~ polteal and media ich ae involved inthe couse of message preparation Interaction with each other. while ona vera ais they are separately and join eogaged in disseminating and processing Information and ideas to and fom the mass eizeny. "The intractions of the two Kids ofisitions ae tO some extent condoned by mutual power clatonshipe This peesuppses that both the am independent power base in society, one source of which ares from thet respective relations with the aience. The power of pla instetions inherent in thelr functions ap artculatts of interest and Imoblizrs of socal power for purposes of pial action. The indepen ‘dem power Bae of moda intone & perhaps less obvious and may tren be denied by those who perceive them as escnialy secondary bodies eatisly dependent on others forthe ews and opinions they pass ‘on, and bighly constrained in thet operation by a number of polite ‘sonomie, elf and technological factors Nevrteless, at lest three Soures of media power canbe Sdeatied. These ae structural, pycholg ‘al and normative fn rig "The srctral root ofthe power ofthe mass mi springs fom thee Letages bene he ase a ae pos 13 unique capaciy to deliver tothe plan an audience which, nize and ormposion is uavalale to hin by any ter means Inged, the bs {orca sgtnnce ofthe growing vole of mae commnitn tn ples les among ote hing inte fesuling enlargement ofthe ecsvr base to such an extent tat previoor bares fo tence imolement (ex tow fevl of education and weak polit interes) have een largely ‘tercome andthe sence for poi communiation as become i {ual coterminous with membership of octyl ‘The psyehoopal rot of meds power stem from the easons of