Chapter Zero Review of Arithmetic Arithmetic, along with geometry, are the two branches of mathematics which can trace their roots to antiquity. Then as now, people liked to brag about their wealth and influence “I have more land than you” led to the development of geometry, and “I have more slaves than you” led to the development of arithmeti From such mundane origins, both subjects have sublimed into structures of great intrinsic beauty, though throughout history, they continued to serve their pragmatie purposes. They are still the cornerstones of mathematics which, along with language arts, have become the basic ingredients of every school curriculum. Section 0.1. The Positive Integers. In mathematics, there are certain basic words whose meaning must be taken for granted. Such a word is set. Loosely speaking, a set is a collection of objects, and the objects in the collection are called the elements of the set. Of primary interest in arithmetic is the set of all positive integers, namely, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and so on. Note that we always represent the positive integers in the standard base 10, except in the last chapter of this book. We use the notation abe... to represent a number whose digits are a, b, c, A binary operation on a set isa rule which combines two elements of the set into new clement. For example, addition is @ binary operation on the set of all positive integers. Multiplication of the positive integers is defined as repeated additions. For instance, 3x 4 is interpreted as ((3+3)+3)+3 while 4 x 3 is interpreted as (4+4)+4. ‘The standard notation omits the multiplication sign when forming the product of literal variables or bracketed ‘expressions, For instance, we write 3r instead of 3 x 2 and (x — 1)(x + 2) instead of (2-1) x (2 +2). As the starting point of our investigation, we review the basic properties of the system of positive integers with its two operations, Closure Properties. Ifa and b are positive integers, then so are a+ and ab. In other words, the sum of two positive integers is a positive integer, and the produet of two positive integers is another positive integer. We say that the system of positive integers is closed under addition, and closed under multiplication, Commutative Laws. Ifa and b are positive integers, then a+ b= b-+a and ab = ba. In other words, in forming the sum or the product of two positive integers, the order in which the two numbers appeat does not matter, We say that addition and multiplication are commutative, A:sociative Laws. If a, b and c are positive integers, then (a +8) + = a+ (b-+6) and (ab}e = a(bc). In other words, in forming the sum or product of three positive integers, it does not matter whether we start at the front or from the back. We say that addition and multiplication are associative.[Because addition is associative, expressions such as 14243 is meaningful, even though addition is @ binary operation, By convention, the operations are performed from lofts right, as though we have (142)+3, [The same can be said about multiplication, but what do we do when both addition and multiplication are present? By convention, multiplications are performed before addr tions, unless brackets intervene. This is because multiplication, as repeated addition, is an operation of a higher order, Example 0.1.1, Evaluate 142 x 3, Solution We have 142x3=1+6=7, Addition and multiplication also obey the Cancellation Laws. Ife,6 and care postive wnkas such that a+b = a+ cor ab= ac, then b= c. Latet, these laws will be replaced by stronger results Distributive Law. 1, band ¢ are positive integers, then a(b+c) = ab + ae. In other words, the product of a number and a sum of two numbers is the sum of the products of the frst number with che other two, We say that multiplication is distributive over addition Example 0.1.2 Show that addition isnot distributive over multiplication, thet i, find thre positive itegers 4 band esuch thet a+ be ¥ (e+0)(e +c), Solution; ‘Take @ while c= 1. Then a+be=1+1 Wate) =2x2=4 jhe number 1 plays a special role with respect to multiplication, in thet the product of {nd any other positive integers just the other positive integer. We cal 1 the multiplicative identity. We can anticipate that the number 0, when it is finaly introduced, wil lay Same sPecial role with respect to addition. The sum of 0 and any other peaitive integer is just the other positive integer. We will call 0 the additive identity, X¢ is possible for an operation not to have an identity, but itis impossible for an operation to have more than one iden ‘Twoodledum and Tweedledee were making up an at ‘weedlifcation, and they used the symbol @ for it. Thi had no idea to what, for instance, 37 should be equal. th metic operation which they called weeded a tweedlifcation table, but “Where should we begin asked each other. choose an identity for ‘Begin at the beginning,” said your operation,” ice logical “What is en identity?® asked Tweedledum,“The identity for tweedlification,” said Alice, “is a number euch that if it is tweedlified by any other number, the answer is the other number. It is like Q for addition and 1 for multiplication.” “If another number is tweedlified by this identity,” asked Tweedledee, “will the answer also be that other number?” “Of course,” replied Alice. “So, what is your choice for the identity?” “I choose 3,” declared Tweedledum. “Ob, no, you don’t,” said Tweedledee, “I choose 7." “I choose 3 first!” “My 7 is bigger!” Alice found it difficult to intervene in this heated argument, and kept silent. After a while, the twins felt foolish. “Why don't we have two identities?” proposed Tweedledum, “Why not?" said Tweedledee, warm to the compromise. “Let us declare both 3 and 7 to be identities for tweedlifieation.” “Ob, no, you don't,” Alice had to intervene. “Not every operation has an identity, but if there is one, it is the only one.” “Says who?” asked both twins in the same breath, Instead of answering, Alice asked them, “What is 37 equal to?” ‘Tweedledum said, “It is equal to 7 because 3 is an identify, so that 3@7 = 7." ‘Tweedledee said, “It is equal to 3 because 7 is an identity, so that 307 = 3." Alice said, “Are you now saying that 7=3?" ‘The twins were silent for a while. Then they said together, “There can only be one identity, no matter what the operation i “Says who?” Alice asked quietly. “Says us!” said the twins. “We have proved that tweadlfication can only have one identity. ‘The funny thing is that we still don’t know what tweedlification is! This is amazing!” Repeated multiplication is not addition but exponentiation, For instance, 4x 4x 4 is written as 4°, and in general, a denotes the product of n copies of a, Tt is easy to see that aa" = a" and (a)" = a. Exponentiation is an operation of e higher order than. ‘multiplication and is performed before multiplication, Example 0.1.3, Prove that exponentiation is distributive over multiplication, that is, (a8)® = ab for any positive integers a, b and c.Solution: Note that (ab)* is the product of ¢ copies of ab, Since multiplication is associative, we can first form the product of the ¢ copies of a and then the product of the e copies of b. The final product is a°6 as desired. Example 0.1.4. Show that exponentiation is not distributive over addition, that is, find three positive integers a, band c such that (a + 6)° # af +2, Solution ‘Take . Then (a+ b)° = 4? = 16 while a +0 =444=8, Apart from the traditional operations, there are any number of other operations, some meaningful and others esoteric. We will encounter two meaningful ones in Chapter 3, but now consider a few esoteric ones. ‘The Mock Turtle went to a school in the sea where a Tortoise taught the different branches of Arithmetic — Ambition, Distraction, Uglification and Derision. ‘The ambition of a positive integer a to another positive integer b is denoted by a@b, and defined by ab =ab+a+h Example 0.1.5. Compute 73, Solution: We have 7@3=7x3+743=31. ‘The distraction of a positive integer b from another positive integer a is denoted by ab, and defined by a@ b= ab +a—b. Example 0.1.6. Compute 76 3, Solution: We have 7@3=7x3+7-3= 25. The uglification of a positive integer a by another positive integer b is denoted by a @b, and defined by a@b= (a +b)(a+8). Example 0.1.7. Compute 7 @ 3 Solution: We have 7@3 = (7+3)(7+3) = 100. ‘The derision of a positive integer a by another positive integer b is denoted by a@b, and defined by a@b = (a+b)(a—) Example 0.1.8. Compute 72 3. Solution: We have 7@3 = (7+3)(7—3) = 40.Exercises: 10. a. x, . Determine whether uglif Determine whether ambition is commutative, Determine whether distraction is commutative. Determine whether uglfication is commutative. Determine whether derision ia commutative. Determine whether ambition is associative. Determine whether distraction is associative. ion is associative, Determine whether derision is associative. Determine whether ambit ‘has on identity. Determine whether distraction has an identity. Determine whether uglfcation has an identity Determine wether derision hae an identity.Section 0.2, The Integers. ‘The binary operation of subtraction is defined allows, Lata and b be positive inte ‘a positive integer e such that b= a-+¢. For instance, 6~ 4 The sot of positive integers is not closed under subtraction, For instano nor 4~6 is a positive integer. A remedy is to expand our set t0 than just the positive integers. We shall do this in two stages. rst, wo try to patch up the counter-example 6 ~6. ee e which has the property that €-+6 = 6. In fact, we want ¢ +a = a for any postive integer a. Such an clement is called an additive identity, and is denoted by 0. Now that we have 6=6-+0, we can perform the subtraction 6 — 6 = 0 neither 6 — 6 it will inchude me eed @ nun Note that Dis nota positive integer, and is therefore a new number, although we have used the symbol in the base 10 expressions of positive integers. Inthe history of mathematics, the number 0 has also made a very late appearance, somewhat amazing considering how useful We now sty to patch up the counter-example 4. has the property that =+6 = 4. Cancelling 4 from both si For any positive integer a, we introduce a new number called its additive inverse, denoted by ~a, such that a+ (~a) = 0. This would allow us to perform the subtraction 1-6=-2 We are using the subtraction symbol for the additive inverse as well. However, since the additive inverse is equal to 0 ~ a, the notation ~a is a reasonable choice, T thing,” said Tweedledum. “Let's have inverses for tweedlification.” "You cannot have inverses unless you have an identity,” remarked Alice. “We have one,” said Tweedledum, “We have settled for 5 as the identity for tweedlifca tion.” “J want 7 to be the inverse of 3," said Tweedledee Not agein!” complained Tweedledum. “I want 21 to be the inverse of 3.” have both this time?” Tweedledum asked Ali 1a think?" Alice asked Twoedledee. said Tweedledee. “We have 7 =7©5 because 5 is our identity. Since 1 fs an inverse of 3, 5 = 311. Now we want our tweedlfication to be associative. Then ) I1l=SO11=11. We have both. 7 and 11 as And we still do not know whet tweedlificetion is!" Tweedledum remarked. Amazing!” echoed Tweedledee.‘The expanded set, by adding O and the additive inverses of the positive integers, is called the set of all integers. ‘The additive inverses of the positive integers are ealled the nes integers. Note that the additive inverses of the negative integers are just the positive integers. Example 0.2.1 ove that ~(—a) = @ for any integer a Solution: Both ~(—a) and a are additive inverses of —a. It follows that they are equal to each other Note that the integer 0 is neither positive nor negative, and is its own additive inve ‘The non-negative integers are just the positive integers with 0 thrown in, and the non-positive integers are just the negative intogore with 0 thrown in, In expanding our number system, we want to preserve as many of the basle properties as possible. It turns out that the system ofall integers is closed under both addition and multiplication, and the two operations still obey the Commutative Laws, the Associative Laws and the Distributive Law. The result affected are the Cancellation Laws With the introduction of additive invorses, the Cancellation Law for addition becomes a Aerivable result Example 0.2.2 Derive the Cancellation Law for addition from the fact that every integer has aa additive Solution: Let a, band c be integ such that a+ b= a-+e. Then b= 048 (a) +0)+0 (-a) +(a+8) [-a)+(a+0) (Ca)+a)+e ore The additive identity 0 also plays a special role in multiplication, Example 0.2.3. Prove that the product of 0 and any integer is 0 Solution: Let abe of Addition, we have Oa y integer a. We have 0a +02 = (0+ 0)a =a =0a+0. By the Cancellation Law o. One may wonder whether the above proof is necessary. For instance, if a = 3, eould we not just say that 0 x 3= 3x 0=0+0-+0=0. However, this simple argument does not work is a negative integerOne consequen: of this result is that we have to modify the Cancellation Law for mul tiplication. For instance, while 0 x $ = 0 x 7, we certainly do not have 3=7. Ifa, b and e integers such that ab = ac, we can only conclude that = cif a #0, Pxample 0.2.4. ‘Use the modified Cancellation Law for multiplication to deduce that if the product of two egers is 0, then at least one of them is 0 Solution: Suppose we have integers @ and & the Cancellation Lew for multio Example 0.2.5. De modified Concellat wo integers is 0, then at least o Solution: Suppose we have integers , B and c suc Since a #0, we must have B ple 0.2.6. Solution: We have 0 = a! tnd the latter ease yields ther @ or a~1 is equal to 0. The former case We can ensly exten The e operations of addition and subtraction to the operation of multiplication requires more thought, set of all intogers. Example 0.2.7. For any integers a and b, (—a)é = ~ab, Proof: By the Distributive Law, (—a)b+ ab a)b. Since ~a is the additive inverse of a (2) + of ab. Howovor, so is —ab. It follows that (~2)b Example 0.2.8. For any integers a and b, (~a)(—b) = ab, ob Hence (~a)b is the edditive inverse ab, Proof: ‘We have (—a)(—b) + (~a)b = (— inverse of (=a) (-e}0 =. Hence (~a)(~8) is the additive (0.2.7. Homever, so is ab. Tt follows that (~a)(-~8) = ab Since the set of positive intege d under multiplication, we know that the prodi ‘wo postive integers is another positive integer. From the preceding two examples, we n deduce that the product of a postive integer and a negative integer is a negative integer the product of two negative integers is a positive integer.Exercises: Evaluate 5 x (—3) + 3((-8) -5) Bvalus 5x84 (-3)((-8) - Evaluate (~5) x 3+ (—3)(8 ~ 5) Evaluate (—5) x (-3) +3(8- Evaluate (8) ©7 where @ is the operation Ambiticn. Evaluate (8) © 7 where 6 is the operstion Distraction. Evaluate (3) © 7 where ox is the operation Ugliication Evaluate (~3) ©7 where @ isthe operation Derision Determine all integers a such that (a ~3)(a—8)(a+7)(a~ 12) Determine all integers a such that (a+ 3)(a—5)( ‘The weight of a monkey is x and the weight of another monkey is y. As it happens, 2 =y. Multiplying both sides by 2, we have 2* = ay. Subtracting y? from both sides, yi = zy—y!, This may be rewritten as (x-+u)(z—y) = y(z—y), so tha 2++y =. However, this means thet 2 = 0, and therefore y =O also! What is wra with this argument? ‘The weight of an elephant is 2 and the weight of a mouse is y. Denote the sur 2+ y by 22, Then @ = -y-+2z and 2—22 = —y, Muluplying these two equations, we have ? —2y2. Adding 2? to both sides, we have x? — 2r2-4 2? = 4? — 2yz-+ (y—2}*. It follows that 2-2 =y—2 and x= y! What is wrong with nent’A statement involving <, >, < or > is called an inequality. Inequalities may be ‘anipalated just as equations, E 0.3.2. and d are integers such that a 1=b—d Hence ae 3 = hd. Hence ac < bd is not always true, Tf we want ac < bd to be true, we have to put in an additional condition. pe 0.3.5. ©, 6, cand d are positive integers such that a 324. Solution: Note that 21 increases as h increases. If k Now 315 < 324 < 336, Hence 21k > 324 The last props 5, then 21k = 315. Itk ad only if k > 16, ty of inequalities is so important that we call it a prineiple. Well-Ordering Principle. In any non-empty set of positive integers, there exists a psitive integer m such that m 2 29, Determin I integers k such that 16 > ~32 10. Determine oll integers k such that 35k < 678, LL Pi such that m > a for any other r that in any non-emply set of negative i integer m ger a in the set 12, Prove that if a set of postive integers includes 1, and includes the positive intege whenever it includes the positive integer m, then itis the set of all positive integers. 13Section 0.4. Arithmetic Problems. “When studying the sciences, problems are more useful than rules,” wrote Newton in his Universal Arithmetic, and accompanied his theoretical propositions with a number of examples. The following problem about pasturing cows appears to be very easy until one realizes that the growth of grass must be taken into consideration. Example 0.4.1 ‘Three meadows covered with grass of the same thickness and rate of growth have the following areas: 10 acres, 30 acres and 72 acres. The first can food 12 cows for 4 weeks and the second ccan feed 21 cows for 9 weeks. How many cows can the third meadow feed for 18 weeks? Solution: First, standardize the sizes of the meadows so thet they are ell 360 acres, by multiplying their areas by 36, 12 and § respectively. Then the enlarged meadow can feed 12 x 36 = 432 cows for 4 weeks and 21 x 12 = 252 cows for 9 weeks. Define a unit as the amount of grass a cow eats in one week. Thea the grass in the enlarged meadow plus 4 weeks of growth is equal to 432x4 = 1728 units while the grass in the enlarged meadow plus 9 weeks of growth is equal to 252% = 2268 units. It follows that 9—4 = 5 weeks of growth is equal to 2268-1728 = 540, Units, so that 184 = 14 weeks of growth is equal to 540 x 14+5 = 1512 units. Hence the grass in the enlarged meadow plus 18 weeks of growth is equal to 1728 + 1512 = 3240 units. In 18 weeks, it will take 3240+ 18 = 180 cows to eat it up. The actual number of cows for the original problem is therefore 180 +5 = 36, Example 0.4.2. ‘Alice suid to the twins, “Some of the nephews of the White Rabbit have got into the henhouse, ‘and it is chaos there, Go and find out how bad itis.” After a while, the twins eame back to report. “Yes, there are a lot of fur and feathers flying,” said Tweedledee. Tweedledum said, “T counted 83 heads, and my twin brother counted 236 legs.” Alice asked, “How many rabbits are in the henhouse?” Solution: ‘The twins returned to the henhouse with a wooden gun. “All right, you rabbits!” they shouted, pointing the gun at them, “Stick them up!” Startled, the rabbits put their front up in the air. Tweedledee asked Tweedledum, “How many heads did you count?” -*1 counted 83." “Each hen has two legs on the ground, and now each rabbit also has two legs on the ground.” Tweedledum said, “That means there are now 83 x 2 = 166 legs on the ground. How many logs did you say there are altogether?” “I counted 236. So this means thet 236 — 166 = 70 legs are up in the air.” “These are all rabbit legs, and each rabbit puts up two, Therefore, the number of rabbits is 70 +2 = 35." Example 0.4.8, ‘The March Hare was paying a visit to the White Rabbit. He started at a quarter to two and walked at a pace of 4 kilometres per hour. At three, the White Rabbit hopped towards the March Hare’s rabbit hole at a pace of 3 kilometres per hour. When they met, they hopped back to the White Rabbit's home, the March Hare slowing down to the White Rabbit’s pace. When he eventually got home, the March Hare realized he had hopped four times as far as the White Rabbit had. What was the distance between the two rabbit holes? uuSolution: ‘The March Hare hopped twice the distance between the two rabbit holes. Sin four times as far as the White Rabbit had, the White Rabbit was a quarter of the way to Ne Macc Hare's rabbit hole when the to zabite met. Thus fhe two rabbit hace were {kilometres apart, the March Hare had hopped 3 kilometres to the White Rabbi's 1. The difference in tho time they spent hopping up to this point is 2 hours or 25 minutes. Since the actual difference in time was 75 minutes, the sctual distance betwoen the two rabbit holes was 4 x 75 +25 = 12 kilometres, he bop Example 0.4.4, ‘The Walrus was complaining that the Carpenter was hoarding more than oysters. “Not that much,” the Carpenter admitted sheepishly. “fT gi you will have just as many as Iwill” “And you say that is not that much” Walrus. “If you tal did each of thom have? fair share of ou 12 of mine ‘exclaimed the ‘of mine, you will have twice es many as I will” How many oy Solution: From what the Carpenter sald, he had 12 2= 24 eysters more than the Walrus. If he took 6 from the Walr rence will increase by 6 x2 = 12 to 24+12= 36. From what the Walrus said, he would have had 36 oysters et that point, which meant he had taken 36 +6 = 42 oysters. The carpenter had taken 42 +24 = 66 oysters ‘The readers may have noticed that we have avoided using algebra altogether. With clear ‘inking, maay problems ean be solved more simply by arithmetic, Example 0.4.5. A girl on a bridge dropped her bonnet, and it was being carried downstream by the current. Her boy ftiend jumped into the water to try to retrieve it. In his haste, he swam upstrean for 10 minutes before realizing his mistake. Turning around immediately, he swam with the same effort as before, but this time with the current. He caught up with the bonnet under the second bridge 1000 metres downstzeasm from the first bridge, What was the speed of the current? Solution: ‘Think of the second bridge moving towards the fist at the speed of the current, with the bonnet in still water, Also, in stil water, the boy friend swam away for 10 minutes. It would take him another 10 minutes to come beck to the bonnet. During this time, the second bridge had covered the distance of 1000 metres between the bridges. Hence the speed of the current was 1000 ++ 20 = 50 meites per minute. The constant speed of the boy friend was Example 0.4.6. ‘The White Knight was given the assignment to reconnoiter the area 14 kilometres ahead of the White King’s Army. The Army was moving at 7 kilometres per hour while the White Knight was doing 14 kilometres por hour. How long would it take the White Knigl return to the Army?Solution: After 1 hour, the White Knight would have completed his assignmes hhad moved ahead 7 kilometres, Between them, they covered 14++7=21 kilometres, and were now 14—7= 7 kilometres apart. Coming towards each other would take another hours, so that the total time the White Kalght would take to return to the Army was 1 hour ‘and 20 minutes, Example 0.4.7, "There were 200 students at » High School Dance Party. The first girl danced with every boy. ‘The second danced with all but one boy. The third girl danced with all but two boys, and so on, The last girl danced only with 7 boys. How many boys were at the Dance Patty? Meanwhile, the Army Solution: ‘There were 6 more boys than girls at the Dance Party. It follows that the number of girls was (200 ~ 6) +2= 97 and the number of boys was 97 -+6= 108. ‘The following problem is a favourite of Leo Tolstoy, a famous Rustian writer whose best known work is War and Peace Example 0.4.8. ‘A team of farmbands were harvesting two corn filds, one twice the size of the other, ‘The team started on the larger Geld. When the day was half over, the team splitted i ‘equal groups, One stayed on and finished hervesting the larger field by the end of the day, while the other team went over to harvest the smaller field. At the end of the day, there was still alittle let to be done, just enough work for one farmhand for ano farmbands wore in the teams? lay. How many Solution: Let the areas of the corn fields be 6 and 3 units respectively. The number of farmhands har vesting the larger field in the first half of the day waa double the number of those harvesting it in the second half, Hence 4 units were harvested in the first half of the day and 2 units in the second half, ‘The number of farmhands harvesting the larger field in the second half of the day was the same as the number of those harvesting the smaller field im the second half. Hence 2 units of the smaller eld were harvested in the second half of the day. Thus 1 unit ‘vas left to be hervested by one fermhand for another day. Since 8 units had been harvested during the day, there were 8 farmhands in the team Exercises: 1. The grass in a meadow grew equally thick and fast. Tt was known that 1 cow and ‘goat could eat it up in 90 weeks, 1 cow and 2 goats could do it in 60 weeks, and 2 cows find 1 goat can do it in 45 weeks. How many weeks would it take 2 cows and 2 goats to crop the grass of the whole meadow? 2. The grass in a meadow grew equally thick and fast. It was known that 70 cows could at it up in 24 days, while 30 cows could do it in 60 days. How many cows woul the grass of the whole meadow in 96 days?10. Alice found some bectles, each with six legs, and some spiders, each with eight legs ‘They had among them 24 heads and 180 legs. How many of the 24 were spider ‘Allce found some spiders, each with eight legs and no wings, some dragonfies, each with six legs and two pairs of wings, and some cicadae, each with six legs and one pait of wings. They had among them 18 heads, 118 legs and 20 pairs of wings. How meny of the 18 were dragonflies? ‘The March Hare and the White Rabbit left their respective rabbit holes simultanet to visit each other. Hopping at uniform speeds, they passed each other at a poin Iilometres from the White Rabbit's home without noticing it. When they reached th respective destinations and found nobody home, they turned around to go bac ‘time meeting each other at a point 3 kilometres from the March Hare's home. What ‘was the ratio between the speed of the March Hare to that of the White Rabbit? his Everyday, # car came from the Conference Centre to the Hotel to pick up a scientist and brought her to the Conference Centre, One day, she got up earlier than usual and started walking to the Conference Centre along the route the car usually took. Af 30 minutes, she met the car, took the ride, and arrived at: the Conference Centre 10 minutes earlier than usual. If both she and the ear travelled at constant speeds, how many times her speed was the cat's? Stashed away was a slush fund consisting of some Toonies, each worth $2, and some MeRoonies, each worth $5, There were 24 mare Toonies than McRoonies, but the MeRoonies were worth $30 more than the Teonies. How many MeRoonies were stashe If Tweedledum gave 9 tarts to Tweedledes, Tweedledee would have the same number of tarts as Tweedledum, If instead Twoedledee gave 12 tarts to Tweedledura, Tweedledum would have twice as many tarts as Tweedledee. How many tarts did the twins have between them? Alice was walking from the Red King’s Palace to the White King’s at unt Messengers were riding back and forth between the two Palaces at uniform speed ay st regular intervals. Alice met a messenger coming towards her every 4 minutes, and senger caught up to her from behind every 12 minutes. How often would Alice meet another messenger if she stayed put? "Tae Red Knight was given the assignment to reconnoiter the area abead of the Red King’s Army. ‘The Army was moving at § kilometres per hour while the Red Knight was doing 12 Kilometres per hour. He was to return to the Army in 3 hours, How such time after his departure should the Red Knight turn around?AA school volunteered to plant the same number of trees on each side of a road. Th Grade 5 kids had pl ed 5 trees when the Grade 6 kids arrived, telling them that e side of the road assigned to the Grade 6 kids. So the Grade 5 kids crossed the road and started planting on the otber side, while the Grade 6 kids ued where the Grade 5 kids left off When they had finished, the Grade 6 kids ‘ossed the toad and planted 10 trees before all the work was done, H tuees had the Grade 6 kids planted than the Grade 5 kids? had started on t At noon each day, a ship leaves Le Havre for New York while another ship leaves New York for Le Havre. Each ship arcves at it all fllow a ination at noon seven days later. They including the one same sea route. How many ships will each ship mee coming in just as itis leaving, and the one leaving just as itis coming in?Chapter One Divisibility Alice asked ‘Tweedledum and Tweadlecee what 6 divided by 3 was. Both the twins said 2, but Alice said, “Wrong!” ‘They stared at Alice as though she had been munching mushroom again. After a while, one of them asked timidly, “What is the right answer then?” Alice took out six tarts she bought from the Queen of Hearts. She satd, tarts and three of us, If T shared them with you, that is 6 divided by 3, isn't it? “Yes,” the twins nodded eagerly, licking their lips “The correct answer,” Alice said, “is that I get four tarts and each of you get one.” “But thab ain't fair! they exclaimed, Tsay itis fair, because they are my tarts, and I am a lot bigger than you are. Anyway, what is 1 plus 1 plus 42” "That is 6, isn't ie? “Of course itis, Now ia L414 fais?” ‘They had never thought about that, After a while, one of them said, “Well, falmess doesn't come into addition.” ‘Does it come into subtraction or multiplication?” it” “Indeed it is. There is a tarit assumption thet it is supposed to be fair. Then 6 divided by 3 must be equal to 2. Even better news for you, 6 divided by 2 is equal to 3.” “No. So division is somewhat special, isn’ “Hoorey!” they exclaimed, and three tarts disappeared down each chute in an instant, Section 1.1, The Language of Mathematics If we are to cut back on the eight parts of epeoch, the one most people would aeree we an afford to Jose is pronoun. After all, pronouns do not mean anything by themselves, and ‘we can always put back in place what they stand fer. On the other hand, pronoun is the part of epeech we probably come into contact more sften than any of the others. Kids are forever saying, “Who? Me?" The musiesl My Fair ‘ady would never have been a box-office hit if we do not have pronouns. Example 1.1.1. Replace some of the nouns in the following Iyries by pronouns to make singing easier, All Ehza Dolittle wont is a roo somewhere, far evay from the cold night ait, | sth one enormous chair — oh D weulan' life be lov iy! 19Lots of chocolate for Htiza Dolittle to eat, lots of coal makin’ lots of ‘eat Warm face, warm ‘ands, warm feet — oh wouldn't life be loverly! Oh, so loverly sitting absobloominiutely still. Bliza Dolittle would never budge till spring crept over the winder sill Someone's 'ead resting on Eliza Dolittle’s knees, warm and tender as someone can be, someone takes good care of Bliza Dolittle — oh wouldn't life be loveriy! Loverly, loverly, loverly, laverly! Solution: ‘All [want is a room somewhere, far away from the cold night air, ‘with one enormous chair — ob woulda’t it be loverly! Lots of chocolate for me to eat, lots of coal makin’ lots of ‘eat. ‘Warm face, warm ’ands, warm feet — oh wouldn't i be loverly! Ob, so loverly sitting absobloominlutely still. I would never budge tll spring ‘exept over the winder sill Someone's ‘ead resting on my knees, warm and tender as ’e can be, ‘who takes good care of me — oh, wouldn’t it be loverly! Loverly, loverly, loverly, loverly! Example 1.1. In the German language, every noun is capitalized and has a gender. For instance, the Lightning is he, the Fish-basket is he, the Flame is she, the Fishwife is it and the Garment is che. In the following excerpt from Mark Twain’s satire Tale of the Fishwife ond its soc Fate, fill in the blanks with he, him, she, her or i as best you can, regarding the gender of various parts of the anatomy of the poor fishwife *O, Horror, the Lightning has struck the Fish-basket; he-sets himon Fire; see the Flame, how she licks the doomed Utensil with her red and angry Tongue; now she attacks the helpless Fishwife’s Foot — she bums ___up, all but the big Toe, end even __ is partly consumed: ‘end still she spreads, still she waves her fiery Tongues; she attacks the Fishwife's Leg ané destroys __; she attacks its Hand and destroys __; she attacks its poor worn Garment ‘and destroys her also; she attacks its Body and consumes __; she wreathes herself about its Heart and ___is consumed; next about its Breast and in a Moment ___ is a Cinder; now she reaches its Neck —___ goes; now its Chin — __ goes; now its Nose 20Solution: “O, Horror, the Lightning has struck the Fish-basket; he sets him on Fire; see the Flame, bow ‘he licks the doomed Utensil with her red and angry Tongue; now she attacks the belpise Fishwife's Foot — she bums him up, all but the big Toe, and even she is partly consumed and still she spreads, still she waves her fiery Tongues; she attacks the Fihwif's Leg aed destroys i she attacks its Hand and destroys her, she attacks ite poor worn Garman: ona destroys her also; she attacks its Body and consumes him; she wreathes herself about ite Heart and it is consumed; next about its Breast and in a Moment she is a Cinder; now she Feaches its Neck — he goes; now its Chin — it goes; now its Nose — she goes” ‘We use pronouns because they aro convenient. For instance, in a erime story, until we know the identity of the perpetustor, we often give him the name “Mr. "It is suderstond thet X is an unknown entity until we are able to point our fingers atthe culprit. In the same ‘way, when we have an unknown quantity, we often introduce x to stand for it for the time being, until we find out what the value of « should be We call quantities such as variables. They are alao referred to as letters because it 's customary to use letters as variables, Many teachers and students have a morbid feat of variables. This is absurd because the variables are just the pronouns in the language of mathematics, Nobody should be in mortal fear of pronouns. With an apology to Vinginia Woolf, who should be afraid of her? In arder to determine the value of & variable 2, we have to assemble information about it, and these often come in the form of equations. Some mey complain that this is book oa arithmetic, not algebra. So why are equations creeping in through the back door? ‘The artificial distinction of arithmetic as subject for elementary schools and algebra as a subject for high schools is most unfortunate. Tho truth i that they are the same subject, At its very basic level, algebra may be regarded as a summary of arithmetic. It has teen called universal arithmetic, For instance, if the length of a rectangle is 4 centimetres and its width is 3 centimetres, then its area is 12 square centimetres. If the length is 6 centimetres and the width 4, then fhe ares is 24 centimetres. At the end of the day, we come up with the formula A = fu, ‘whore €is the length ofa rectangle, w its width and A its area, Without noticing it, we have Drogressed from arithmetic to algebra, ‘The language of sgebra is equations. Here is what the great Newton wrote in his algebra textbook titled Arithmetica Universalis (Universal Arithmetic): “In order to settle a question referring to numbers or to the abstract relationships between quantities, one needs only sa anslate the problem from one's own language to the language of algebra.” ‘The following isa problem that Newton translated from human terms into the terms of algebra Example 1.1.3. A merchant has « certain sum of money. During the fist year he spent 100 pounds, ‘To the remaining sum he then added one third of it. During the next year be again spent 200 Pounds, and increased the remainjag sum by one third of it. During the third yeat he again Spent 100 pounds. After he added to the remainder one thitd of it, his eapital was twice the original. What was the original capital at the disposal of the merchant? aSolution: [Ih ordinary language: In the language of algebra: ‘A merchant has a certain sum of money. = During the frst year == i ‘To the remaining sum he @ | ira of is 100) + 5400 = 25500 During the next year he again spent 100 pounds, $5402 — 100 = S200 ‘and increased the remaining sum by one third of i. Sesto 4 4700 Dring the third year he again spent 100” | pounds. 3-380 _ 100 [ Ate be aided tthe remainder oo | [ss capital war tice tie ginal t Whar To determine the original capital at the disposal of the merchant, one only has to solve the last equation. Multiplying both sides by 27, we have 642 ~ 14300 = 42. Moving all terms involving 2 to the left side and all other terms to the right side, we have Giz ~ Sz = 14800. It follows that 10z = 14800 end z = 1480 So the merchant started with 1480 pounds. In the first yeas, he spent 100 pounds, leaving ‘behind 1380. Adding a third of this amount, he now had 1840 pounds. In the second year, he spent 100 pounds, leaving behind 3740 pounds. Adding a third of this amount, he now had 2320 pounds. In the thid year, he spent 100 pounds, leaving behind 2220 pounds. Adding a third of this amount, he now had 2960 pounds, which was double his original capital, Very few facts about the life of Diophantus, the marvellous mathomstician of ancient times, heve come down to us. All that we kuow about him is taken from an inscription mace on his tombstone in the form of a mathematical problem. Example 1-1-4. }: Here rest the ashes of Diophantus. "Tis @ miracle thet numbers can measure the length of his lif. A sixth portion of it was « beautiful childhood. After a twelfth part of his life wes over, down covered his chin. A seventh part he spent in childless wedlock. Five years then passed and he rejoiced in the birth of his first son, whom Fave measured out a Joyous and rediant life on this Earth only half of that of his father’s. And in deep grief the ld man ended his days on Earth, four years after losing his son. So how many years did Diophantus live before death overtook him? 2Solution: In ordinary language: In the language of algebra: “Traveller! Here rest the ashes of E Diophantus. "Tis a miracle that numbers 2 can measure the length of his life. ‘A sixth portion of it was a beautiful childhood, ‘After a twelfth part of his Ife was over, down covered his chin, i A seventh part he spent in childless wedlock. Five years then passed and he rejoiced in the birth of his first son, whom Fate measured out a Joyous and radiant life on this Harth only half of 7 that of his father's ‘And in deep grief the old man ended his days on Earth, four years after losing E+o4E+4 q his son. 7 | | ("Seow many years did Diopha Tae Tive before death overtook him? | Solving the equation, we find that x = 84 and we also learn that he married at the age ‘of 21, became a father at the age of 38, lost his son when he was 80 and died when he was Pe. Solving an equation is often a rather simple matter; the real difficulty lies in setting ‘Sp the equation on the basis of available facts. You have just seen that the art of setting =p an equation does indeed reduce to translating from ordinary language to the language ‘eflgebra. But the language of algebra is one of few words, and so translating phrases of | erryday speech into algebraic terms is often a hard job, as the readers have seen from from {be last two problems, where the task is to set up equations of the frst degree. We give two re such examples. Bxample 1.1.5 one goose grested a flock, “Hello, 100 geese.” The leader replied, “We aren't 100, If you ‘twice our number, and add half of our number, and add a quarter of our number, and lly add you, the result will be 100.” How many geese were in the flock? a 23————__-__—, In ordinary language: In the language of algebra: ada Tock, Welln Yoo. _ you take tobe ar mabe, and add bal of our number, | and add a quarer of our nuaber and Bally ad 08, ores wl be 108. Solving the equation yields 2 = 36. Example 1.1.6, Four friends are sharing some apples. Ace took one apple and one-third of the remaining ones. Bea took one apple and one-third of those then remaining. Cec tack one apple and one-third of those then remaining. Dee got the rest of the apples, Bea and Cee between them got one apple more than Ace, How many apples did Deo get? In or inary language: In the language of algebra: Four frends are sharing some apples. | Tee took one apple and onethird of | te remaining ones, [Bea took one apple and one-third of | those then remaining, Cec took ane apple and one-third of those then remaizing ‘Dee got the rest of the apples ‘Bea and Cee between them got one apple more than Ace (i ____How many apples Gd Das get? Clearing the equation of frections, = 25. Hence Dee got # ave G+ 12+ de +8 12+ 18+27, which yields ‘The next two examples lead to systems of equationsExample 1.1.7. The horse complained of its heavy load. “What are you complaining about?” replied the ‘mule, also heavily loaded. “If | take one sack from your back, my load will become twice | heavy as yours. But if you take one sack from my back, your losd will be the same as q ‘mine." Now tellus, wise mathematicians, how many sacks was the horse carzying and how ‘many sacks the mule? | Solution: In ordinary language: In the language of algebra: ‘The horse complained of ts heavy Toad | z : “What are you complaining about? 4 replied the mule, also heavily loaded. "fT take one sock from your back, my Toad will become twice af heavy as your. But if you take one sack from my back, your Toad [eile thaegms as mang vai zat zel=y= ~ Now tell us, wise mathematicians, how many sacks) the ying and how many sacks the mule? We have reduced the problem to a system of equations in two variables y+l=%r-1) and y-1=s41 Be Ais cimptises to . Q-y=3 and y—2=2. G Selving it, we find that = = 5 and y = 7. ‘The horse was carrying 6 sacks and the mule 7 PBeample 1.1.8 brothers have 45 pounds. Ifthe first brother gets two more pounds, the second hiss two taken away, the third has his sum doubled, the fourth has his sum halved, then all ‘brothers will have the same sum of money. How much money does each brother have?Solution: In ordinary language: In the language of algebra: | [if the frst brother gets two more the second hs two pounds taken away the thied has his sum doubled, The fourth haa his sum halved, 3 then all four brothers will have the same sum of money. How much money does each brother have? First we split the last equation into three separate equations: 2y and w+2 ond 2=2w+4 ‘Thea, substituting these values into the main equation, we obtain wt? (w+ 4+ ws 2? 4 (aw 44) = 45. w+4) 57+ Qw+4) And from thie we get w= 8, Then we find z = 12, brothers have 8, 12, 5, and 20 pounds, respectively 5 and 2=20, which means the four Exercises: 1, Replace some of the nouns in the following lyzies by pronouns to make singing easier. Freddie Byrsford-Hill has often walked, down this street before, Int the pavement always stayed beneath Freddie Eynsford-Hil's feet before. All at once is Freddie Eynsford-Hill, several stories high, Inowing Freddie Bynsford-Hill’s on the Are there li the heart of toun' Can people hear a lark ny other port of town? ‘Does enchantment po c trees ng's just on the street where Blisa Dolittle live. 2And oh the towering feeling just to know somehow Eliza Dolittle ts near the overpowering feeling that any second Dolittle Bliza may suddenly appear People stop and stare People don't bother Freddie Eynsford-Hill, for there's nowhere else on earth that Freddie Eynsford-Hill would rather be. Let the time go by; Freddie Eynsford-Hill wont care if Freddie Eynsford- Hilt con be here on the street where Elisa Dolitle tive Replace some of the nouns in the following lyrics by pronouns to make singing easier. Bliza Dolittle could have danced all night, Bliza Dolittle could have danced all night and stil has begged for more. liza Doiitle could have spread Biiza Dolitle's wings, tnd done 2 thousand things Bliza Dolitle’s never done before. Blize Dolittle never know what makes the dancing eo exciting Why all ot once Eliza Dolittie’s heart took flight! Bliza Dolittle only kmous when Professor Henry Higgins began to dance with Eliza Doliie. Biiza Dolittle could have danced, danced, danced all night ‘The Devil offered the Idler e deal: “If you wall acress this bridge, the emount of money you have will double. In return, you pay me 24 dollars." Delighted, the Idler made tho deal again and again. After the third deal, the Idler found that he had no money left. The Devil laughed and disappeared. How much money did the idler start with? Demochares had lived many years, one-fourth ae a boy, one-fifth as @ youth, one-third asa man, and 13 years in his dotage. How many years did Demochares live? Harriet was short of cash. She spent half of her money on her train ticket and § cents on candies. At the station, she spent half of what she had left plus 10 cents for a ‘ewspaper. Then she paid half of what she had let for her bus fare and gave 15 cents to. beggar, She arrived at the school with only 5 cents. How much money did Harriot hhave initially? After cycling for some distance at 8 kilometres per hour, Anderson dropped off the Dicyele and walked the remaining part of the 20 kilometres at 5 kilometres per hous Meanwhile, Brown walked at 4 kilometres per hour until he reached the bieyele, and cycled the rest of the way at 10 kilometres per hour. Hoth arrived at the same time. long did the trip tale10. u. 12, [A motor-cycle race tock place on a track. The speed of the second motor-cycle Kilometres per hour less than that of the first motor-cycle, but 3 kilometres per hou more than that of the third motor-cycle. It reaches the end of the track 12 minute ‘fier the first and 3 minutes before the third. What was the length of the track? A philanthropist set aside a certain sum to be distributed among the needy. If ther were & less needy people, each share would have been 2 dollars more. If there were ‘more instead, each share would have been 1 dollar less. How much was each shere? A cyclist is moving at constant speed on a circular track of length 170 metres. A secon eyelist is moving at a lower constant speed. If they are going in opposite direction they meet every 10 seconds. Going in the same direction, the first catches up to th second every 170 seconds, What are the speeds of the cyclists? “Here is my wallet,” said John, “lf you double the amount in it, Richard, you has paid off your debt,’ “Here is what is left in my wallet,” said Richard. *If you doub this amount, Jobn, you have paid off your debt too.” After settling, John now kad 8 while Richard had $30. How much money did each have initially? ‘The coat costs as much as the pair of trousers and the vest. The coat and two pai of trousers cost $175. The pair of trousers and two vests cost $100. What is the tot cost of the suit, the pair of trousers and the vest? ‘A number of wagons left the East Coast, with the same number of people in eac By the time they reached the Mississippi, the wagon train had lost 10 people and ‘wagons, so that there were 2 more people per wagon than before. By the time the reached the West Coast, they had lost another 3 people and another 2 wagons, so th there were 3 more people per wagon than when they started. How many people start« from the East Coast? 8Section 1.2. Basic Properties of Divisibility. ‘The binary operation of division is Then their quotie since 6 = 3 x 2. ed as follows. Let a and b be pesitive integers t b+ a isa positive Integer c such that = ac. For instance, 6 +3 = ‘The eet of positive integers is not closed under division, For instance, 6 = 4 is not a positive integer. A remedy is to expand our set so that it will inelude more than just the Positive integers. This will be done in Chapter 6. Another way is to allow for remainders and stay within the set of positive integers. This will be our approach in Chapter 2. In thi chapter, we consider only divisions which are exact, that is, the quotient isa positive integer. Example 1.2.1 Replace each X in the diagram below by any digit from 0 to 9 so that the exact division is correct. Solution: CCearly, the second and the fourth digits of the quotient are 0s. The last digit is 9, since 8 times the divider is a three-digit mumbor. Honoe the fit digit is another 8, so that the quotient is 80809. The divider is less chan 125 since 8 x 12 since 80809 x 123 = 9939507 < 10000000. It follows that solution is shown in the diagram below. sosoo 124, 0010s 16 992 TOUS 98 Ti 16 1116 We introduce a binary relation called divistbility. For instance, 6 is divisible by 3 because 5 x 2= 6. On the other hand, 7 is not divisible by 3 because 7 is not the produ of § and any integer th of A ‘nd Bill the Lizard has a positive integer. What does it mean when we say that Bill's number is divisible by Alice's number? The formal definition is that Bill’s number is equal to Alice's number times some positive integer. If Alice's number is 2 end Bill's number is 6, then that “some positive integer” is 3 29The following statement -e equivalent to one another. 1, Bills number is divisidle by Alice's number. 2. Alice's number divides Bill's number, 3. Alice's number is a divisor of Bills 1 4. Bill’s number is a multiple of Alice's number. Example 1.2.2. FFinc all postive integers which are divisible by (0) 13; (o) 18, Soluti (0) These are simply the multiples of 12, They are 12,24, 36, 48, .... A general description is that they are numbers of the form 12k, where & is any positive integer (b) These are simply the multiples of 18. They are 18, 36, 54, 72, .... A general description 4s that they are numbers of the form 18k, where k is any positive integer. simple property of divisibility isthe following Divisibility Inequality Theorem. If Alice's number divides Bill's n Proof: From the given condition, Bill's number is equal to Alice's number times some positive integer. Since any positive intoger is greater than or equal to 1, Alice's number times some positive intege er is greater than or equal to Alice's number. In other words, Alice's jumber Is less than or equal to Bill’s number. Example 1.2.3. Find all positive integers which divide (8) 13; (0) 18. Solution: ib , then Alice's number is less than or equal to Bill's () By the Divisibiity Inequality ‘Theorem, we only have to check positive integers up to 12, It is easy to verify that the only divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 (6) By the Divisibility Inequality Theo 8, It Is easy to verily that the on om, we only have to check positive integers up to divisors of 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18 Wiile the above example seems easy, finding the postive divisors of a positive integer is in goneral a vory difficult problem. Paradoxically, finding the positive multiples of « positive integer is @ trivial matter, as we have seen in Example 1.21, even though the numbers rnvolved ere larger. 30i: Divisibility has the same three basie properties as inequality, Reflexive Property. Whatever positive integer Alice has, it is divisible by this number which she has. | Proofs Alice's number is equal to itself times 1, and 1 is a positive integer. According to the definition of divisiility, Alice's number is divisible by itself. ‘Transitive Property, | Hf Alice's mumber divides Bill’s number and Bill’s number divides the Caterpillar's number, | then Alice's number must divide the Caterpillar’s number. | Proof: We are given two conditions. First, Alice's number divides Bill's number. This means that Bill’s number is equal to Alice's number times some positive integer. Second, Bill's number | _ivides the Caterpilla’s number, ‘This means that the Caterpilla’s number is equal to Bill's xnumber times some other positive integer. The conchision we want is that Alice's number [divides the Caterpiiar’s number. In other words, the Caterpilla’s number is equal to Alice's | umber times yet another positive integer | —-_ Combining the two given conditions, we see that a the Caterpillar’s number P = Bill's number x some other positive integer a (Alice's mumber x some postive integer) x some other positive integer ‘= Alice's number x (some positive integer x some other positive integer = Alice's number x yet another positive integer. How do we know that the product of "some positive integer” and “some other positive integer” is “yet another positive integer"? This is because multiplication is closed in the set ‘of positive integers. We have proved the Transitive Property. __ Anti-symmetrie Property. WF Alice's number divides Bill's number and Bill's number divides Alice's number, then they ‘must have the same number Proof: | Since Alice's number divides Bill's number, Alice's number is less than or equal to Bill's "Sumber by the Divisibility Inequality Theorem, Similarly, Bill's nuunber is less then or equal 80 Alice’s number. It follows that Alice and Bill have the same number, ‘The Transitive Property seems so much more complicated than the other two. We give Gerther illustrations here, ‘Example 1.2.4, Gdivides 9 and 9 divides 36, prove that 3 divides 36. 31a Solution: Since 36 = 3 12, 3 divides 36, Note that we do not need the given information at all. This ‘an unfortunate consequence of using only numbers, as we often end up short-circuit the situation and failing to provide the intended illustration, Example 1.2.5, If divides 9 and 9 divides the Caterpillars number, prove that 3 divides the Cat pillar's Solution: We are really given only one condition since we know thet 3 divides 9. ‘That 9 divides the Caterpilla’s number means that the Caterpilar’s number is equal to 9 times some postive integer. The conclusion we want is that 3 divides the Caterpillae's number. In other words, 1¢ Caterpilla's number is equal to 3 times another positive integer. We have the Caterpillar’s number = 9 x some positive integer (3 x 8) x some positive integer = 3.x (3 x some postive integer) = 3x + positive integer. Example 1.2.6. 19 divides Bill's number and Bills number divides the Caterpillars number, divides the Caterpillae’s number. rove that S Solution: We are given two conditions, First, 3 divides Bill's number. This means thet Bill’s number 1 to 3 times some positive integer. Second, Bill's number divides the Caterpllar's This means that the Caterpillar’s number is equal to Bill’s number times sor other positive integer. The conclusion we want is that 3 divides the Caterpllar’s number In other words, the Caterpillar’s number is equal to 8 times yet another positive into ‘Combining the two given conditions, we see that the Caterpillars mumber Bill's number x some other positive integer (8 x some positive integer) x some other positive integer = 3x (come positive integer x some other positive integer) 3 x yot another positive integer How do we know that the product of “some positive integes" and “some other positive integec" is “yet another positive integer"? This ls because multiplication is closed in the sot of positive integ Of course, a fourth example in is sequence would have been the Transitive Property At this point, some readers may get fed up with our clumsy language. “Why don’t you Alice's number a, Bill's number } and the Caterpillar's number ¢? Tt will make life «lot easier for everyone, 2Tadeed, this would make life alot easier for everyone. We have been patiently waiting for ‘our eaders to make this demand, We are afraid of moving sway from the ordinary language uickly, However, we agree that itis high time for us to leave Alice, Bill the Lizard and the Caterpillar for a while We restate our formal definition in the language of mathematics. A positive integer is ‘aid to be divisible by a positive integer a if b= ak for some positive integer k In that case, ‘we also say that a divides 6, that cis a divisor of 5, and that bis a multiple of a We introduce the notation al to mean a divides 6. Example 1.2.7. Determine whether each of the following is true or false: (a) 36; (@) air, (6) 613; (a) 66 Solution: () This is true because 6 (b) This is false because 7 is not equal to the product of $ and any positive integer. (©) This false because 3 is not equal to the product of 6 and any positive int () This is true by the Reflexive Property of civisibility Example 1.2.8, ‘Translate the Transitive Property and its proof to the language of math Solution: Let a, 8 and © be positive integers such that ald and Be Then ale. ‘The proof goes as follows. Since ald and Ble, it follows from the definition of divisibility thet there are poeitive integers h and such that b= ah and ¢ = bk. We use two different letters because we cannot guarantee that hk and & always represent the same positive integer. ‘To prove thet lc, we need a positive integer ¢ such that c = at. We do have an equation with ¢ alone on the left side, namely, c = bk, Substituting the other equation 5 = ah into it, we have c= (ai)k = a(hk) by the Associative Law of Multiplication. Since multiplication is closed {in the set of positive integers, hi is a positive integer, in fact, the desired positive integer # netics In extending the number system to all integers, certain results require minor modifi tions. In the Reflexive Property, we have ala for all integers a 4 . In the Divisbility Inequality Theorem, if the integers a and } are such that a), we bave a < (bj, where [6] denotes the absolute value of b. More precisely, [ ~bif6 <0, 0 that [bis always non-negative, In the Anti-symmetrio Property, ifthe integers a and b are such ‘hat alb and bla, all we can conclude is that a = +, that is, Ja = |b 3Bxercises: 1, Replace each X diagram below by any digit from 0 to 9 so that the exact division XxX XTX 2, Replace each X in the diagram below by * » nH xo a x x i x x x x 5 xx x x Rx XXX Find all positive integers which are divisible by () 15 (b) 16. 4 Find cll positive integers which are divisible by (o) 4 o) 5. Find all postive integers which divide 8) (0) 6. ind all postive integers which divide a) 24 () 27. 7. (a) If 24 divides the Caterpillar's number, prove that 8 divides the Caterpllar’s num- (b) If 8 divides Bill's number and Bil’s number divides the Caterpllar's number prove that 8 divides the Caterpillar’s number. 48. (9) 128 divides the Caterpilar’s number, prove that 7 divides the Caterpillar’s num- ber. (0) 1€ 7 divides Bill's number and Bill's number divides the Catecpilla’s number, » prove that 7 divides the Caterpillar’s number. 9. Determine whether each of the following is true or false (a) 36; (b) 397; (©) 13; (a) 66 10. Determine whether each of the following is true or false (0) 316; (b) 317; (6) 68; (€) 56. 41, Translate the Reflexive Property and its proof to the language of mathematics 12, Translate the Anti-symmetric Property and its to the language of mathematics.3. The Arithmetic of Divisibility Preparing for a party of children, the Duchess boughit a number of apples and a number o bananas. In the first round of refreshment, she handed out the apples. Each child heppenec to receive the same number of apples. In the second round of refreshment, we handed ou the bananas. Again, each child received the same number of bananas, The next day, the Duchess had another party for the same group of children, and shi bought the same number of apples and the same number of bananas as the day before. Thi time, she only had one round of refreshment. So she handed out the fruit without paying attention to whether they were apples or bananas. Would each child receive the same numbe of fruit? ‘The answer is yes. Denote the total number of apples by a, the total number of bananas by 2, the total number of fruit by ¢ and the number of children by d. That dla means a = dp fo some integer p. That dj means b = dg for some integer 9. Now ¢ dp+-dq = d(p+g) and p-+q is an integer because addition is closed in the set of integers. Hence dle. ‘This is a part of the following most important result. Basic Divisibility Theroem. Let a, 5 and ¢ be integers such that a+b =. If d is a positive integer which divides any two of a, 8 and c, then d also divides the third one Proof: ‘There are three cases to consider. The case where dla and d[b has already been dealt with Consider now the case where dé and dle. ‘The first statement means that & = dg for som integer q, and the second statement means that ¢ = dr for some integer r. Hence a=c-b=dr—do dlr ~ 4). Now r —q is an integer since subtraction is closed in the set of integers. It follows that wi have dja. ‘The third case where dlc and dla is analogous. The first statement means tha = dr for some intoger r, and the second statement means that a = dp for some integer p Hence bee = dr ~ dp = d(r ~ p) Now r — p is an integer since subtraction is closed in the set of integers. It follows that we have dlp. Hidden behind the above proof is the equation p-+q =r, where p is the number of apple per child, q the number of bananas per child, and r the nutmber of frult per child. Example 1.3.1. Prove that the only positive integer which can divide two consecutive integers is 1 Solution: Let the two consecutive integers be m and n where m-+ 1 =n. Suppose a positive intege divides both m and m. By the Basic Divisibility ‘Theorem, it must divide 1. However, th: only positive divisor of 1 is 1 Itself 363 ‘The Basic Divisibility Theorem, like most other results, takes thie form of a conditional statement: “If A, then B.” Here, A and B are statements in their own right. A is called the __ hupothesis of the conditional statement, while B is called its conclusion, Example 1.8.2. Suppose the conditional statement is “Ifthe apples can be shared equally among the boys fad the bananas can be shared equally among the girls, then the fruit (apples and bananes) can be shared equally among the children (boys and girls)” Express the hypothesis and conclusion in the language of mathematics Solution: Let o, 2, « and d denote respectively the number of apples, the number of bananas, the ‘umber of boys and the number of girls. Then the conditional statement becomes "If ce | and db, then (c + d)|(a +0).” ‘The hypothesis is “cla and ald", and the conelusion te “e+ a(a+s. ‘An instance of the conditional statement in which both A and B aze true is called an zample. An instance of the conditional statement in which A is true but B is faloe is called # counter-ezample, We are not interested in instances of the conditional statement in which Ais false Example 1.3.3. _ Give an example and a counter-example of the conditional statement in Example 1.3.2. | Solution: Hi we take @ = 16, b = 32, ¢ = 4 and d = 8, then 4[16 and 8132, so that both clauses in pthe hypothesis are satisfied. Moreover, 4-812 and 16-32 =48, and 12/48. So we have an sample of the conditional statement. If we take @ = 16, b= 32, c= 2 and U6 and 8/32, so that both clauses in the hypothesis are satisfied. However, 2+ $248, but 10/48. So we have a counter-example of the conditional statement. A conditional statement is true if every instance of it is true. A conditional statement is if some instance of itis false, In order to show that a conditional statement is false, it ‘seficient to give one counter-example. Thus the conditional statement in Example 1232 ise by Example 1.3.3. On the other hand, no amount of examples will be enough to ‘that @ conditional statement is true, because a counter-example may still be found. Its th can only be established by a proof. ple 1.3.4. ‘counter-example in Example 1.3.3, had we taken d = 4 instead of d = 8, we would have d example instead of a counter-example, How could we have decided then whether eenditional statement in Example 1.3.2 is true or false? there are no hard-and-fast rules, there are things we can definitely try, Since we have Samples in a row, pethaps we should attempt a proof. The given conditions are cla ‘This means that a = ck and b= dk for some integer k. ‘The desired conclusion is fe-+b). This will follow if we can show that a+ is equal to c-+d times some integer. pet b = ck +dk = (c+ d)k, and k is an integer,| f | | So we have a proof, and this statement is true. But wait! Have we not found earlier counter-example? So something is wrong with this proof, and we must re-examine it carefully. From cla, we definitely have a = ek for some integer k. Ta fact, k stands for the umber of apples per boy in the language of Example 1.3.1. From dé, ah hal we should not have b = dk, because there is no guarantee that the number of apples per boy is equal to the number of bananas per girl. Hence we must use a different variable and take b = dh. Now, a+b=ck-+dh, and we cannot conclude that a+b is equal to ¢-+d times an integer. Moreover, this now points to where we can find a counter-example. Keeping a b= 82as before, we have 32 +16 = 2. We must choose ¢ and d so that d integer h # 2. So if we choose c= 2 and d = 8, we will have the counter-example found in Example 1.3.3, Suppose we have no prior knowledge on whether a conditional statement is true or false How can we decide? The simplest way is to examine various instances of it. If we find & counter-example, then the statement is false. If all instances we have examined turn out to be examples, it would be reasonable to suspect that the statement is true. ‘Then we should attempt a proof. However, if we run into difficulty in the proof, it may indicate thet we have been examining a very narrow class of instances, and perhaps a counter-example lies somewhere else The process of resolving truth and falsehold is an art and not an exact science, Lots of practice will be of benefit. Often, people are unwilling or afraid to try things without knowing in advance that they would get anything out of it. However, guaranteed success is ro success, just as everyday sale is no sale. We must combine the willingness to try with the astuteness of what to try. The latter can only be developed from experience Note that the testing is an integral part of solving the problem, it is not even a part of the presentation of the solution. Naturally, the more of this kind of problems we solve, the less we have to rely on testing Example 1.8.5. Ifa, 8, cand d are positive integers such that cla and al, is it necessarily true that edlab? Solution: From ca, we have a = ck for some integer k. Fr Hence al wm djb, we have b = dh for some integer h. (ck)(dh) = ed{ish), so that it is necessarily true that ed|ab. Example 1.3.6. Ifa, b and c are positive integers such that alb, is it necessatily true that al(b-+¢)? Solution: If we take a = = 2 and c= 1, then ald but a {(b-+¢) ‘Multiples Divisibility Theorem. Ifa and b are positive integers such that alb, then alée for all integers c First Proof Since ald, there is a positive integer & such that b equation by ¢, we have be = (ak)e= ake), Hence albe ak, Maltiplying both sides of this 38Second Proof: We have be since be = b(e). Along with ald, the Transitive Property of Divisbility allows us to conclude that Example 1.3.7. fa and 6 are positive integers such that a, is It necessarily true that a3|Be? Solution: Since a, there is a postive integer k euch thet = ak. Then & alt Example 1.3.8. Ifa and b are positive integers such that a, is it necessarily true that alt? Solution: Twe take a= 16 and b= 8, then a} = 4006 = i so that aSli¢ but a J, Exercises: (ak)¢ = a¥(ak*), 90 that 1 Wop and a, i it necessarily true that (0+)? 2. Wal(d-+c), is it necessarily true that ab and ale? 3. Wald and ale, is it necessarily true that albe? XE abe, i it necessarily true that lb and ale? ale and bl, is it nocessurly true that (a +)/6? 1 (a+b) is it necesarily true that ale and le? Wale and df, is it necessarily true that able? Table is it necessarily true that ale and be? Pe Ne ww Hat+e=b+dand alb, is it nocessarily true that dle? Tea Hale, bd and al is It necessarily true that: do? it necessarily true that a?[b%? HE a3, is it necessarily t that 06?Section 1.4. Div We can test whether certain large positive integers are divisible by certain small positive integers, in a manner simpler than performing the actual division. We will give tests of ivisibility for the numbers from 1 to 12, except 7. lity Problems. Tests of divisbiity are dependent on the fact that we use the base-10 system for ex- pressing positive integers, For insane 000+400+80-+8. More generally, a positive integer IV is expressed in the form 10%d, + 10"4dq_1 +--+ 10d, + dp, where n-+ 1 is the number of digits and for 0 1. Prove that at least one of four numbers is not divisible by ad — be. Find ten positive integers such that each of them divides their sum, 431. Think of a 2-digit number. Write it down three times in a row to form a 6-digit amber, Divide this number by 13. If you aze not unlucky, the division will be exact ide the quotient by 21. Again, the division will be exact. Finally, divide the my quotient by 37, The division is exact yet again. Explain why the final quo 1 original 2digit nurnber. ; 12, Think of a Sigit number, Write it down twice in a row to form a 6-digit n : Divide this number by 7. If you are lucky, the division will be exact. Now div {quotient by 11. Again, the division will be exact. Finally, divide the new quotient by 13. ‘The division is exact yet again. Explain why the final quotient is the original S-digit numberChapter Two Congruence In the previous chapter, we consider divisions in which each fair share is an integral number. However, we have to deal with the situation when this is not the case. One way js to insist that each fair share still be integral, but allow a remainder. Another way is to allow each share to be fractional The Dormouse, the March Hare and the Mad Hatter got hold of eight cows, and wanted to share thei equally. They came to the twins for advice. “That is easy,” said Twoedledum, “two and two-thirds cows each.” The last two cows glared at Tweedledum with looks that could kill, “Tthink they hate you,” said Tweedledee ‘Tweedledum swallowed, “You are right, I think I should say two each, with a remainder of tro.” | _ This is the approach we will use in this chapter, since we can stay within the system of integers. However, the very next day, the Dormouse, the March Hare ond the Mad Hatter sought Alice for advice. This time, they wanted to share eight tarts which they had stolen from the Queen of Hearts. “Oh dear,” said Alice, “you'd better eat them fast, and don't leave any remainder for Ber Majesty to discover.” “What is a fair share then?” the Dormouse woke up and asked, and then promptly fell ‘asleep again before he heard Alice's response. “Two and two-thirds each,” was the response. In Chapter Six, we will expand our number ‘gystem to include fractions and beyond, jon 2.1, Basie Properties of Congruence. “What is eight divided by three?" Alice asked the twins “With or without remainders?” asked Tweedledum. “With remainders,” said Alice, “Two per share, and two left over,” said Tweedledee “Wrong! said Alice. ‘Have you been drinking from those funny bottles you soem to find all the time?” Twee- n asked. | “Don't tell me that you will get all eight and we get nothing,” added Tweedledee. said Alice, “we have already flushed out the hidden assumption that division is to be fair. But you boys are still assuming something which has yet to be stated 45“Like whet?” they both exclaimed, Instead of answering, Alice showed them the following salations, 2 1000 avs Ses Secor 6 3000, r =a “What on earth are you doing?” asked Tweedl “Divisions,” said Alice dum, “The first one is right, but the other two are wrong!” exclaimed Tweedledee. “No, they are not! Take the second one, which I eall a federal division,” said Alice, “Each party takes 1000. Subtracting 3000 from 8, we have ~2092. The calculations are correct! “What do you call this?” asked Tweedledee, pointing at the number —2902. “The remainder,” said Alice. ‘The federal deficit,” remarked Tweedledum, “Take the third one, which I call estate division,” continued Alice, “Bach party chips in 100. Subtracting -300 from 8, we have 308. Once again, everything is accounted for.” “Is this also the remainder?” asked Tweedledee, pointing at the number 308. “Of course.” “The fe surplus,” remarked Tweedledurn, ‘But the remainder is supposed to be 2, not —2992 or 30 said Tweedledee “Says who?” asked Alice, “If you divide by 8, the remainder is supposed to be a number from 0 t0 7, dledu explicit said Twee- “Ah, I see what you mean by another hidden assumption. I have just stated it y. Man, this division business has so many twists and turns.” In general, when a positive integer b is divided by a positive integer a, we may have an exact division with 6 = ag for some positive integer g. If the division is not exact, then b= ag+tr for some integer r which satisfies 0 0,50 that the set of positive values among the differences ro, 71, To is non-empty, and will have a minimum. This is the desired remainder unless one of the dit ferences is 0, We still have to prove that ¢ and r are uniquely b= ak+h with Oh ) When 43 anc 29 are divided by 7, the common remainder is 1. (6) We have 31449=74 and 1742948, When 74 and 46 are divided by 7, the common remainder Is 4 (€) The commas winder in (e) is the sum of the common remainders in (a) and (b). Example 2.2.2. (a) Verify that 34 divided by 7. 0 (mod 7) by finding the common remainder when 34 and 20 are | (b) Verify that 39 = 18 (mod 7) by finding the common remainder when 39 and 18 are 4 divided by 7. (6) Verify that 34 4-39 = 20 + 18 (mod 7) by finding the common remainder when 34439 : and 20+18 are divided by 7 | (2) What is the relation between the common remainder in (e) and those in (a) and (b)? Solution: (0) When 34 and 20 are divided by 7, the common remainder is 6. (b) When $9 and 18 are divided by 7, the common remalnder is 4. (©) Wo have 34+-39= 3 and 20+18=98, When 73 and 98 are divided by 7, the common (4) The common remainder in (e) is 7 and (2). s than the sum of the common remainders in (8) 8| In general, let m be a postive integs (mod ) and ¢ and let a, b, cand d be integers. If «(mod r) (aod m), then a+ c= & ‘The condition a = b (mod m) means that when a and b aze divided by m, we hav same remainder, say r, where 0 m. From r 18 (mod 7) by finding the common remainder when 24 x 39 and 20 x 18 are divided by 7 (4) What is the rel tion bet ween the common remainder in (c) and those in (a) and (b)?Solution: (a) When 34 and 20 are divided by 7, the common remainder is 6. (b) When 39 and 18 are divided by 7, the common remainder is 4 (c) We have 34 x 39 = 1326 and 20 x 18 = 360, When 1326 and 960 are divided by 7, the common remainder is 3 (@) The common remainder in () is 3% 7 less then the product of the common remainders in (a) and (0) In general m) and ¢ let m be a positive integer and let a, 6, c and d be integers. If a = 6 (mod (mod m), then ae = dd (mod m) ‘The condition a = b (mod m) means that when a and b are divided by m, we have the samme remainder, say r, where 0 m, then 0 < rs —tm < m for some positive integer t, ‘and the common remainder will be rs — tm. We still have ac = bd (mod m). In Example 2.2.4, we have t= 3, Since we can multiply two congruences that involve the same modulus, any number ‘of congruences relative to the same modulus can be multiplied together to yield o valid | congruence, Example 2.2.5, Find the remainder when 101 x 103 x 107 x 109 is divided by 11. Solutior | The remainder is 101 x 103 x 107 x 109 = 2 x4 x 8 x 10 = G40 = 2 (mod 11) An important special case is when we multiply the same congruence with itself, Let m fand n be positive integers and let a and b be integers, If «= b (mod m), then a” = U* (mod Example Find the remainder when 5! is divided by 6.