The Essentials of Academic

Writing for International

Students
Most international students need to write essays and reports for exams and
coursework, but writing good academic English is one of the most demanding
tasks students face. The Essentials of Academic Writing for International
Students has been developed to help these students succeed in their
assignments – quickly!
This course has a clear, easy-to-follow structure. In the first part, Process and
Skills, each stage of the writing process is demonstrated and practised, from
selecting suitable sources, reading, note-making and planning through to
rewriting and proofreading.
Each unit contains examples, explanations and exercises, for use in the
classroom or for self-study. The units are clearly organised to allow teachers
and students find the help they need with writing tasks.
The second part of the book, Elements of Writing, deals with key areas for
improving accuracy, such as academic vocabulary, using numbers and
punctuation. This section can be linked with the first part or used for reference
or self-study.
All international students wanting to maximise their academic potential will
find this practical and easy-to-use book an invaluable guide to writing in
English for their degree courses.
• All elements of writing are clearly explained
• Full range of practice exercises, with answer key included
• Use of authentic academic texts and examples
• Fully up to date, with sections on finding electronic sources and
evaluating internet material

Stephen Bailey is a freelance writer of materials for English for Academic

Purposes. He has taught students in Barcelona, Tokyo, Johor Bahru and
Prague, and more recently at Derby University and the University of
Nottingham. His other books include Academic Writing: A Handbook for
International Students and Academic Writing for International Students of
Business (Routledge).
7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN
The Essentials of
Academic Writing for
International Students
Stephen Bailey
First published 2015
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
© 2015 Stephen Bailey
The right of Stephen Bailey to be identified as author of this
work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be
trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the
British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Bailey, Stephen, 1947– author.
The essentials of academic writing for international
students/Stephen Bailey.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Academic writing. 2. English language –Textbooks for
foreign speakers. 3. English language – Rhetoric. I. Title.
P301.5.A27B35 2015
808′.0428 – dc23
2014049456

ISBN: 978-1-138-88561-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-88562-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-71534-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Galliard
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
Contents

Acknowledgements xii
Introduction xiii
How Much Do You Know about Academic Writing? xv

Part 1
Process and Skills 1
1.1 Introduction to Writing 3
Why do we write? 3
Types of academic writing 4
The format of long and short writing tasks 4
The components of academic writing 6
Other common text features 7
Writing in paragraphs 7
Progress check 8

1.2 Reading: Assessing Sources/Using Prefixes and Suffixes 9

Types of text 9
Finding suitable texts 10
Using reading lists 12
Using library catalogues 12
How prefixes and suffixes work 14
Prefixes 14
Practice A 16
Suffixes 16
Practice B 17
Progress check 17
vi Contents

1.3 Reading: Critical Approaches/Argument and Discussion 19

Reading methods 19
Titles, subtitles and text features 20
Reading abstracts 21
Assessing internet sources critically 22
Critical thinking 23
Discussion vocabulary 25
The language of discussion 26
Organisation 27
Practice 28
Counterarguments 29
Progress check 29

1.4 Avoiding Plagiarism/Giving Examples 31

What is plagiarism? 31
Acknowledging sources 32
Degrees of plagiarism 32
Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing 33
Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits 36
Introducing examples 36
Phrases to introduce examples 36
Practice 37
Restatement 38
Progress check 39

1.5 Understanding Titles and Essay Planning/Showing

Cause and Effect 40
The planning process 40
Analysing essay titles 41
Practice A 41
Brainstorming 42
Essay length 42
Outlines/plans 44
The language of cause and effect 45
Practice B 46
Practice C 46
Progress check 47
 Contents vii

1.6 Finding Key Points and Note-Making/Using

Abbreviations 48
Why make notes? 48
Note-making methods 49
Effective note-making 50
Finding relevant points 50
Practice A 52
Types of abbreviations 52
Common academic abbreviations 53
Abbreviations in writing 53
Practice B 54
Progress check 55

1.7 Summarising and Paraphrasing/Finding Synonyms 56

Successful summarising 56
Practice A 57
Practice B 59
Practice C 60
Paraphrasing 60
Practice D 61
Techniques for paraphrasing 62
Practice E 63
How synonyms work 64
Common synonyms in academic writing 65
Practice F 66
Progress check 66

1.8 References and Quotations/Using Verbs of Reference 67

Why give references? 67
Reference systems 68
Using quotations 69
Practice A 70
Secondary references 71
Organising the list of references 72
Reference verbs 73
Further referring verbs 75
Progress check 76
viii Contents

1.9 Combining Sources/Providing Cohesion 77

Mentioning sources 77
Taking a critical approach 78
Practice A 81
Reference words 82
Practice B 83
Preventing confusion 84
Practice C 84
Progress check 85

1.10 Organising Paragraphs/Using Conjunctions 86

Paragraph structure 86
Practice A 87
Development of ideas 88
Introducing paragraphs and linking them together 90
Practice B 90
Types of conjunctions 91
Practice C 92
Common conjunctions 92
Practice D 93
Conjunctions of opposition 93
Progress check 94

1.11 Introductions and Conclusions/Giving Definitions 95

Introduction contents 95
Introduction structure 97
Opening sentences 99
Conclusions 100
Practice A 101
Simple definitions 101
Complex definitions 102
Progress check 103

1.12 Rewriting and Proofreading/Academic Style 105

Rewriting 105
Practice A 107
Proofreading 107
 Contents ix

Practice B 108
Components of academic style 109
Guidelines 110
Practice C 111
Varying sentence length 112
The use of caution 112
Using modifiers 113
Progress check 114

Part 2
Elements of Writing 115
2.1 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 117
Introduction 117
Nouns 117
Using nouns and adjectives 119
Practice A 120
Academic adjectives 121
Practice B 122

2.2 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 123

Understanding main verbs 123
Practice A 125
Using adverbs 126
Practice B 127

2.3 Making Comparisons 128

Comparison structures 128
Using superlatives (e.g. the largest/smallest) 129
Practice A 130
Practice B 131
Practice C 132

2.4 Numbers 133

The language of numbers 133
Percentages 134
Further numerical phrases 134
x Contents

Practice A 136
Practice B 137

2.5 Passives 138

Active and passive 138
Structure 139
Using adverbs 139
Practice 140

2.6 Prepositions 142

Types of prepositions 142
Practice A 143
Prepositions and nouns 143
Prepositions in phrases 144
Prepositions of place and time 144
Verbs and prepositions 145
Practice B 146

2.7 Punctuation 147

Capital letters 147
Apostrophes (‘) 147
Semi-colons (;) 148
Colons (:) 148
Commas (,) 148
Quotation marks/inverted commas (“ ”/‘ ’) 149
Full stops (.) 150
Others 150
Practice A 150
Practice B 151

2.8 Singular or Plural? 152

Five areas of difficulty 152
Group phrases 153
Uncountable nouns 153
Practice A 155
Practice B 155
 Contents xi

2.9 Time Markers 156

How time markers are used 156
Tenses 157
Practice A 157
Practice B 157
Practice C 158

2.10 Visual Information 159

Types of visuals 159
The language of change 161
Describing visuals 162
Labelling 163
Practice A 164
Practice B 165

Part 3
Writing Models 167
3.1 Reports 169
Writing reports 169
Essays and reports 170
Survey report 171
Practice 173
Scientific reports 174

3.2 Longer Essays 176

Planning your work 176
Example essay 178
Revision 183

Test Your Progress 185

Answers 187
Index 229
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all the colleagues I have worked with over the years,
in a number of different countries, who have shared their ideas and enthusiasm
with me. Their support and interest has been vital in developing these
materials. Above all, my wife Rene has contributed in many ways to the success
of this project, in particular by her knowledge of, and interest in, the finer
points of English language.
Introduction

The Essentials of Academic Writing has been developed to help international

students with their written assignments in English-medium colleges and
universities. This course is designed to explain and practise the skills involved
in essay and report writing, and can be used at undergraduate and postgraduate
levels. It is suitable for both subject-specific (e.g. Business, Law) and
multidisciplinary courses in English for Academic Purposes (EAP). The
inclusion of an answer key allows it to be used for both classroom teaching
and self-study.
The course is based on extensive experience of preparing international
students to write effectively in English. It aims to address their most common
difficulties directly, especially with regard to referencing, style, vocabulary and
potential plagiarism. In addition, concerns about the selection and processing
of suitable academic texts and the lack of critical thinking are fully addressed.
Clearly, teachers do not expect international students to write perfect English,
and usually make allowance for them in marking their work. However,
students should consider that their academic course gives them an ideal chance
to strengthen their writing skills, not only for academic success, but also in
preparation for their future career. Most large companies and organisations
now expect their employees to communicate in written English, and this book
provides an opportunity to develop this ability.

Structure
Part 1, Process and Skills, is a step-by-step guide in 12 units to the complete
process of academic writing, from finding suitable sources and improving
reading methods to rewriting and proofreading. Each stage of the process is
linked to a key writing skill, so that in Unit 1.7, for instance, summarising
and paraphrasing are linked with an understanding of the use of synonyms.
Each unit contains a range of practice exercises and concludes with a progress
xiv Introduction

check. The focus throughout is on clear, simple explanation and maximum

student involvement.
Part 2, Elements of Writing, consists of 10 units that cover the most
important issues of accuracy for student writers, such as vocabulary, making
comparisons and using numbers. These units are arranged alphabetically and
can be studied as supplementary material for Part 1, or, alternatively, they
can be used for self-study and reference.
The two units in Part 3, Writing Models, give examples of reports and a
longer essay. These are followed by a final progress test, the answer key and
an index. As far as possible, the texts and essay titles are authentic examples
taken from a range of disciplines. Both teachers and students should find that
this book is easy to use and contains the ingredients for achieving success in
written assignments.

Using the book

Instructions are printed as shown here:

䊏 Discuss with a partner

Answers are provided for most exercises in the answer key at the end of the
book. If no definite answer can be given, an example answer is usually
provided.
The index on page 229 can be used to locate specific information.
While every effort has been made to make the book both accurate and relevant,
improvements can always be introduced, and I would be glad to receive any
comments or suggestions for future editions from teachers and students.
Stephen Bailey
stephen.bailey@w3z.co.uk
How Much Do
You Know about
Academic Writing?
Try these 20 questions to find out!
1 Is there a difference between an essay and a report?
2 What kind of words are ‘because’, ‘however’ and ‘since’ examples of?
3 What is the name of this punctuation mark (’)?
4 Give three situations where capital letters should be used.
5 What is ‘bias’ in written work?
6 A paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with one topic. True or false?
7 Give one reason for using quotations in an essay.
8 Which of these words are suitable for academic use: child/woman/
guy/kid/girl?
9 Give two situations where these marks are used in written work (‘ ’)?
10 What is the difference between proofreading and rewriting?
11 ‘Unkind’, ‘revisit’ and ‘subway’ all contain examples of what?
12 Give an example of an abbreviation commonly used in academic writing.
13 Where would you find an abstract in an academic article? What is its
purpose?
14 Give one reason for providing references in academic work.
15 Find a synonym for ‘country’.
16 What is the difference between paraphrasing and summarising?
17 What is the name for the section of an essay between the introduction
and the conclusion?
18 ‘Research’, ‘progress’ and ‘knowledge’ are all nouns. What kind of noun?
19 What is the difference between a flow chart and a pie chart?
20 Give two reasons for using brackets ( ) in written work.
Answers on p. 187
7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN
 PA RT
Process
and Skills
1
7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN
 UNIT
Introduction
1.1 to Writing

Most academic courses test students through written assignments. These tasks
include coursework, which may take weeks to write, and exam answers, which
often have to be completed in an hour. This unit explains:

• the names of different writing tasks

• the format of long and short writing tasks
• the main features of academic texts
• the use of paragraphs

1 Why do we write?
Academic writing allows us to share ideas, discoveries and arguments with
other students and researchers in our field, all over the world. Our purpose
may be:
• to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted
• to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view
• to synthesise research done by others on a topic

䊏 Can you suggest any other reasons?

• ______________________________________________________________
• ______________________________________________________________

Whatever the purpose, it is useful to think about the probable readers of your
work: you need to explain your ideas to them as clearly as possible. This is
why academic writing is different from the style of newspapers or novels. For
4 Part 1: Process and Skills

example, it is generally agreed that academic writing attempts to be accurate.

What are its other features?

䊏 Working alone or in a group, list your ideas below.

• ______________________________________________________________
• ______________________________________________________________

2 Types of academic writing

Below are the most common types of written work produced by students.

䊏 Match the terms on the left to the definitions on the right.

A piece of research, either individual or group work,

Notes
with the topic chosen by the student(s).
The longest piece of writing normally done by a
Report student (20,000+ words) often for a higher degree, on a
topic chosen by the student.
A written record of the main points of a text or lecture,
Project
for a student’s personal use.
A general term for any academic essay, report,
Essay
presentation or article.
A description of something a student has done (e.g.
Dissertation/Thesis
conducting a survey or experiment).
The most common type of written work, with the title
Paper
given by the teacher, normally 1,000–5,000 words.

3 The format of long and short writing tasks

The layout of academic work varies from subject to subject, but the following
formats are widely used. Short essays (including exam answers) generally have
this pattern:
Introduction

Main body

Conclusion
 1.1: Introduction to Writing 5

Longer essays and reports may include:

Introduction

Main body

Literature review

Case study

Discussion

Conclusion

References

Appendices

Dissertations and journal articles may have:

Abstract

List of contents

List of tables

Introduction

Main body
Literature review

Case study

Findings

Discussion

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Appendices

䊏 Find the words in the lists above that match the following definitions.

a) A short summary that explains the paper’s purpose and main findings.
_____________________________________________________________
6 Part 1: Process and Skills

b) A list of all the sources the writer has mentioned in the text.
_____________________________________________________________
c) A section at the end where additional information is included.
_____________________________________________________________
d) A short section where people who have helped the writer are thanked.
_____________________________________________________________
e) Part of the main body in which the work of other writers on the topic is
discussed.
_____________________________________________________________
f) A section where one particular example is described in detail.
_____________________________________________________________

4 The components of academic writing

䊏 Read the essay introduction below. Underline and label (a–f) examples of
components from the box.

a) sentence b) heading c) subtitle

d) paragraph e) title f) phrase

A fishy story
Misleading health claims regarding omega-3 fatty acids
Introduction
There has been considerable discussion recently about the benefits of
omega-3 fatty acids in the diet. It is claimed that these reduce the risk of
cardiovascular disease and may even combat obesity. Consequently food
producers have added omega-3s to products ranging from margarine to
soft drinks in an attempt to make their products appear healthier and hence
increase sales.

However, consumers may be unaware that there are two types of omega-
3s. The best (long-chain fatty acids) are derived from fish, but others (short-
chain fatty acids) come from cheaper sources such as soya. This latter
group have not been shown to produce the health benefits linked to the
 1.1: Introduction to Writing 7

long-chain variety. According to Tamura et al. (2009) positive results may

only be obtained either by eating oily fish three times a week, or by taking
daily supplements containing 500 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

5 Other common text features

a) Reference to sources using citation: According to Tamura et al. (2009)
b) The use of abbreviations to save space: docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
c) Italics: used to show words from other languages: Tamura et al. (= and
others)
d) Brackets: used to give extra information or to clarify a point: . . . but
others (short-chain fatty acids) come from cheaper sources such as soya.

6 Writing in paragraphs
䊏 Discuss the following questions:

What is the purpose of paragraphs?

Why are texts divided into paragraphs?
How long are paragraphs?

䊏 Read the text below and divide it into a suitable number of paragraphs.

Investment strategies
Most people want to invest for the future, to cover unexpected financial
difficulties and provide security. Different people, however, tend to have
different requirements, so that a 25-year-old just leaving university would
be investing for long-term capital growth, whereas a 60-year-old who had
just retired would probably invest for income. Despite these differences,
certain principles apply in most cases. The first issue to consider is risk. In
general, the greater the degree of risk, the higher the return. Shares, for
example, which can quickly rise or fall in value, typically have a higher yield
than bonds, which offer greater stability. Therefore all investors must
decide how much risk is appropriate in their particular situation.
Diversification must also be considered in an investment strategy. Wise
investors usually seek to spread their investments across a variety of
geographical and business sectors. As accurate predictions of the future are
almost impossible, it is best to have as many options as possible. A further
consideration is investor involvement. Some investors choose a high
8 Part 1: Process and Skills

degree of involvement and want to buy and sell regularly, constantly

watching the markets. But personal involvement can be time-consuming
and worrying, and many prefer to leave the management of their portfolios
to professional fund managers.

7 Progress check
䊏 Revise some of the vocabulary (all nouns) used in this unit by matching the
words on the left with the meanings on the right.

acknowledgement a group of words commonly used together

appendix a part of a complete thing

assignment lettering angled to the right

citation a lengthy piece of work written for a higher degree

component additional information added to the end of a paper

dissertation a piece of work on a topic chosen by the student

format any task given to students by their teacher

italics recognition of assistance given to a writer

phrase a link, included in the text, to a reference

project the organisation or layout of a text

 UNIT
Reading
1.2 Assessing Sources/Using
Prefixes and Suffixes

Preparing to write generally involves extensive reading. Although students often

underestimate the importance of reading, on any course it is vital to be able to find
and understand the most relevant and suitable sources quickly. This unit:

• examines the most appropriate text types for academic use

• explores ways of locating relevant material in the library
• explains how understanding prefixes and suffixes can help build vocabulary

PROCESS: ASSESSING SOURCES

1 Types of text
䊏 The table below lists the most common written sources used by students.
Work with a partner and discuss their likely advantages and disadvantages.
Complete the table.

Text type Advantages Disadvantages

Written for May be too general

Textbook
students or outdated

Website

Journal article

Official report (e.g. from government)

Newspaper or magazine article

E-book