INTRODUCTION TO 4 | MINERALOGY DIntroduction to Mineralogy WILLIAM D. NESSE University of Northen Colorado New York @ Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2000‘Oxford University Press ‘Oxford New York ‘Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogoté Buenos Aires Calcuta (Cape Town Cheanai Dares Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul ‘Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourme Mexico City Mumbai [Nairobi Paris Sio Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Thadan Copyright © 2000 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press nc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Inspilwww.oup-usn.org ‘Oxford isa registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserve. No pat ofthis publication ‘may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prio permission of Oxfoed University Press. [Library of Congress Cataloging-n-Publication Data esse, Wiliam D, Introduction to mineralogy /by William D. Nese pcm. Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-19-510691-1 1. Mineralogy. 1 Tile (QE363.2N48 1999 549 —de21 98-45279, Printing (ast digi) 9 87654321 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paperFor Carl and ErikContents Preface xiii PART I: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY Chapter 1: Introduction 3 ~ Minerals 3 Mineraloids 4 Mineralogy 4 Mineral Names 4 General References on Mineralogy 5 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 5 Chapter 2: Crystallography 6 Introduction 6 Translational Symmetry 6 Plane Lattices 6 Space Lattices and Unit Cell 7 Bravais Lattices and Crystal Systems 8 Point Symmetry 12 Reflection 12 Rotation 12 Inversion 12 ‘Compound Symmetry Operations Symmetry Notation 13 32 Point Groups 14 Steno’sLaw 15 Measurement of Crystal Angles 17 Determining Crystal System and Crystal Class 17 5 Space Groups 17 Crystal Faces 19 Laws of Hatly and Bravais Miller indices 19 Indices and Crystal Axes in the Hexagonal Crystal System — 20 Determining Miller index 22 Assigning Miller Indexes by Inspection Crystallographic Directions 23 Zones 23 12 19 23 Crystal Forms 24 Isometric Forms 24 Nonisometric Forms 25 Combining Crystal Forms 28 Enantiomorphous Forms and Crystals Positive and Negative Forms 29 Forms in the Six Crystal Systems 29 Triclinic Crystal System 29 Monoclinic Crystal System 30 Orthorhombic Crystal System 30 Tetragonal Crystal System 31 Hexagonal Crystal System 31 Isometric Crystal System 33 Crystal Habit 34 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 38 28 Chapter 3: Crystal Chemistry 39 Introduction 39 The Nature of Chemical Elements Nucleus 39 Hlectrons 39 Formation of ions 41 Abundance of the Elements Chemical Bonding 46 Valence-Related Bonding 46 Relation among the Valencé-Dependent Bonds, 51 39 45 Bonds Not Involving Valence Electrons 52 Size of Atoms and lons 53, Oxidation State 54 Coordination 55 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 56 Chapter 4: Crystal Structure 57 Introduction 57 Controls of Crystal Structure 57 Structure Controls with Metallic Bonding $7 Structure Controls with Covalent Bonding 58 Structure Controls with Molecular Crystals 58 Structure Controls with tonic Bonding 59 viiviii @ Contents Application of Pauling’s Rules 64 Illustrating Mineral Structures, 65 Isostructural Minerals 65 Polymorphism 66 Reconstructive Polymorphism 67 Displacive Polymorphism 68 Order-Disorder Polymorphism 68 Poiytypism 69 Mineral Classification 69 Compositional Variation in Minerals 69 Substitutional Solid Solution 70 Mineral Formulas. 71 Graphic Representation 72 Binary Diagrams 72 Ternary Diagrams 72 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 73 Chapter 5: Crystal Growth 74 Introcuction 74 Mineral Stability 74 Stability 74 Gikbs Free Energy 75 Mineral Reactions 75 Mineral Nucleation 77 Homogeneous Nucleation 77 Heterogeneous Nucleation 79 Crystal Growth 79 Rate of Growth 80 Zoned Crystals. 81 Structural Defects 84 Point Defects 84 Line Defects 84 Planar Defects 86 Twinning 87 Postcrystallization Processes 90 Ordering 90 Twinning 90 Recrystallization 91 Exsolution 91 Pseudomorphism 92 Radioactivity and Minerals 93 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 94 + PART Il: MINERAL PROPERTIES, STUDY, AND IDENTIFICATION. Chapter 6: Physical Properties of Minerals 91 Introduction 97 Mass-Dependent Properties 97 Density 97 Specific Gravity 97 Properties Related to Mechanical Cohesion 99 Hardness 99 Tenacity 100 Cleavage 100 Fracture 101 Parting 101 Color and Luster 102 Light 102 Perception of Color 102 Mineral Luster 103 Mineral Color 103 Color from Mechanical Causes 106 Consistency of Mineral Color 107 Streak 107 Luminescence 107 Magnetism 108 Diamagnetism 108 Paramagnetism 108 Ferromagnetism 110 Ferrimagnetism 110 Electrical Properties 110 Electrical Conductivity 110 Piezoelectricity 111 Pyroelectricity 112 Miscellaneous Properties. 112 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 113 Chapter 7: Optical Mineralogy 114 Introduction 114 light 114 Light Waves. 114 Polarized Light 115 Interaction of Light and Matter 116 * Optically Isotropic versus Anisotropic Materials. 116 Reflection and Refraction 117 Dispersion 118 Petrographic Microscope. 118 Muminator 118 Substage Assembly 118 Microscope Stage 119 Objective Lenses 119 Upper Polarizer 120 Bertrand lens 120 Oculars 120 Focusing Mechanism 121 Accessories 121 "Direction Conventions 121. ~ Isotropic Materials 121 Anisotropic Minerals 122 Interference Phenomena 122 Use of the Interference Color Chart 126Extinction 127 Function of Accessory Plates 127 Optical indicatrix 130 Isotropic indicatrix 130 Uniaxial indicatrix 131 Biaxial Indicatrix 133 Mineral Color and Pleochroism 136 Isotropic Minerals. 136 Uniaxial Minerals 136 Biaxial Minerals 137 Extinction Angle and Sign of Elongation 137 Extinction Angle 137 Sign of Elongation 138 Categories of Extinction 138 Extinction in Uniaxial Minerals 139 Extinction in Biaxial Minerals 139 Interference Figures 139 Uniaxial interference Figures 140 Biaxial Interference Figure 143 Refractometry: Measurement of Index of Refraction 151 Immersion Method 151 Refractometry in Thin Section 155 Isotropic Minerals. 156 Uniaxial Minerals 156 Biaxial Minerals 156 Reflected Light Optics 156 Observation in Plane Polarized Light 157 Observations with Crossed Polarizers 157 Tactics for Mineral Identification 157 Thin Section Identification 158 Grain Mount Identification 158 Polished Section Identification 159 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 159 Chapter 8: Introduction to X-Ray Crystallography 160 Introduction 160 X-Rays 160 X-Ray Generation 160 X-Ray Detection 162 X-Kay Diffraction 162 Powder Method 163, Sample Preparation 163 Instrumental Output 163 Data Reduction 164 Powder Diffraction File 165 Bragg Reflection Indices 166 Mineral Identification 166 ‘Mixed Samples 167 Estimation of Relative Mineral Abundance 168 Estimation of Composition 168 Determining Unit Cell Parameters 168 Contents @ ix References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 168 . Chapter 9: Chemical Analysis of Minerals 169 Introduction 169 Analytical Methods 169 Wet Chemical 169 Hlectron Probe Microanalysis 169 Y-Ray Fluorescence 170 Mass Spectrometry 171 Conventions in Reporting Chemical Analyses 171 Conversion of Chemical Analyses to Structural Formulas 172 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 174 -Chapter 10: Strategies for Study 175 Introduction 175 Mireral Identification Tactics 175 Mineral Separation 175 Hand Sample identification 177 Thin Section Identification 178 Grain Mount Identification 179 Polished Section Identification 179 X-Ray Diffraction 179 Mineral Association 179 Problems in Paradise 180 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 180 PART Ill: MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS ‘Chapter 11: Silicates 183 Introduction 183 Silicate Structure and Classification 183 Mafic versus Felsic 186 Igneous Rocks 186 ‘Magmatic Processes. 189 Igneous Environments 189 Terrigenous Sedimentary Rocks 190 Sedimentary Processes. 191 Sedimentary Environments 193 Metamorphic Rocks 194 Metamorphic Variables 194 Metamorphic Processes 196 Metamorphic Grade, Facies, Mineral Zone Boundaries and Isograds 196 ‘Major Compositional Groups of Metamorphic Rocks 198 Metamorphic Environments 199x © Contents References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 200 ‘Chapter 12: Framework Silicates 201 Introduction 201 Silica Group 201 Quartz 202 Tridymite 206 Cristobalite 207 Opal 208 Feldspar Group 208 Composition 208 Structure 209 AV/Si Order/Disorder 210 Exsolution in the Feldspars 212 Other Feldspar intergrowths 213 Twinning 213 Plagioclase 215 K-Feldspar 220 Feldspathoids 225 Nepheline 225 leucite 227 Sodalite 227 Zeolite Group 228 Scapolite 232 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 234 ‘Chapter 13: Sheet Silicates 235 Introduction 235 Structure and Classification 235 1 Layer Silicates 237 2:1 Layer Silicates 237 Polytypism — 239 To Structures (1:1) 239 Serpentine (Antigorite, Chrysotile, Lizardite) 239 Kaolinite 242 TOT Structures (2:1) 242 Tale 242 Pyrophyllite 243 TOT + ¢ Structures: Mica Minerals (2:1) 244 Muscovite 244 Biotite 246 Glauconite 248 TOT + c Structures: Brittle Micas (2:1) 249 Margarite 249 Clintonite 250 TOT +O Structure 251 Chlorite 251 Clay Minerals 252 Structure and Classification 253 Geology of Clay 255 Identification 256 Uses 256 Clay in the Environment 257 ‘Other Sheet Silicates 257 Stilpnomelane 257 Prehnite 259 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 260 Chapter 14: Chain Silicates_ 261 Introduction 261 Pyroxene Group 261 Structure and Classification 261 Geology of Pyroxenes 263 Orthopyroxene 265 Low-Ca-Clinopyroxene 267 Caleic Clinopyroxene 268 Aegirine (Acmite), Aegirine-Augite 269 Jadeite 271 Omphacite 273 Spodumene 273 Pyroxenoid Group 274 Introduction 274 Wollastonite 274 Rhodonite 274 Pectolite 276 Amphibole Group 277 Structure and Classification 277 Geology of Amphiboles 279 Orthoamphibole 280 Cummingtonite-Grunerite 282 Tremolite-Ferro-actinolite 283 Hornblende 285 Glaucophane-Riebeckite 287 Other Amphiboles 288 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 289 Chapter 15: ates and Ring Silicates 291 Disilicates 291 Structure and Classification 291 Zoisite 293 Clinozoisite-Epidote 294 Allanite 297 Lawsonite 298 Pumpellyite 299 Ring silicates 300 Structure and Classification 300 Beryl 300 Cordierite 302 Tourmaline 303 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 305Chapter 16: Orthosilicates 306 Introduction 306 Olivine Group 306 Garnet Group 310 Zircon Aluminum Sil 314 Andalusite Silimanite Kyanite Staurolite 319 Chloritoid 321 Titanite 322 Topaz 323 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 325 Chapter 17: Carbonates, Sulfates, Phosphates, Tungstates, Molybdates, and Borates 326 Structure and Classification 326 Carbonates 326 Rhombohedral Carbonates (Calcite and Dolomite Groups) 327 Calcite 329 Magnesite 331 Siderite 332 Rhodochrosite 333 Dolomite-Ankerite 334 Aragonite Group 335 Aragonite 336 Witherite 337 Strontianite 338 OH-Bearing Carbonates 339 Malachite 339 Azurite 340 Sulfates 340 Gypsum 341 Anhydrite 344 Barite 345 Phosphates 346 Apatite 346 Monazite 349 Xenotime 350 Tourquoise 351 Tungstates and Molybdates 352 Borates 353 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 355 Chapter 18: Oxides, Hydroxides, and Halides 356 Introduction 356 Oxides. 356 X,0 Group 356 Contents @ xi Cuprite 356 ke 357 XOGroup 358 XY204 Minerals 358 Spinel Group 358 Magretite 360 Chromite 361 Spinel Series 362 Chrysoberyl 363 X,03Group 363 Hematite 364 Corundum 365 Imenite 366 XOzGroup 367 Rutile 367 Cassiterite 368 Uraninite 369 Hydroxides 370 Brucite 371 Iron Hydroxide Minerals. 371 Aluminum Hydroxide Minerals 372 Manganese Oxide and Hydroxide Minerals 372 Halides 374 Halite 374 Syvite 376 Fluorite 376 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 377 ‘Chapter 19: Sulfides and Related Minerals 378 Introduction 378 Crystal Chemistry and Classification 378 Sulfide Paragenesis 379 Hydrothermal Deposits 379 Supergene Processes 380 Sulfide Minerals 382 Spholerite 382 Galena 385 Pyrrhotite 386 Chalcopyrite 387 Cinnabar 388 Pyrite 389 Marcasite 390 Molybdenite 391 Bornite 392 Chalcocite 392 Covellte 393 Sulfarsenides 394 Arsenopyrite 395 Arsenides 395 Tellurides 395 References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 396xii @ Contents Chapter 20: Native Elements 397 Introduction 397 Metals 397 Gold 398 Silver 399 Copper 400 Semimetals 400 Nonmetals 401 Sulfur 401 Graphite 402 Diamond 403, References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading 404 APPENDICES Appendix A. Effective lonic Radii of the Elements 405 Appendix B. Determinative Tables 410 Table B.1. Determinative Table for Nonmetallic, Minerals with White, Gray, or Other Pale Colored Streak 410 Tabee B.2. Nonmetallic Minerals with Distinctly Colored Streak 414 Tabee B.3. Minerals with Metallic and Submetallic luster 414 Table B.4. Specific Gravity 415 Tabee B.5. Minerals That May Flouresce 416 Tabe B.6. Color of Minerals in Thin Section and Grain Mount 416 Table B.7. Indices of Refraction of Isotropic Minerals 417 Table B.8. Indices of Refraction of Uniaxial Minerals 418 Table B.9. Indices of Refraction of Biaxial Negative Minerals Arranged in Order of Increasing ngs 419 Table B.10. Indices of Refraction of Biaxial Positive Minerals Arranged in Order of increasing ng 420 Table B.11. Minerals That Produce Pleochroic Halos in Surrounding Minerals 421 Table B.12. Colors Exhibited by Opaque Minerals in Polished Section Viewed in Air 421 Table B.13. Opaque or Nearly Opague Minerals That Display Internal Reflections with Reflected light 422 Crystal Drawing Conventions 422 Appendix C. Mineral Associations 423 Table C.1. Mineralogy of Common Igneous Rocks 423 Table C.2. Mineralogy of Sedimentary Rocks 423 Table C.3. Mineralogy of Common Metamorphic Rocks 424 Table C.4. Mineralogy of Hydrothermal Sutfide Deposits 425 Mineral Index 427 Subject Index 433Preface This book was written to provide a comprehensive text for teaching mineralogy to undergraduate students in the geosciences. Mineralogy is an essential because all geosci- centists continually deal directly or indirectly with minerals in their professional work. The details of what specifi- cally should be included in mineralogy courses are, how- ever, subject to some debate and the point is often made that most students taking mineralogy courses are not go- ing to be mineralogists. The challenge, therefore, is to present a survey of mineralogy that is sufficiently com- prehensive to be useful in a wide range of mineralogy courses. The text must both provide specific knowledge about minerals needed by students for their future pro- fessional work and, perhaps more importantly, help stu- dents develop the intellectual tools and habits of mind that are essential parts of a scientific education. It is as- sumed that students using this book have the background normally acquired in a conventional introductory physical ‘geology course and at least some exposure to college-level chemistry. ‘The organization of subjects allows the concepts of min- eralogy tobe logically developed within the framework that ‘ textbook allows. An understanding of mineral hardness, for example, requires knowledge of chemical bonding and mineral structure, hence those subjects are presented first. Many instructors, to engage and maintain student interest, structure their courses in ways that do not follow the se- ‘quence of this text. Individual sections, therefore, have been written to be reasonably self-contained. The concepts of symmetry, crystallography, crystal chemistry, and related subjects are presented in Part I (Crys- tallography and Crystal Chemistry). This section provides the foundation necessary to understand physical and optical properties, X-ray diffraction, chemical analysis and mineral assoziations, and the nomenclature required to systemati- cally describe minerals Part IT (Mineral Properties, Study, and Identification) includes five chapters describing the routine techniques and procedures students will use in their study of minerals. ‘The chapter on optical mineralogy is fairly compreher because many schools do not have the luxury of a separate optical mineralogy/erystallography course. An instructor ‘may choose to include basic optical mineralogy as part of a ‘one-semester mineralogy course, or use this chapter as part of a subsequent petrology/petrography course. Part III (Mineral Descriptions) provides detaileddescrip- tions of common minerals with additional less-common ‘minerals listed in selected tables. Sections are provided to describe and explain mineral occurrences in common rocks ‘and mineral deposits. Both physical and optical properties are included. Because minerals are absolutely essential to civilization, the uses of minerals are described in some detail. Except as noted, all illustrations were prepared by the author. Shape and Atoms, two fine software programs from Eric Dowty, were used to prepare the crystal and mineral- structure drawings, respectively. I gratefully acknowledge Micky Gunter for his thorough. review of the entire manuscript and Paul Ribbe, who reviewed selected parts. Their suggestions and criticisms ‘are very much appreciated. I am deeply indebted to my ‘wife, Marianne Workman-Nesse, who edited and critiqued ‘the entire manuscript, for her unflagging help and support. If, despite the guidance of these individuals, errors or ‘inconsistencies persist, they are solely my responsibility and ] would appreciate being informed of them. Greeley, Colorado. WDN. xiiiIntroduction to Mineralogyrae Crystallography and Crystal ChemistryCHAPTER 1 Introduction Almost every human endeavor is influenced by minerals. Many natural resources used in the manufacture of goods ‘on which civilization and our lives depend begin as minerals in the ground. The crops that we eat are grown in soil com- posed of minerals. The safety and stability of structures such 1s buildings, roads, and bridges depend on the mechanical properties of the minerals that comprise the rocks and soil ‘on which they are built. In addition, the chemical compo- sition, structure, and texture of the minerals that comprise the rocks beneath our feet provide a myriad of clues that Buide geoscientists as they attempt to decipher the history of the earth. Minerals The term mineral is used in a variety of ways. In the economic sense it often means any valuable material ex- tracted from the earth, including coal, oil, sand and gravel, iron ore, or other mined commodity, even groundwater, Nutritionists use the term mineral to mean any of a variety ‘of chemical compounds or elements that are important for nutrition, In common usage anything that is neither animal nor vegetable might be considered mineral. As used in the geosciences, however, a different and more restrictive definition is applied: A mineral is a naturally occurring crystalline solid with a definite, but nat necessarily fixed, chemical composition, A material thatis naturally occurring is formed without ‘the benefit of human action or intervention. It must he ‘possible to find samples formed in the natural environment. “Many crystallin: solids with the same chemical and physical ‘properties as their natural mineral counterparts may be ‘synthesized in the laboratory. These materials are synthetic minerals. Minerals must be erystalline solids. The atoms and/or ions that comprise crystalline materials are arranged and ‘chemically bonded in a regular and repeating long-range pattem. The beautiful, symmetrically arranged crystal faces that adorn many mineral samples are a consequence of this intemally ordered atomic structure, Solids such as glass lacking long-range atomic order are considered amor- Phous. They are not minerals. To be considered crystalline ‘a material must be a solid, although crystalline materi- als may deform in @ ductile manner under appropriate temperature—pressure conditions. All minerals have a definite, but not necessarily fixed, chemical composition; a chemical formula may be written for any mineral. An example is the common mineral quartz (SiO), which is composed of silicon and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2. The composition of many mineral species may vary within certain limits. An example is the mineral olivine, which may be iron rich (FezSiO,) or magnesium rich (Mg2SiO,), or may have an intermediate composition. However, the proportions always work out so that the ratio (Fe + Mg):Si:O remains 2:1:4- Hence, different samples of a mineral species may have different compositions, but the variability is limited. Because minerals are crystalline and have a definite chemical composition, they also have definite physical properties. These physical properties may also vary within limits because they are controlled by the variation in chemical properties. ‘Some definitions of a mineral require them to be formed by inorganic processes. This historical encrustation should have been jettisoned long ago. It is widely recognized that minerals are produced by organic processes. The shells ‘of many marine invertebrates are formed of the minerals calcite or aragonite (CaCO). These shells are a major ‘component of many limestone layers. The mineral apatite [Cas(PO.)s(OH,FCL)] makes up a substantial portion of teeth and bones of vertebrates. Bacteria are an integral part ‘of many geochemical processes at or near the surface of the earth and directly influence the growth of a number of, ‘minerals. For example, the pyrite (FeS2) found in many shale and coal beds is produced by the action of sulfate- reducing bacteria4 © Introduction Mineraloids Mineraloids are mineral-like materials that lack a long- range crystalline structure. They include amorphous solids and glasses. Amorphous solids lack long-range atomic order, but may posses short-range (~10-100 A) order. Opal is probably the best known example and consists of silica gel, often arranged in small spherical masses. The crystalline structure of U- and Th-bearing minerals such as zircon may be extensively disrupted by radioactive bombardment. The {erm metamiet is applied to these disrupted structures, and ‘once a mineral’s structure becomes metamict, itis properly considered a mineraloid. Natural glasses may also be considered mineraloids. Volcanic glass is the most common example. Frictional melts may be produced in fault or mylonite zones in response to intense shearing. Meteorite impacts may, iflarge ‘enough, release enough energy to melt the rocks that they strike. A lightning strike may heat soil or rock sufficiently to melt some of it and produce a fulgarite. Burning coal ‘beds may generate enough heat to fuse the surrounding rock forming scoriaceous or slag-like glasses referred to as ash ‘glass or clinker. Mineralogy Mineralogy is the study of minerals. The beginning of thi particular branch of science extends well back to prehistoric, times, for our ancestors surely knew about and used many minerals. Evidence of mining and smelting minerals to extract useful metals such as copper, lead, and zinc is found, in many ancient civilizations. ‘The modern study of mineralogy can be traced back to Theophrastus (ca. 387-272 BC) who wrote the earliest preserved book dealing with minerals and rocks, tiled On Stones. Some 400 years later, Pliny the Elder, who met his death at Pompeii, provided us with an encyclopedic review of mineralogy as it applied to the metallic ores, gemstones, and pigments in use in the Roman empire citca 77 AD. ‘Some 1500 years later (1556) German physician and mining engineer Georg Bauer, known to us by his Latinized name Georgious Agricola, provided detailed descriptions and de- fined physical properties such as hardness and cleavage that continue to provide the basis for hand-sample identification of minerals. Through the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries a number of notable scholars provided significant, advances to the science: ‘Niels Stensen (Nicholas Steno), Denmark, Demon- ‘trated the law of constancy of interfacial angles (1669). A. G, Werner, 1750-1817, Germany. Standardized no- ‘menclature for mineral descriptions. ‘René-Juste Haily, 1743-1822, France. “Father of math- ‘ematical crystallography.” Showed that crystals were constructed by stacking together identical building Docks that we now call unit cells, and developed the ‘idea that crystal faces have rational orientations relative +o these building blocks. J. J. Berzelius 1779-1848, Sweden. Recognized that ‘minerals are chemical compounds and provided the foundation for the chemical classification of minerals. ‘William Nicol, 1768-1851. Invented the Nicol prism (1828) that allowed the anisotropic behavior of light ‘passing through minerals to be studied and provided the foundation for optical mineralogy. James D. Dana, 1813—1895, Yale University. Pub- lished the first edition of A System of Mineralogy in 1837, The fourth edition (1854) introduced the chemical ‘classification of minerals tha: is still in use. Henry Clifton Sorby, 1826-1908. Developed the use (along with Cloizeaux in France) of the petrographic microscope for studying rocks and minerals. Perhaps the most dramatic progress in understanding minerals came with the discovery of X-rays. In 1912 Max ‘von Laue (1879-1960) demonstrated that crystals would diffract X-rays, thus proving that minerals possess a regular and repeating internal arrangement of atoms. By 1914, W.H. ‘Bragg (1862-1942) and his son W.L. Bragg (1890-1971) ‘in Cambridge, England had used X-rays to determine the ‘erystal structure of minerals. During the twentieth century a wide variety of instru- mentation has been developed to improve our ability to ‘determine the chemical compos:tion of minerals and refine ‘our understanding of their crystal structures. In addition, ppetrologists and chemists have immensely expanded our “Knowledge of the chemical and petrologic behavior of min- cerals in a wide range of geologic environments Mineral Names About 3500 minerals have been identified, described, and ‘named, although less than a hundred mineral species are at all common, Fleischer and Mandarino (1995) and Nickel ‘and Nichols (1991) provide authoritative lists of mineral ‘names approved by the Commission on New Minerals and. ‘New Mineral Names of the International Mineralogical Association. New minerals are regularly discovered and ‘a summary of new minerals is included in each issue of the American Mineralogist, published by the Mineralogical Society of America. ‘A number of criteria must be satisfied before a new mineral name is approved. The candidate material must be a mineral as defined above and must not previously have been described and named. In addition, the crystal stucture« References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading © 5 and composition must be accurately determined, and a type sample must be preserved in an appropriate repository such as @ museum or in the collection of a research institute. ‘A mineral may be named after an individual, a place ‘where itis found, or in allusion to its chemical composition or a significant physical property. Some minerals have names whose origins are lostin mists of antiquity. A detailed listing of the sources of mineral names can be found in Mitchell (1979), and Dana and others (1997) also describes the origin of mineral names, General References on Mineralogy This book is intended as an introduction to the study of minerals and, of necessity, cannot include the depth of ‘coverage provided in more specialized resources. Reference will be provided in each chapter to sources for additional information. However, there are a number of important sources with which all readers should be aware. ‘Among the most important is the series of volumes by Deer and others titled Rock Forming Minerals, which provides extensive information on the structure, chemistry, properties, and occurrence of common minerals. The same authors also have compiled a one-volume summary (Deer and others, 1992) of Rock Forming Minerals that is highly recommended. The seventh edition of Dana's Manual of Mineralogy is in three volumes (1942-1962) and provides coverage of the physical and related properties of noasilicate minerals ‘and quartz and its polymorphs. Unfortunately, much of the chemical and crystal-structure information is now out of date and volumes dealing with the silicates are not pub- lished. The eighth edition (Dana and others, 1997) provides an exhaustive compilation of all the extant minerals in one volume, ‘The Handbook of Mineralogy by Anthony and others (1990, 1995, 1997) provides another exhaustive compila- tion of mineralogical data. This compilation, unfortunately, also is not yet complete, and as this is writen, only three of five planned volumes have been published. Struntz (1970) provides additional data. Mineral data also are available in ‘electronic format for computer use. The Mineralogical Society of America publishes the Reviews in Mineralogy series. A new volume is published -about every year, often based on a short course offered at the Society's annual meeting. Each volume typically deals ‘in depth with a specific group of minerals or some mineral- related topic. ‘The literature of mineralogy is published in many jour- nals in a variety of languages. The most widely circulated English-Language journals are the American Mineralogist Published by the Mineralogical Society of America, the Canadian Mineralogist published by the Mineralogical So- ciety of Canada, and the Mineralogical Magazine published by the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading Agricola, G. 1556. De Re Metallica, translated from latin by Herbert Hover, 1950. Dover Publications, New York, 638 p. Anthony, JW., Bideaux, R.A., Bladh, K.W., and Nichols, M.C 1990. Handbook of Mineralogy, Volume I: Elements, Sulfides, Sulfosalis. Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson, 588 p. Anthony, .W., Bideaux, R-A., Bladh, K.W., and Nichols, M.C 1995. Handbook of Mineralogy, Volume II Silica, Silicaves (Paris 1 and 2), Mineral Data Publishing, Tweson, 904 p. Anthony, J.W., Bideaux, R.A., Bladh, K.W, and Nichols, M.C. 1997. Handbook of Mineralogy, Volume I: Halides, Hydrox- ides, Oxides. Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson, 628 p. Cart, D.D. (ed.). 1994, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 6° ed Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Littleton, CO, 1196 p. Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J. 1962-1982. Rock- Forming Minerals (5 volumes). John Wiley & Sons, New York. Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J. 1992. An Introduction 10 the Rock-Forming Minerals. Longman Group Limited, London, 696 p. Fleischer, M., and Mandarino, 1.A. 1995. Glossary of Mineral ‘Species 1995. The Mineralogical Record, Tucson, 280 p. Frondel, C, 1962, The System of Mineralogy, 7 edition, Volume IHL, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 334 p. Gaines, R-V., Skinner, H.C.W., Ford, EE., Mason, B., and Rosenzweig, A. 1997. Dana’s New Mineralogy, 8% edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1819 p. Hazen, RM. 1984, Mineralogy: A historical review. Journal of Geological Education 32, 288-298. Kraus, EH. 1941. Mineralogy: Geological Society of America 50% Anniversary volume, Geology 1888-1938, 307-332. Nickel, EH.,and Nichols, M.C. 1991, Mineral Reference Manual, ‘Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 250 p. Mitchell, R.S. 1979. Mineral Names: What Do They Mean? Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 229 p. Palanche, C., Berman, H., and Frondel, C, 1944, The System of ‘Mineralogy, 7® edition, Volume I. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 834 p. Palanche, C., Berman, H., and Frondel, C, 1951. The System of ‘Mineralogy, 7 edition, Volume Hl. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1124 p, Reviews in Mineralogy, 1974~1996, Volumes 1~34. Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C. ‘Struntz, H. 1970. Mineralogische Tabellen, 5® edition, Akadem- ische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 621 p.mre d Crystallography Introduction ‘The descriptive nomenclature of crystallography has ‘evolved over a period of several centuries to describe the sshape, symmetry, and crystal structure of minerals. The discussion that follows contains only an introduction to ‘crystallography and omits development of the theoretical and mathematical foundation on which the descriptive ma- terial depends. Interested readers are strongly encouraged to refer to Bloss (1971), Smith (1982), or O’ Keeffe and Hyde (1996) for more extensive coverage of crystallography. The mathematical foundations of crystallography are described by Boisen and Gibbs (1985). The questions to be addressed in this chapter include the following: ‘What is the symmetry of crystals and crystal structures? ‘What is the descriptive nomenclature of crystals and crys- tallographie features? Because minerals must have a regular and repeating structure, it follows that they must display symmetry, which in its various guises deals with repetition of objects or mo- 1ifs. This symmetry is directly reflected in the symmetrical arrangements of crystal faces and of the internal structure of rystals that control cleavage orthe diffraction of X-rays. is not surprising, then, that the basic concepts of erystal- ography are all built on an understanding of symmetry. ‘Symmetry operations may be divided into two groups: those that involve translation orrepetition of amotif through 2 volume and those that involve repetition of a motif around a point, Simple translatiqnal symmetry will be considered first because it leads directly to the concepts of the crystal lattice, unit cell, crystal axes, and crystal systems. This is followed by a discussion of point symmetry operations that lead to the development of the 32 crystal classes. Point and translation symmetry operations are combined to produce the 230 space groups. The nomenclature for describing caystal faces, crystallographic planes and directions, crystal forms, and related features follow from these concepts of symmetry. 6 Translational Syrnmetry Plane Lattices Consider a spot, which could represent a collection of atoms (Figure 2.12). That spot can be repeated by trans- lating parallel to vector a toward the bottom of the page again and again, The result is a row of dots extending to infinity. The dots also cen be repeated by translating parallel to vector b at angle y’ from the a direction (Figure 2.1b). Repeated translations parallel to a and b produce 4 continuous repeating pattern of dots known as a plane Figure 2.1 Simple translation to form a plane latice. (a) A spot, representing a collection of sioms, is repeated by translation distance a toward the bottom of the page. (b) Repeated translation ‘of these spots distance b at angle y produces a two-dimensional plane lattice. The spots represent the lattice nodes.5 Jattice that extends to infinity in the ab plane. The center ‘of each spot at the intersection of the lattice lines is called lattice node ‘The five different plane lattices that can be produced by simple translaticn in two dimensions (Figure 2.2a) are the ‘square, rectangle, diamond or centered rectangle, hexago- ‘nal, and oblique plane lattices. The five plane lattices com- prise only four fandamentally different shapes, called unit @ ® I Square = a ‘Rectangle (p) oy — Hexagonal a=d y= bo ‘Ontigue asd ys 99 Figure 22 Plane lattices (a) and unit meshes (6). Only five: different plane lattices can be produced by combinations of the: dimensions of a and 6 and the angle y. The ‘our different unit meshes are shaded and are identified on the right. Note that both ‘the rectangle and diamond lattice can be repeated on the page by using a rectangular unit mesh. b b I Parallelograrm Translational Symmetry © 7 meshes (Figure 2.2b): square, rectangle (for both the rect- angle and diamond plane lattices), hhombus (or a hexagon if desired), and parallelogram. Oblique, rectangular, hexago- nal, and square plane lattices have primitive (p) unit meshes because lattice nodes occur only at their comers. The dia- mond plane lattice has a centered (c) unit mesh because a lattice node is at its center. Axes parallel to the edges of the unit mesh are labeled a and b, even if they are the same length. The angle between them is y The type of translational symmetry described here is routinely used by craftsmen in building brick walls and laying ceramic tile on floors and walls, and it must be present in the pattern of wallpaper used to decorate homes. Bricks typically have a rectangular unit mesh and are most commonly laid using a centered rectangular lattice. ‘Square ceramic tiles are laid on floors and walls using a ‘square lattice; hexagonal ceramic tiles must be laid using ‘hexagonal lattice. Wallpaper typically uses either square, rectangular, or centered rectangular plane lattices so that the pattern on adjacent pieces of wallpaper will match Oblique lattices are rarely used because surfaces such as ‘walls and floors typically have square or rectangular shapes (Figure 2.3). Space Lattices and Unit Cell If the two-dimensional plane lattices are systematically repeated one above the other, to allow for a translation vector in the third dimension, the result is the formation of a space lattice (Figure 2.4a) in which lattice nodes are repeated in all three dimensions. The volume outlined by Figure 2.3 Plane lattices and unit meshes in everyday life. (a) Square ceramic tile lad ina square lattice. (6) Rectangular bricks Jaid in a rectangular lattice. (c) Rectangular bricks laid in a centered rectangular (diamond) lattice. The unit mesh includes pieces sufficient to make two bricks. (d) Hexagonal ceramic tle laid in a hexagonal lattice. The rhombic unit mesh includes picces sufficient to make one til.B © Crystallography Figure 2.4 Space lattice. (2) A plane lattice is repeatedly trans- lated distance ¢ at angles a and to form a repeating pattern of lattice nodes in three dimensions, A unit cell (shaded) is the ‘volume outlined by latice nodes. (b) Crystal axes a, 0, and ¢ ure parallel to the edges of the unit cell at angles a, 8, and y lattice nodes is known as the unit cell, analogous to the unit ‘mesh in two dimensions. ‘The edges of the unit cells are parallel to crystal axes, identified as a, b, and c (Figure 2.4b). The axes intersect at point, called the origin, and have positive and negative tends: positive a isto the front, positive b isto the right, and positive c is up. The dimensions of the unit cell along the a, +, and c axes are a, b, and c and the angles between the axes are t, B, and y. Note that eis the angle between b and c, is the angle between a and c, and y is the angle between a and b. Bravais Lattices and Crystal Systems ‘The five plane lattices can be repeated in three dimensions to produce 14 different space lattices known as the Bravais lattices (Figures 2.5 thru 2.9). These 14 Bravais lattices are divided into six groups based on the shape of the ‘unit cell (Figure 2.10). Many unit cell shapes are familiar ‘to anyone who has played with wooden blocks. They srepresent the shapes that can be regularly stacked together “without leaving voids between the blocks. The six unit cell ‘shapes are identified withthe six erystal systems: triclinic, ‘monoclinic, orthorhombic, hexagonal, tetragonal, and ‘isometric (cubic). Primitive (P) unit cells contain lattice snodes only at the comers. Body-centered (1) unit cells ‘contain an additional lattice node at the center. C face. ‘centered (C) unit cells contain lattice nodes on the corners and on two opposite sides. Face-centered (F) unit cells ‘contain lattice nodes at the comers and at the center of ‘each face. Figure 2.5 Trclinic Bravas lattice. An oblique plane lattice is repeated by translation distance c so thatthe « and angles are not equal to 90°, Light and dark shading shows two alternative unit cell choices Figure 2.6 Bravas lattices produced by translation of rectangular plane lattice where a and hare different lengths and angle 7 50°. (a) Primitive (P) monoclinic lati produced by translation distance ¢ so angles & = 90° and ) > 90°. (b) Primitive (P) omtorhombie lattice produced by translation distance c so that angles a and f are 90°. (c) Translation jb to the right, j aback, and { cup produces a body-centered orthorhombic D ltice.Orthorhombic all face centered (F) Figure 2.7 Bravais lattice produced by translation of a centered rectangular plane lattice where a and b are different lengths and y = 90°. (a) Translation distance c so that a = 90° and > ‘90° yields a C face-centered monoclinic lattice. (b) Translation distance ¢ so that a — B ~ 90° produces a C face-centered ‘orthorhombic lattice. (c) Translation { 6 tothe right and | ¢ up produces an F (all) face-centered orthorhombic lattice. ‘The single triclinic space latice (Figure 2.5) is produced by translating an oblique plane lattice distance ¢ in a direction not at right angles to either a or b. The unit cell dimensions (Figure 2.10) are of different lengths and none of the angles between the axes is 90° (a # b # c,a # B # y £90°). No universally adopted convention exists to guide the assignment of crystal axes to the edges of the unit cell. Two different possible unit cells are shown with light and dark shading in Figure 2.5. Generally the c axis is placed parallel to some prominent elongation (a zone that will be described later) defined by crystal faces seen in a hhand sample. The b axis is placed down and to the right, and the a axis is placed down and to the front. The two monoclinic space lattices (Figure 2.10b) are produced by translating rectangular plane lattices. All unit cell dimensions are of different length (a 4 b # c) and any axis may be the longest. The b and c axes are at right angles, and the a axis is at right angles to b but not to c(@ = y = 90°, 6 > 90°), Note that the axes are arranged so that angle between the positive ends of the a and c axes is greater than 90°. Translational symmetry © 9 Rhombohesral Figure 2.8 Bravais latices produced by translation ofan hexag- onal plane lace. a) Verical translation by distance c produces 8 primitive hexagonal Iatice. The simplest anit cel shaded. () “Translation Ye up, and fa cos 30 back at right angles tothe baxis produces rhombohedral late. The translation vectors parle to the edge of the thombohiedron defined by the lace nodes. '8 unit ell based othe shombohedron may be used, Bul more commonly th larger hexagonal unt cll, whose top and batom faces are shaded, fused. The monoclinic primitive (P) lattice is produced by translating a primitive rectangular plane lattice a distance ‘equal to ¢ so that angle B > 90° and angle a = 90° igure 2.62). ‘The monoclinic centered (C) lattice is produced by ‘anslating a centered rectangular plane lattice a distance equal to ¢ so that angle 6 > 90° and angle a (Figure 2.72). The four orthorhombic space latices (Figure 2.10¢) are derived from the two rectangular plane lattices whose lattice dimensions are a and b. All three unit cell dimensions are of different length. A common convention is to assign the: axes so that the ¢ unit cell dimension is the smallest, b- is the longest, and a is intermediate (c < a < b). Other conventions have also been used and in some mincrals either or a may be the longest unit cell dimension. The axes are all at right angles soa =f = y = 90°. ‘The orthorhombic primitive (P) lattice is produced by ‘vertical translation of a primitive rectangular lattice a distance equal to c (Figure 2.6b)10 © Crystallography ©, Cubic primitive (P) Cubic body centered (1) Cubic face centered (F) Figure 2.9 Bravais latices produced by translation ofa square plane lati whose dimensions are a = 6. (a) Vertical translation distance ‘¢ #-a produces a primitive (P) tetragonil lattice. (b) Translation right 4a, back Ja, and up je where c # produces a body-centered (1) tetragonal lattice. (c) Vertical translation distance yields a primitive (P) cubic (isometric) ltice. (d) Translation 4a right, 4a back, and 4a up yields a body-centered (1) cubic lattice. (e) Given a square lattice whose dimensions are x, translation x to the right, $x back, and 6.707% up produces a face-centered (F) eubic lattice whose unit cell outline is at 45° tothe lattice edges cf the original plane lattice. ‘The orthorhombic body-centered (1) lattice is produced by translating a primitive rectangular lattice a distance equal to Je vertical, 4 right, and $a back. Every second. lattice plane is aligned vertically at distance ¢ (Figure 2.6c). ‘The orthorhombic C face-centered (C) lattice has nodes, in the center of the top and bottom faces and is produced by vertical translation of a centered rectangular plane lattice a distance equal to c (Figure 2.7b). ‘The face-centered (F) lattice has rodes in the center of all faces, Itis produced by translating a centered rectangular plane lattice a distance equal to 4c up, 4b right, and 4 back. Alternate plane lattices afe aligned vertically at distance c (Figure 2.7c). ‘The two hexagonal space lattices are derived from the hexagonal plane lattice whose lattice dimensions area = b, ‘The unit cell dimension perpendicular to the plane latice is ¢ # a, Because a and b are interchangeable, some authors prefer to designate them a and az. See the discussion ‘on Miller-Bravais indices for an alternative crystal axis ‘geometry used in hexagonal minerals The primitive lattice (P) is produced by vertical trans- lation of a hexagonal plane lattice a distance equal to c (Figure 2.8a). The unit cell (shaded) has a rhomb-shaped cross section with internal anglesof 60° and 120° (Figure 2.106) ‘The rhombohedral lattice is produced by translating a hexagonal plane lattice on a diagonal a distance equal to 4o up, and 2a cos 30 back at right angles to the b axis (Figure 2.86). A primitive rhombohedral unit cell, which looks like a cube stretchec! or shortened along a diagonal through the center, can be constructed by connecting lattice nodes as shown. It is possible to define erystal axes along the edges of the rhombohedron in a manner similar to how axes are defined in the isometric system except that the angles an: not 90° (Figure 2.10e). It is more common, however, to define the unit cell using the same convention used for the primitive hexagonal lattice based on two axes (a = b) at 120° with c at right angles as shown in Figure 2.8b, The hexagonal unit cell convention is adopted in most minerals and will be used consistently in this book, “The tetragonal crystal sysiem has two different space lattices derived from the square plane lattice whose lattice: ‘dimensions are a. The unit cell dimension perpendicular to ‘the original plane lattice is ¢ # a = b (Figure 2.104). All ‘three axes are at right angles (w = = y = 90") and the ¢ -axis may be either longer or shorter than the a and b axes, ‘Note that the a and 6 axes are interchangeable, and some authors prefer to designate them a, and ap. ‘The primitive (P) lattice is produced by vertically tans- lating a square plane lattice distance c (Figure 2.9a)(@) Technic (®) Monoclinic Translational Symmetry @ 11 (©) Onhorhombie (Isometric Figure 2.10 The six (a-f) different three-dimensional volumes defined by the (4 Bravais latices correspond to the unit ccs of the six different crystal systems. The unit cells are shaded in Figures 2.5 through 2.9. ‘The body-centered (1) lattice is produced by translating 4 square plane lattice a distance equal to Je up, 4a rright, and 3a back. Alternate plane lattices are aligned ‘vertically at distance c (Figure 2.9). The isometric crystal system has three different space lattices derived from the square plane lattice. Unit cell . La 4A, 32 Point Groups © 15 generated from the Bravais lattices. Table 2.2 shows the symmetry elements possessed by each ofthe different étys- tal classes and the crystal system to which each belongs. By convention, the point groups are identified with Hermann— Mauguin (H-M) representations of the symmetry. I should be no surprise that the position of the crystal axes for each crystal system must be in rational orientations relative to the symmetry elements. The conventions adopted for orienting crystal axes relative to the symmetry axes and planes are summarized in Table 2.2. More thorough, ‘descriptions of the conventions used to orient crystal axes are included in the descriptions of the crystal classes that follow in a later section of this chapter. Steno’s Law Knowledge of an unknown mineral’s point group and/or crystal system often can be of great help when attempting to identify it. The point group may be determined by care- fully examining well-formed crystals to identify symmetry elements. Allowance often has to be made for the fact that crystals are rarely perfect and that equivalent faces may have different sizes. Fortunately, the angles between crystal faces are remark ably consistent. This observation was originally made by Nicolas Steno (Niels Stensen) in 1669. He demonstrated that the angles between the same two faces on quartz crystals are the same for different specimens of the mineral, regard- Jess of sample size, the size ofthe crystal faces, or where the crystals may have been collected. This observation has been formalized into Steno’s Law or the Law of Constancy of Interfacial Angles because it applies to all minerals: ‘The angle between equivalent faces on crystals ofthe same ‘mineral ae the same. yh sf + nant ok Ay 2m ‘Figure 2.16 The ten two-dimension point groups. 3m Aud16 © Crystallography ‘Table 22 The 32 Point Groups 443), 642, 9m ‘Common Crystal Point Symmetry Symmetry Crystal ‘System Group ‘Content Elements ‘Axes ‘rietinic L None (= Ax) __} One-fold rotation with or | No symmetry restrictions; prominent zone ‘without inversion i ied Monoclinic 2 Va ‘Two-fold rotation and/or | Two-fold axis or line perpendicular to mirror = b, single mirror Prominent zone = c, asc > 90° 2Im i Aasm Onthorhombie m2 Baz ‘Three 2-fold rotation axes | The 2-fold axes or lines perpendicular to mirrors andlor thee mirrors | coincide with the three mutally perpendicular mm Ap, 2m trystal axes the first H-M symbol refers tothe a terptal axis, the second to the crystal axis, and the 2/m2/m2/m__|i,3Ar.3m {hired to the crystal axis ‘Tetragonal 4 te Single 4-fod rotation or | The 4-old axis = ; the a and b crystal axes are ; rotoinversion axis Perpendicular toc and coincide with Ap axes or ate a 1g Perpendicular to minors, i preset; the frst HM Symbols refers to the ¢ axis if present, the second ym 1 tag refers othe a and b crystal axes, andthe third to symmetry axes that bisect the angles between a and Py aan TAs. 4A iio” 4mm 1A, 4m fam 1g, 242, 2m 4jm2/m2/m_| i, 1Ag, 442, Sm Hexagonal (trigonal | 3 TAs (One 3-fld axis ‘The 3-fld or 6-fold axis = c, the a and b crystal axes division) A ‘re parallel 9 Az axes or perpendicular to miro, if 3 1as(=i + 145) present; the first H-M symbol refers to the axis if presen, the second refers tothe a and b axes, an the 2 1s, 342 third to symmetry aves tha isect the angles between and b (210), 3m 1s, 3m 32m i+ 13), 342, 3m Hexagonal 6 One 6-fod axis ‘exagonal division) |— é 1As-+m) jm m on 1g, 642 mm 1g, 6m m2. 1s + sm). 3A2,3m 6/m2/m2/m__| i, 1&6, 642, 7m Isometric 2 BAn das Four 3-old axes; these | The tree 2-fold o fold axes coincide withthe - 5 nes are oriented so. | interchangeable a and c crystal exes; symmetry 2ymi 3Az,3m,44(= | they go diagonally requires tht these axes be at 80° to each other; the ivan, through the center of | first HM symbol refers to the symmetry on the the cubic unit cel from | crystal axes the second to the long diagonals through 432 3Aa,4Aa,6A2_| comer to comer the unit cel (111, the third to edge-to-edge diagona s - ‘through the unit cel: (110) iam 3A, 4s, 6m 4)m32/m 3a, 4AMeasurement of Crystal Angles ‘A simple contact goniometer (Figure 2.17) allows erystal angles to be measured with reasonable accuracy. This instrumentis basically a protractor with amovable arm. The bottom edge of the goniometer is placed on one crystal face and the movable arm is aligned with an adjacent face. The plane of the goniometer must be perpendicular to the crystal edge formed by the two faces. The goniometer scale has two sets of numbers, one for the internal angle between the faces ‘and one for the complement to that angle. The internal angle is the angle between lines oriented at right angles to the two faces, and itis the angle normally reported. Note that the sum of internal angles going all the way around a crystal must equal 360°. Determining Crystal System and Crystal Class Assuming that one or more well-formed crystal of a min- eral is available, the procedure to ascertain the class is as follows + Determine whether the mineral possesses center symme- try. To do this, select several points such as comers on one side of the crystal (Figure 2.13a). The crystal has center symmetry if an imaginary line from each point finds an equivalent point on the opposite side of the crystal when projected through the center. fay Figure 2.17 Contact goniometer. (a) The base of the goniometer is placed on one crystal face and the cursor is aligned with the adjacent face. The edge between the faces must be perpendicular to the plane of the goniometer. The internal angle between the ‘faces is read off the scale (b) The internal angle (63°) is the angle ‘between lines at right angles tothe crystal faces. Space Groups @ 17 * Identify mirror planes. Mirrors divide crystals into two mirror-image halves (Figure 2.18a). Angles on opposite sides of the mirror must be identical. * Identify rotation axes. A rotation axis can be considered an axle about which the mineral rotates to-epeatedly bring equivalent collections of faces into view (Figure 2.18b). ‘Two-fold axes require 180° of rotation to bring duplicate sets of faces into view. Other rotations are 3-fold axes = 120°, 4-fold axes = 90°, and 6-fold axes = 60°. Refer to Figure 214d to see a 4-fold rotoinversion. Compile the combination of symmetry. The crystal in Figure 2.18 has i, 142, m and is a member of the 2/m crystal class in the monoclinic system (Table 2.2). Space Groups ‘The symmetry elements of mirror, rotations, and inversion ‘that in combination produce the 32 point groups can com- pletely describe the symmetry observed in the distri (a) to ‘Figure 2.18 Determining crystal symmetry. (a) Mirors split the ‘erytal into two mirror images. Angles on opposite sides of the rior are the same. (6) Rotations repeat the same collection of| faces every 60°, 90°, 120°, or 180° of rotation (4g, As, As, Az) ‘A 2 fold rotation is shown,18 © Crystallography of erystal faces and related crystallographic features arrayed around the center of a crystal. The symmetry of simple translation in three dimensions produced the 14 Bravais lattices. The space groups represent the combination of the point symmetry with translational symmetry. Groupings of atoms that possess the symmetry of one of the 32 point groups are placed at each of the lattice nodes of one of the 14 Bravais lattices. The groupings of ‘atoms are then repeated over and over by the translational operations that produced the lattice to create the structure of the mineral. The point group symmetry must be consistent with the symmetry of the lattice. Isometric point groups can be used only with isometric latices, tetragonal point ‘groups with tetragonal lattices, and so forth. These combi- nations of point symmetry and simple translation yield 73 space groups. This is not yet the full story because two additional sym- ‘metry operations called glides and serews are possible in three dimensions. Each is a compound symmetry operation consisting of a translation and either reflection or rotation. A glide is produced by a combination of translation a specific distance and direction followed by reflection by ‘a mirror plane called the glide plane (Figure 2,19a). The pattern made by footprints is the same as that produced by a glide, Footprints follow each other at a regular distance but they alternate between the right and left foot that are related to each other by a mirror. ‘Figure 2.19 Glide symmety. (a) Footprints repeated by a trans- ation 1 and reflection m. (b) Chain of silicon tetahedra (single silicon, hidden, surrounded by four oxygen) produzed by transla- tion s followed by reflection m. A typical way in which glides operate in minerals is seen in the chains of silicon tetrahedra found in pyroxenes ‘(Figure 2.19b). A silicon tetrahedron consists of a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions in a tetrahedral arrange- ‘ment, Silicon tetrahedra are strung together in ong chains bby sharing oxygen ions between adjacent tetrahedra (see ‘Chapter 11), Successive tetrahedra are related to each other ‘by translation 1 followed by reflection m. Glide planes. if present in a mineral, must be parallel to mirrors represented by the point group symmetry. ‘A screw is produced by & combination of translation a specific distance and direction followed by a rotation (Figure 2.20), The axis about which rotation occurs is the screw axis. The possible rotations are 2-fold (180"), 3-fold (120°), 4-fold (90°), and 6-fold (60°). One type of 4-fold screw axis, for example, repeats a 90° wedge of the crystal structure every 90° in a spiraling stepwis fashion, somewhat like the treads on a spiral staircase. The other symmetry operations present in the mineral repeat the ‘wedges of crystal to fill in the full structure. Screw axes, if present, must be parallel to and consistent with rotation ‘axes present in the point group symmetry. ‘The addition of screw axes and glide planes to the rnix of symmetry yields an additional 157 space groups for a total of 230 possible ways of repeating a motif in three «dimensions. A complete tabulation of all 230 space groups ‘Figure 2.20 Screw axis, A 3-fod screw axis is shown. A sil'con ‘tetrahedra is translated distance 1 and rotated 120°in spiral- ‘staircase fashion (@ form a helix of tetrahedra extending along, the ¢ axis in quartz. Screw axes may also be 2-fold, 4-fold, or 6-fold.and discussion of the nomenclature used to enumerate them can be found in Bloss (1971) or O'Keeffe and Hyde (1996). An authoritative compilation and description of space groups are provided by Henry and Lonsdale (1952). All minerals belong to one or another of the space groups. Although a thorough understanding of space groups is essential for anyone attempting to decipher the structural complexity of a mineral, it is beyond the scope of this text, Interested readers are encouraged to study the references cited above for additional enlightenment. Crystal Faces ‘Crystal faces always grow in rational orientations relative to the crystal lattice. The most common faces are often ‘parallel to the surfaces of the unit cell, that is, parallel to ‘the principal planes through the crystal lattice. The result is ‘that minerals with cubic unit cells often form cubic crystals, minerals with hexagonal unit cells often have hexagonal ‘cross sections, and so forth. Crystal faces also often follow ‘simple diagonals through the lattice. Laws of Hatiy and Bravais This tendency of crystal faces to follow simple, rational ‘orientations through the crystal lattice has resulted in recognition of two related laws of crystallography. The first is called the Law of Haily: ‘Crystal faces make simple rational intercepts on erystal ‘The second is called the Law of Bravais: ‘Common crystal faces are parallel to lattice planesthat have. hhigh lattice node density. Figure 2.21 shows a primitive monoclinic lattice with several potential crystal faces. Planes A, B, and C (Figure 2.21a) are principal planes in the lattice and have high lattice node density (many lattice nodes per unit of area). Based fon the laws of Bravais and Hail, crystal faces should be parallel to all three lattice planes. Plane T (Figure 2.21b) cuts through the lattice on a simple diagonal (a : ¢ = 1: 1). It makes rational intercepts on the crystal axes and has a fairly high lattice node density, so crystal faces parallel to T should be fairly common. In contrast, plane Q (Figure 2.21c) cuts at an angle through the lattice so that it goes up one cell along ¢ for every two unit cells along a(a: c = 2: 1). Although it has rational intercepts on the crystal axes, the lattice node density is low. Crystal faces parallel to Q are less likely to develop or will be minor. A simple crystal with these faces is shown in Figure 2.214, Crystal Faces @ 19 ‘Figure 2.21 Primitive monoctinic tatice. Prominent crystal faces _are parallel to rational planes in the latice that have high density ‘of lattice nodes. (a) Planes A, B, and C are parallel to the faces of ‘the unit cel have high lattice node density, and are likely erystal faces. (b) Plane T has fairly high lattice node density and isa likely ‘crystal face. jc) Plane Q has low lattice node density and is not a likely crystal face. (d) A simple erystal with these faces. Miller Indices Because crystal faces have rational orientations relative to the crystal lattice, it is possible to develop an elegant shorthand system to describe the orientation of crystal faces and crystallographic planes. A Miller index, or index, consists of a series of coprime integers that are inversely proportional to the intercepts of the crystal face or crystallographic plane with the edges of the unit cell. A Miller index has the general form (iki), where h, k,and J are integers related to the a, b, and c crystal axes, respectively. Parentheses () enclose the Miller index fora specific crystal face or crystallographic plane, The parentheses may be ‘omitted on some illustrations to avoid clutter. Consider a moncclinic mineral that forms a crystal with face t that, if extended, intersects all three crystal axes (Figure 2.22a). This face cuts through the lattice as shown in Figure 2.22b so that the numbers of unit cells out from the crystal center on a and b are both twice the number of unit cells on c, For purposes of describing Miller indices itis easiest to reference the crystal face or crystallographic plane to a single unit cell as shown in Figure 2.22c. The ‘cell intercepts ws, wy, and we for face ¢ through the unit, cell are w= 1, wy=1, and we This means that the face cuts the cell at one unit cell dimension along a, one unit cell dimension along b, and20 ¢ Crystallography wh % 126 1a Figure 2.22 Miller index. (a) Face t, when extended, intersects the positive ends of all three crystal axes. (6) Face £ cuts through the Tatice s0 that it intersects the a and b crystal axes at the ‘same number of unit cells from the origin (12 inthis case) and intersects the c erystal axis at half that number (Six) (¢) When referenced toa single unit cell, face intersects the crystal axes so that w, = 1, wy = 1, and we =}. (@) Face w, which intersects the negative end of b, intersects the rystal axes ofa single unit cell at, 1, and we =. See text for discussion. Ly ‘one-half a unit cell dimension along c. The Miller index for face ris simply the inverse of these values or rid 111 wupue TTF ‘The Miller index is read “one one two.” Some faces intersect the negative end of one or more a2) crystal axes. Consider face u on the crystal shown in Figure 2.22. It intersects the positive ends of the a and c axes and the negative end of the b axis with cell intercepts of w, = 1, wy = —1, and we = } (Figure 2.22d). Its Miller index is (112), which is read as “one negative-one two" or “one bat-one two.” Many common crystal faces are parallel to one of two of the crystal axes. Consider face v shown on Figure 2.23. This face intersects the a and b axes with a cell intercept of tw, = 1 and wy = 1, but is parallel to the ¢ axis. The value for we must therefore be infinity (we = 00), because no matter how far the face goes, it never intersects the c axis Note that anything divided by infinity is zero, so the index for this face calculated from Equation 2.1 is (hkl) (10) Face w is parallel to a and c, and cuts the positive end of the b axis (w, = 00, wy = 1, we = 00). Its Miller index must therefore be (010) (zero one zero). Faces x, y, and z get Miller indices of (100), (110), and (001) by similar calculation. Note that if h = 0, the face is parallel to a, if k = 0, the face is parallel to 5, and if ! = 0, the face is parallel toc. Indices and Crystal Axes in the Hexagonal Crystal System ‘Crystal exes and indices in the hexagonal system require ‘some additional explanation. Consider the hexagonal crys- tal shown in Figure 2.24a. The a, b, and c crystal axes are located according to the convention described above. “The unit cell intercepts of the éarker shaded face are w, 1, my = 50, and we = 00 (Figure 2.24b). By Equation 2.1, the Miller index for this face is (100). The relation of the \(170) face (light shading) to a unit cell is shown in Figure 2.24e; note that this face cuts the negative end of the b ‘axis. The Miller indices for the other vertical faces shown §in cross section (Figure 2.24) can be obtained by similar ‘considerations. The top face of the crystal is (001) and the ‘bottom face is (001). ‘An alternative convention uses four crystal axes in ‘the hexagonal crystal system (Figure 2.25). It is possible because symmetry requires tha: all hexagonal crystals have ‘three 2-fold rotation axes thay are arrayed at 120° from ‘each other. Crystal axes that are identified ay, a2, and as are placed parallel to each of these rotation axes. The a, and ap axes are parallel to the a and b crystal axes as defined in the previous discussion of the hexagonal unit cell; the as is at 120° to them. The c axis is the same in both axis conventions. The unit cell based on the four- axis convention therefore has a hexagonal cross section.Crystal Faces @ 21 Figure 2.23 Miller indices for all visible faces on the crystal shown in Figure 2.22. The traces of unit cells are sketched on the crystal. See text for discussion, ‘Figure 2.24 Milles indices in the hexagonal crystal system. (a) Hexagonal crystal with a b and c crystal axes. (6) Relation of dark shaded face to the unit cell. Based on unit cell intercepts, the Miller index is (100) (c) Relation of the light shaded face toa unit cell. Based on ‘unit cel intercepts, the Miler index is (110). (2) View down tte c axis with the Miller indices forall vertical faces shown.22 © Crystallography Figure 2.25 Miller-Bravais indices in the hexagonal crystal system. (a) Hexagonal crystal with a, a3, a3, and crystal axes. The a axes are parallel to 2-fold rotation axes and are 120° from each other. The shaded face cuts the ay at ay axes and is parallel to az and c. (6) ‘Top view of the unit cell showing the unit cell intercepts that yield a Miller-Bravais index of (1010). (c) Top view of the erystal showing the Miller-Bravais indices forall of the vertical faces. The top and bottom faces are (0001) and (0001), respectively. See text for discussion. “The four-axis convention is widely used in many older reference works. ‘A modification of Miller indices was developed by “Auguste Bravais to accommodate the four-axis convention, so these indices are refered to as Miller-Bravais indices. Beccuse there are four crystal axes, the Miller—Bravais index contains four integers (hkil), which refer to the G1, @, a3, and c axes, respectively. Consider the shaded face on the hexagonal crystal shown in Figure 2.25a. This face is parallel 0 ¢ and ay $0 we = 00 and we, = 00. It cuts the positive a; axis at one unit cell dimension (ws, = 1) and the negative as axis at one unit cell (ws, = 1). By equation 2.1, the Miller index must be: Because the three a axes are at 120°, italways works outthat htk+i=0 ea {or all Milles~Bravais indices in the hexagonal system. The ‘mathematical proof of this assertion can be found in Bloss (1971, pp. 53-54). Either all three of the a axes have 0 for an index, or at least one will have a negative index and one a positive index. Miller-Bravais indices can be converted to Miller in- dices by deleting the third (i) digit. Miller-Bravais indices maybe derived from Miller indices with reference to Ecua~ tion 2.2 Determining Miller Index Determining the Miller index for a crystal face on a real crystal requires two pieces of data: the axial intercepts for the crystal face and either the unit cell dimension or the axial ratio, Consider the crystal face (x) shown on the saugite crystal in Figure 2.26. (a) Figure 2.26 Calculating Miller index from an augite crystal. (a) Face x on an augite crystal intersects all three erystal axes. (6) The dimensions of these intersections messured from the center ofthe crystal are j, = 3.82.¢m, iy = 3.5 em, and ic = 2.07 em. The Miller index for this face is (111). See text for discussion.‘The axial intercepts (iy, py ic) for the face are the distances from the origin where the crystal face, when extended, crosses the crystal axes. In this case i, = 3.82 ‘om, iy = 3.5 om, and ic = 2.07 cm (ignoring the difficulty of actually making these measurements). ‘The axial ratio is calculated by dividing each unit cell dimension by the by-the b unit cell dimension: abe axial tio Pinacoidal class 1 crystal consisting of {100}, {010}, {001}, and (011) pinacoids. Monoclinic Crystal System The crystal axes in the monoclinic system are most com- monly oriented so thatthe b axis coincides with the 2-fold rotation axis and/or is perpendicular to the mirror plane. The c axis is placed parallel to a prominent zone axis and ais placed down ard to the front so that the angle is greater than 90°. Cleavage also may assist in establishing the orientation of the a and c axes. Ifa single prominent cleavage is parallel ‘0 the b axis, it generally is assumed to be parallel to the basal pinacoid (001), and hence also parallel to the a axis, If two equivalent cleavages are sym- metrically related by the mirror plane, they are usually taken to be parallel to the c axis. This convention for orienting ‘the crystal axes is known as the second setting. The first setting convention rlaces the c axis parallel to the 2-fold axis and b is parallel (0 @ prominent zone. The second setting for monoclinic minerals will be used throughout this book and is used in all modern mineralogic literature. “The forms found in monoclinic classes are listed in Ta- ble 2.4. Only minerals with 2/m symmetry are common and they include amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, and many ‘other minerals. Figure 2.37 shows erystals with monoclinic symmetry. Orthorhombic Crystal System ‘The symmetry elements in the orthorhombic crystal sy ‘combine to produce three unique directions at right angles 0 each other that are parallel to the three crystal axes. The crystal axes are therefore either parallel to a 2-fold :otation axis and/or perpendicular to a mirror. Hermann— Mauguin symbols for each crystal class are written so that the first element refers to the a axis, the second to b, end the third to c, In the mn2 point group, for example, th axis [100] is at right angles to a mirror, the b axis [010] is ‘Table 2.4 Forms Found in Triclinic, Monoclinic, and Orthorhombic Point Groups* ‘riclinie ‘Monoclinic ‘Orthorhombie Number 1 i 2 2ym | mm2 | 222 | 2/m2/m2/m of Rhombic | Rhombic |” Rhomeld Faces Name of Form Fedial | Pinacoidal | Domatic | Sphenoidal | Prismatic | Pyramidal | Dispenoid | Dypyramidal | 1 Pedion x x x 2 Pinacoid x x x x x x 2 Dihedron dome) x _| 2 Ditedron (sphenoid) x i) 4 ism x x x x 4 Rhombic tetrahedron (dsphenoid) x _| 4 Rhombie pyramid x 8 ‘Rhombic dipyramid x "The name of each crystal classi listed beneath the point group.‘Figure 2.37 Monoclinic crystals. The views down the b axis show that the a and c axes are not at right angles. (a) 2/m point group amphibole crystal with a side (010} pinacoid and (110) and (011) prisms. (6) 2m point group sanidine crystal with side (001), basal {001}, ané (101) pinacoids, and (110) prism. at right angles to a mirror, and the ¢ axis (001) is a 2- fold rotation axis. Except forthe mm2 class where the 2-fold rotation axis, is taken as the c axis, no universally accepted convention determines which crystal axis coincides with which sym- metry axis. A common procedureistoorient the crystal axes so that the unit cell dimensions are ¢ < a < b. However, if a crystal has an elongate habit, the long axis may be assigned to ¢ regardless of unit cell dimensions. Similarly, @ o Forms in the Six Crystal Systems @ 31 the caxis may be placed perpendicular toa single prominent cleavage, or a prominent pinacoid that produces a distinctly tabular habit. Minerals with two equivalent cleavage di- rections (not generally at 90°) are oriented so that these prismatic cleavages are parallel to c and have the general form (hk0}. The reader is cautioned to confirm crystal axis conventions when reading the literature on orthorhombic minerals. The forms possible in the orthorhombic classes are listed in Table 2.4. Figure 2.38 shows crystals that illustrate the different symmetry of the orthorhombic point ‘groups. The common orthorhombic minerals all have 2/m 2m 2m symmetry. Tetragonal Crystal System ‘All minerals in the tetragonal crystal system have a single 4-fold axis of rotation or rotoinversion that coincides with the c crystal axis. The a and b axes are at right angles to each other and coincide with 2-fold rotation axes or are perpendicular to mirror planes. The first Hetm: ‘Mauguin symbol for the point group refers to symmetry on the c axis. The second symbols refer to symmetry tied to the a and b axes ({100] and [010}) and the third to symmetry tied to (110) and [110] axes at 45° to the a and B axes. In the 42m point group, the 4 indicates that the c axis (001] ‘is a 4-fold rotoinversion axis, the 2 indicates that the a and b crystal axes ({100] and [010}) are 2-fold rote axes, and the m indicates that [110] and [110] directions in the crystal lattice that bisect the angles between the a and b axes are perpendicular to mirrors. The forms found in the tetragonal crystal classes are listed in Table 2.5. “Most common tetragonal minerals crystallize with 4/m 2m 2im symmetry. Figure 2.39 shows a selection of tetragonal crystals illustrating the symmetry found in each point group. Hexagonal Crystal System “The hexagonal crystal system is divided into hexago- sal and trigonal (rhombohedral) divisions based on the © @ ae ee ‘Figure 2.38 Onthorhombic crystals. Note how the (111), (110), and (00%) faces are duplicated to produce different forms based on the ‘symmetry content. (a) mm2 point group crystal with a (110} rhombic prism, {001) bottom pedion, and (111) rhombic pyramid. (b) 222 ‘point group crystal with (111) rhombic tetrahedron (disphenoid), (110) rhombic prism, and (001) pinacoid. (c)2m 2/m 2/m point group ‘erystal with a (001] pinacoid, (110) rhombic prism, and (111} rhombic dipyramid. (4) 2/m 2/m 2m topaz crystal with {010} and {001} ‘pinacuids, (110), (210) and (012) rhombic prisms, and (111) rhombic dipyramid,32 Crystallography ‘Table 2.5 Forms Found in the Point Groups ofthe Tetragonsl Crystal System* Number same fom — ot Faces ot Form Symbds | Pyramids 1 | Petion {001), (003) x 2 | Prac {001} 4 | Peragona prism (10), (010) x 4 | Teragonal pyramid (nt, (081) x 4 | Teeagona tetrahedron (disphenoid) | + nhl}, Vakl}s (hil, (nt) 8 | Ditragonal prism (240) 8 __| texagonat dipyramia| (nt), (041) 8 | Texagonaltrapezobedron (aay 8 | Teragonat scalenohedron ak) 8 | Divwayonal pyramid (hk) 16 | Divtragonal dipyramia hk) "The name of each crystal class is listed beneath the point groups @ SS () IX a Vi ‘Figure 2.39 Tetragonal crystals. (a) 4m scapolite crystal with {100} and (110) prisms and (111) and (131)di_yramids.(b) 2m chalcopyrite ‘erystal consisting ofa positive 112) tetragonal tetrahedron (isphenoid) and negative( 112} tetragonal tetrahedron cmaller faces). (e) lm ‘im 2im zitcon crystal wth (100) prism and {011} and (031) dipyramids presence of 6-fold or 3-fold symmetry, respectively. The ¢ axis always is parallel to the 6- or 3-fold rotation axis, The @ and b axes are arranged so that their positive ends are 120° from each other and either parallel to 2-fold rotation axes or perpendicular to mirror planes if these symmetry ‘elements are present. The first number in the Hermann “Mauguin symmetry notation refers to symmetry tied to the -caxis, the second to symmetry elements associated with the .@ and b axes ((100] and [010]), and the third to directions, perpendicular to a and b ({210) and [120)). Forms possible in each of the different hexagonal crystal ‘classes are listed in Table 2.6. Many hexagonal minerals, display the hexagonal prism because itis possible in all but “he 6 and 3 point groups. Hexagonal minerals not dominated by ahexagonal prism are usually dominated by arhombohe- This makes distinguishing minerals in the hexagonal crystal system from other crystal systerrs relatively straightforward, Distinguishing among the differ ‘ent hexagonal point groups is cften difficult, however, be- ‘eause faces that display reduced symmetry compared with the 6/m 2/m 2/m symmetry may be small or lacking. Visual inspection of real crystals often will allow differentiating ‘only between the hexagonal and trigonal divisions based on the presence of 6-fold versus 3- old symmetry parallel to ¢. dron ora trigonal prisForms in the Six Crystal Systems © 33 Point Group a ‘jm 422 ‘nm $fm/m2/m Tetragonat | Tetragonal | tetragonal ‘Tetragonal | Ditetraganal Disphenoid | Dipyramidal | Traperohedal | Ditetragonal | Scalenohedral | Dipyramidal (a) ‘Figure 2.40 Crystals in the hexagonal crystal system, trigonal division, (2) Dolomite {101} rhombohedron in the 3 crystal class. The tack of vertical mirrors is not b ied by these crystal faces. (b) 32 point group. Right-handed quartz with (100} prism, positive {101} and. negative (011) rhombohedrons, and {511) trigonal scalenohedron. (c) 3m point group. Tourmaline with (021) trigonal pyramid and (211) sdtrigonal pyramid on top, (110) and (010) prisms i Figure 2.40 shows several common minerals that crystallize in the trigonal division. Figure 2.41 shows examples of ‘minerals that crystallize in the hexagonal division. Isometric Crystal System ‘Crystals in the isometric erystal system have a cubic unit ‘cell with three mutually perpendicular crystal axes a, b, and c. Note that these axes are sometimes referred to as 41,42, and a3. Three equivalent symmetry axes at right. the middle, and (101) trigonal pyramid on the bottom. (d) 32m point group. Calcite ‘erystal with (211) scalenchedron and (101) positive -hombohedron. angles to each other coincide with the crystallographic axes. In three crystal classes these axes are 4-fold or 4- fold rotoinversion axes; in the remaining two classes they are 2-fold axes, Hermann—Mauguin symbols for the crystal ‘classes consist of upto three parts. The first symbol refers to the symmetry operations tied to the three crystallographic axes. The second refers to the three body diagonal axes [111] through the cubic unit cell. The third refers to the six directions that run from the center of one edge of the unit cell tothe center ofthe opposite edge [110]. Crystal forms found in each of the isometric crystal classes are listed in Table 2.734 © Crystallography ‘Table 2.6 Forms Found in Point Groups of the Hexagonal Crystal System “Tegomal(Rhomboheral Divison , Form 3 ao | a Name (Generic: ‘gona _|Dicignal Face] ofform | (Example) Rombohedral|apezbedalPyrabie 1 [reion jcon 00H)| x 2 [rene co « 5 x 3 [igo pm wo) 100)] 2 x 3 igus panic) [a ‘i 6 [oven prism | into) A ri 6 [bexagons prism [ner = 100 x x A [rion pyramis [oe (10) ri 6 |Roomteetron [ty 100) x ri x 6 [goat penton [at (211) : [eign peamis | (01) ‘i 6 | expan peat? |): 10 x 12 [Hexagon dinyramie [tu 00) Fi 12 [Hexagonal ssenbsto| i): [111 2 12_[Dinergon pion |i: 210) : 12 [isin ipyamia |i): 21) 12 Hexagon agezbero ft) (211 12 [Daeg pyamie |e: 21) 24 [itexagonal pyran | (211) ‘Table 2.7 Forms Found in the Point Groups ofthe Isometric Crystal System. Point Group amber Name Form 2 a2 | 2m iam am Bm of Faces otForm Symbs | tetratoir | Gyroiaal | iploidal | Hexttraedrat | Hetocahedral 4 Teratedron im oi |x F 6 Cube hexaeieon) | (001) x x = x F * Octaedton ni) x x x 2 Rhombiedodeaheton | (101) x x x x x 2 Pentagonal +(102},-pon |x x dodecahedron (python) 2 “Trsteraedron +1112}, (172 x 2 Detoid dodecabedon | (122) x 2 ead 123 x 24 Teahoxshedion (201) x x x m4 Trpezahecon (2a F 7 x Pr Tioctahedron (122) x x r 24 Hextetrahedron $1321), = (321) x 24 Diploid (321), 1521) : 24 Gyroia (221) F “8 exotaedron (321) x and are shown individually in Figure 2.30. Symmetry Crystal Habit elements and selected crystal forms found in the 2/m3, 43/m, and 4/m32/m point groups are shown in Figures 2.42 In addition to tke formal crystallographic nomenclature, a through 2.45. variety of descriptive terminology has developed to nelpHexagonal Division Crystal Habit © 35 6 é om on nm fm 2/m3/m Hexagonal | Trigonal | Hexagonal | Hexagonal | Diexagonal Pyramidal “Trapezhedral | Pyramidal I x ou o10 Figure 2.41 Crystals in the hexagonal crystal system, hexagonal division. (a). Nepheline (6 point group) crystals are rare, composed of (100) prism, upper (101) and lower {101} pyramids, and top (001} and bottom {001} pedions. The crystal habit appears to have higher ‘symmetry than the nepheline actually possesses. (b) 6/m apatite crystal composed of {100} prism and {101}, (201}, and {211} dipyramids. Only the (211) dipyramid indicates that the s imetry is 6/m. (c)/m 2m 2/m beryl crystal with {100} and (110) prisms, (101) and (111) dipyramids, and (001) pinacoid. (4) 6mm zincite crystal consists of (100) prism, (101) pyramid, and (001) pedion describe minerals and mineral aggregates. Some commonly used terms are defined below. A wide variety of additional terminology is used to describe textural features of various. rock types. The reader is encouraged to peruse Williams and others (1982) for a coherent description of much of this, terminology. Minerals may or may not display crystal faces depend- ‘ing on conditions of growth Samples that display well- ‘formed crystal faces are euhedral, and those without crys- tal faces are anhedral. If crystal faces are present, but are not well formed, the term subhedral is used (Figure 2.46)36 © Crystallography Figure 2.42. 2/m3 point group. (a) Two-fold axes are parallel to the crystal axes, 3-fold axes are parallel to the long diagonals through ‘the unit cell, and mirror planes are parallel to the cube faces. (b) Striations on pyrite cube (lft) are produced by interaction between the: ‘shaded cube faces {001} and pyritohedron {102} (center). Shaded octahedroa {111} faces modify pyritohedron (right). Figure 2.43 43m point group. (a) Crystal axes are parallel to the 4-fold rotoinversion axes. Three-fold axes are parallel to the long diagonals through the cube and perpendicular to the crystal faces. Mirors are parallel to the body diagonals through the cubic unit cell, (b) Tetrahedrons {111} (dark) combined with (from left to right) cube (001), negative tetrahedron {111}, dedecahedron (011). and tristetrahedron (122). (@) © @ ‘Figure2.44. Symmetry elements in the in 4/m32/m point group. (a) Four-fold rotation axes are parallel to the a crystal axes. () Three-fold ‘axes are parallel to the long diagonals through the cube. (c) TWo-fold axes are parallel to edge-to-edge diagonals. (d) Three mirors parallel to cube faces. ¢) Six mirrors parallel to diagonals through the cube.IIS Oe OOS Figure 2.48 Combination of (001) cube (white), (011) dodeca- hhedron (light) and (111) octahedron (dark) inthe 4/m32/m point sroup. See Table 2.7 and Figure 2.30 for add tional forms that may appear. @ w © Figure 2.46 Degree to which crystal faces are well developed. (a) ubieial. (2) Subbedtal.(e) Anbedtal Crystal Habit © 37 Figure 2.47 shows the range of terminology used to describe the relative dimensions of individual crystals or mineral grains. Equant crystals have length, width, and height that are about the same. Elongate columnar, acicular, and fibrous, filiform, or capillary crystals are progressively more elongate. Stubby columnar, platy, and scaly or micaceous grains are progressively flatter or thinner. Tabular crystals are roughly book shaped and bladed crystals are relatively thin and elongate like knife blade. Some of the systematic pattems by which mineral grains are intergrown are shown in Figure 2.48, Equant minerals typically intergrow in a granular texture and elongate ‘minerals may form parallel or radiating aggregates. Platy ‘or micaceous minerals that grow in parallel alignment are foliated; those that form a radiating aggregate are plumose. a fi “oa ee — Felted Folined Plumose Figure 2.48 Patterns of mineral itergrowth. (a) Elongate min- ‘tals may form parallel, radiating, or felted masses. (b) Platy or smicaceous minerals can form foliated or plumose arrangements 46) Equant minerals may form fine- to coarse-grained granular —_p = a ious o—— lated oe Een 4 4 i l= ng | Saye Tle Pay Satyhiecom ‘Figure 2.47 Nomenclature for describing the habit of individual mineral grains asa function of relative dimensions.38 © Crystallography Insome cases the mass of intergrown mineral grains may form distinctive shapes (Figure 2.49). Colloform masses ‘consist of rounded forms, usually formed of radiating ag- ‘aregates of acicular of fibrous mineral grains. An individual colloform mass is globular if more or less spherical, or rreniform if kidney shaped, Aggregates of colloform masses are botryoidal if they look something like a bunch of grapes ‘or mammillary if more closely intergrown in allusion to the smooth, rounded forms of mammary glands. A drusy -growth consists of a mass of euhedral to subhedral crystals ‘that encrusts a surface. Figure 2.49 Iabits of crystalline masses. (a) Drusy encrustation of sphalerite and galena on white quartz. (6) Botryoidal mass of chalcedony. References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading Bloss, FD. 1971. Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, 545 p. Boisen, M.B., Jr, and Gibbs, C. V. 1985. Mathematical Crystal ography. Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 15. Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C. 406 p, Hahn, T. (ed.), 1983. International Tables for X-ray Crystallog. raph, Volume A, Space Group Symmetry. D. Reidel, Boston, 854 p. Henry, N. F.M,,and Lonsdale, K. (eds.). 1952. International Ta bles for X-ray Crystallography, Volume 1: Symmetry Groups. Kynoch Press, Birmingham, England, 558 p. (O'Keeffe, M.,and Hyde, B.G. 1996. Crystal Structures I Patterns ‘and Symmetry. Mineralogical Society of America, Washing. ton, D.C., 453 p. Smith J. V. 1982. Geometrical and Structural Crystallography. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 450 p. Williams, H., Turner, FJ., and Gilbert, CM. 1982. Petrogrephy: ‘An Introduction to the Study of Rocks in Thin Section, 2nd edition. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 626 pCHAPTER 3 Crystal Chemistry Introduction ‘Table 3.1 The Principal Atomic Particles, Part of the definition of minerals given in Chapter 1 is that ‘minerals have definite, but not necessarily fixed chemical compositions. In this chapter we explore some introductory chemistry to provide a basis for understanding mineral composition. The following questions will be addressed: What isthe nature of chemical elements? What is the abundance of chemical elements available 10 ‘make minerals? What mechanisms cause chemical elements to bond and form solids? What isthe sizeof atoms and ions? The Nature of Chemical Elements All minerals ace composed of chemical elements in various ‘combinations. The atoms that comprise each of the elements are composed of the fundamental physical building blocks ‘of matter: protons, neutrons, and electrons (Table 3.1), ‘Other particles such as nutrinos and quarks are of great ‘interest to atomic physicists, but are not important in the present context. Nucleus Protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by poorly understood strong attractive forces that overcome ‘the otherwise normal tendency of the positively charged protons to repel each other. Each chemical element has a specific number of protons in the nucleus. The number of ‘protons isthe atomic number (Z) ofthat particularelement. ‘For example, the nucleus of hydrogen has 1 proton, oxygen has 8 protons, and aluminum has 13 protons. A total of 110 different elements have been identified, but elements with atomic numbers 43 (technetium), 61 (promethium), 85 (astatine), and those greater than 92 (the transuranic Particle Blectrie Charge ‘Atomic Mass Units Proton 1.00728 Neutron 1.00867 Electon 0.00055 TAMU = 1/12 the weight of a 2C atom, ‘elements) are not known to occur naturally withthe possible ‘exception of plutonium. ‘The number of neutrons in the nucleus of each atom ‘is about the same as the number of protons for elements with a small atomic number, and larger than the number of ‘protons for higher atomic numbers, but may vary for each ‘element. Each isotope of an element has a different number ‘of neutrons. The sum of the number of neutrons and protons is the atomic weight of an atom. To distinguish among the different isotopes of an element, the atomic weight of | the isotope is written as a superscript prior to the atomic symbol. For example, potassium (K) is atomic number 19 (Z = 19) so the nucleus contains 19 protons. The isotope 2K has an atomic weight of 39, consisting of 19 protons and 20 neutrons. Isotope “°K has an atomic weight of 40 consisting of 19 protons and 21 neutrons. Electrons Electrons orbit about the nucleus. In an uncharged atom, the ‘number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. The electrons do not orbit the nucleus randomly, rather they are systematically organized into discrete energy levels identi- fied with four different quantum numbers: n, 1, mi, and m, (Table 3.2). The Pauli exclusion principle informs us that no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum ‘numbers. The four quantum numbers are something like an address, equivalent to city, street, building, and room. No two electrons can, in effect, occupy the same room. The principal quantum number 7 can have any pos- itive integer value. The energy of an electron principally 3940 © Crystal Chemistry ‘Table 3.2 Relationship among Quantum Numbers! “Angular Principat | Momentum | Magnetic Spin Quantum | “Quantum | Quantum | Quantam Sumber_| Number | Numbers | Number ‘Number of n | sre | 1 | subsnen | ms | ms _| Electrons rf « fol s o fH] 2 =} 2} a fol = o [4] 2 = 1 P =I +4 6 =} o [+t =} + [+h = "Only the K and L shells (n = 1 and 2) ae shown, ‘degends on n; higher n means higher energy. Because higher ‘energy is associated with greater distance from the nucleus, ‘the principal quantum numbers are correlated with shells that traditionally are identified with letters K, L, M, N, etc. n 123 4 Shel K L MN ‘The angular momentum quantum number / has values @) 2) between 0 and n ~ 1. It distinguishes among subshells with different shapes (Figure 3.1). Although an electron can, in principal, be in any location around the nucleus of an atom, ‘on a statistical basis it will spend most of its time within the volume represented by its subshell. The subshells are conventionally identified with leters s, p, d, and f: P0123 Subshell s p df ‘The maximum subshell number within a shell n= 1. The K shell (n = 1) has only the s subshell (! = 0), the L shell (n = 2) can have only s and p subshells (! = 1), and so forth, The subshells are commonly identified with the principal quantum number of the shell and the letter associated with the subshell. For example, the p subshell in the L shell (n = 2) is the 2p subshell ‘The magnetic quantum number m, may have integer values between —1 and +1. Itdistinguishes among different orbitals with different orientations within a subshell. The number of orbitals within a subshell is 21 + 1. For the s subshell J = 0 so my = 0 and the number of orbitals, is 1. Because only one oriensation is possible, the orbital is spherical (Figure 3.1a). In the p subshell | = 1 so the magnetic quantum numbers m; are —1, 0, and +1. ‘These are associated with three different bilobate (dumbell- shaped) orbitals (Figure 3.1b) that lie along three mutually ‘perpendicular axes. In the d subshell! = 2 so there are five “orbitals (Figure 3.1c) distinguished with magnetic quantum numbers ~2, 1, 0, +1, and +2, Four of the five orbitals ‘within the d subshell are quadralobate; the fifth is bilobate ited to Figure 3.1 Geometry of orbitals in the s, p, and d subshells. Orbitals represent the volume of space around a nucleus in which an electron is must probably located, (a) Orbitalsin the ssubshellsare spherical in all shells. (b) The p subshell contains three different bilobate orbicals oriented along orthogonal x,y, and z axes. (c) The d subshell contains five orbitals. The dey, dys, and d,. orbitals are quadralobate and lie in the xy xz, and yz planes, respectively, s0 as to bisect the angles between the orthogonal axes. The d2..2 ofbital forms a quadralobate shape with lobes aligned along the x id y axes. The ds orbital forms a torus with a bilobate shape aligned along the z axis.