Sec. 4.4 Microwave Hybrid Circuits 159 The loaded Q¢ is given by Qe ™ 10.0 = 4p (43-27) 2. Overcoupling: If & > 1, the cavity terminals are at a voltage maximum in the input line at resonance, The normalized im : . lance at the voltage maximum is the standing-wave ratio Pp. That is . : K=p (4-3-28) The loaded Qe is given by = Qe = rer (423-29) 3. Undercoupling: If K < 1, the cavity terminals are at a voltage minimum and the input terminal impedance is equal to the reciprocal of the standing. wave ra- tio. That is, (4-3-30) The loaded Qe is given by =o. 3 Oe = ee (4-3-31) The relationship of the coupling coefficient K and the standing-wave ratio is shown in Fig. 4-3-6. Standing-wave ratio p Figure 4-3-6 Coupling coefficient ver- Coupling coefficient K sus standing-wave ratio, 44 MICROWAVE HYBRID CIRCUITS A microwave circuit ordinarily consists of several microwave devices connected in a way to achieve the desired transmission of a microwave signal, The intercon- nection of two or more microwave devices may be regarded as a microwave junc- tion. Commonly used: microwave junctions include such waveguide tees as the E- © Scanned with OKEN Scanner| 160 Microwave Waveguides and Components Chay , plane tee, H-plane tee, magic tee, hybrid ring (rat-race circuit), directional coy und the circulator. This section describes these microwave hybrids, which are shoy, in Fig. 4-4-1 ' ‘A two-port network is shown in Fig. 4-4-2. From network theory a two-por, device can be described by a number of parameter sets, such as the HY, Z, ang ABCD parameters. = i ale hy haa SLV2 = fon ye] [M T= yuV + ye (4-4.3) ya yoo JLVs. ty = yaVi + Yo (4-4-4) fh + hiVe (4-4-1) ah + V2 (4-4-2) vy hh, ¥ parameters: (*] Collinear arms Port 2 H Eam 1 Port 1 = x Port 3 Port 3 Collinear arms Port 2 Harm (2) E-plane tee (b) H-plane tee Ami ‘Am 2 ArmP (c) Magic tee Port 1 Coupling holes (©) Directional coupler (Circulator Figure 4-4-1 Microwave hybrids. (a) E-plane tee. (b) H-plane tec. (c) Magic tec. {d) Hybrid ring. (c) Directional coupler. (f) Circulator. 4 @ scanned with OKEN Scannergec. 4.4 Microwave Hybrid Circuits 161 Figure 4-4-2 Two-port network. Z parameters: [¥| 7 [z =") V= tuk + 22h (4-4-5) al= len mmlln] = ah + rah (4-4-6) ABCD parameters: [*'] [4 ll Al Vi = Ah - Bh (4-4-7) 1 Cc Dil-b N= CV, - Dh (4-4-8) Alll these network parameters relate total voltages and total currents at each of the two ports. For instance, 4 Ay = 1 (short circuit) (4-4-9) veo ha = (open circuit) (4-4-10) Vs =o If the frequencies are in the microwave range, however, the H, Y, and Z parameters cannot be measured for the following reasons: 1. Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and total current at the ports of the network. 2. Short and open circuits are difficult to achieve over a broad band of frequen- cies. 3. Active devices, such as power transistors and tunnel diodes, frequently will not have stability for a short or open’ circuit. Consequently, some new method of characterization is needed to overcome these problems. The logical variables to use at the microwave frequencies are traveling Waves rather than total voltages and total currents. These are the S parameters, which are expressed as by = Sua + Sina (4-4-1 1a) by = Suay + Str (4-4-11b) t Figure 4-4-3 shows the S parameters of a two-port network. Aye a: 8 Figure 44-3 Two-por network. © Scanned with OKEN Scanneree ,] 162 Microwave Waveguides and Components Chap. g 4-4-1 Waveguide Tees As noted, waveguide tees may consis of the E-plane tee, H-plane tee, magic S hybrid rings, corners, bends, and twists. All such waveguide components are dis. cussed in this section. Tee junctions. In microwave circuits a waveguide or Coaxial-line with three independent ports is commonly referred to as a tee junction. Fro) Parameter theory of a microwave junction it is evident that atee characterized by a matrix of Junction m the §. junction should be third order containing nine elements, six of which ics of a three-port junction can be explained - These theorems are derived from the equiva ction. Their statements follow 1. A short circuit may alway tion in such a way that arms 2 If pl Ws be placed in one of the arms of a three-port june. no power can be transferred through the other two the junction is symmetric about one of its arms, a short circuit can always be laced in that arm so that no reflections occur in Power transmission between Ms present matched impedances.) impossible for a general thrce-port junction of arbitrar: Present matched impedances at all three arms The E-plane tee and H-plane tee are described below. in Al axis of its side arm Parallel to the E E-plane tee is a Waveguide tee in which the ficld of the main guide (see Fig. 4-4-4) IRRRB @ scanned with OKEN Scannerec.44 Microwave Hybrid Circuits 163 Out < Port 3 Port | Port 2 In Out a) In Port 3 Port 1 Port 2 Out Out Figure 4-45 Two-way transmission of E-plane tec. (a) Input through main arm. o) (b) Input from side arm, is always negative. The negative sign merely means that Si; and Sz) have opposite signs. For a matched junction, the S matrix is given by 0 Sx Sw S=]S, 0 Sy (4-4-13) Su Sn 0 From the symmetry property of S matrix, the symmetric terms in Eq. (4-4-13) are equal and they are Sia = Sa Six =Sn Sy = Su (4-4-14) From the zero property of S matrix, the sum of the products of each term of any Column (or row) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other column (or row) is zero and it is SuSh + SnS% + SuSh = 0 (4-4-15) Hence SuSh = 0 (44-16) This means that ei d 7), the wave in the ferrite is rotated in 4 Curves of Hr Versi Hee Figure for axial propagation © Scanned with OKEN Scanner6 Microwave Waveguides and Components a7 Chap, ise directi fhe propagation phase constant 9: wise direction. Consequently, tl i : Fi phoresis difers from the propagation phase constant B- for ie 4! te direction. By choosing the length of the ferrite slab and the dc magnetic fe a reat o= @ -pye=3 (46 a differential phase shift of 90° for the two directions of Propagation can be ms tained. 4-6-1 Microwave Circulators A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide Junction in which the wave can flow only from the nth port to the (n + I)th port in one direction (see Fig, 4-6-2) Although there is no restriction on the number of ports, the four-port microwave bination of two 3-dB side-hole directional couplers and a with two nonreciprocal phase shifters as shown in Fig, 4-6-3. © Scanned with OKEN Scanner46 Circulators and Isolators sec 17 ‘The operating principle of a typical mic the aid of Fig. 4-6-3. Each of tbe tee edb Coun Grae Seatioplont ase shift of 90°, and each of the two phase shifters produces san introduces a ase change in a certain direction as indicated. When a wave is incklent eo ot the wave is split into {wo components by coupler 1. The wave in the primer ning arrives at port 2 with a relative phase change of 180°. The second wave neyo through the two couplers and the secondary guide and arrives at port 2 with sone, tive phase shift of 180°. Since the two waves reaching port 2 are in phase. the power transmission is obtained from port 1 to port 2, However, the wave ois through the primary guide, phase shifter, and coupler 2 and arrives at port 4 with a phase change of 270°. The wave travels through coupler 1 and the secondary guide, and it arrives at port 4 with a phase shift of 90°, Since the two waves reaching port ‘are out of phase by 180°, the power transmission from port | to port 4 is zero. In general, the differential propagation constants in the two directions of propagation in a waveguide containing ferrite phase shifters should be @ — wx = (2m + I) radis (4-6-10) @2 — ws = Int radls (4-6-1) where m and n are any integers, including zeros. A similar analysis shows that a wave incident to port 2 emerges at port 3 znd so on. As a result, the sequence of power flow is designated as 1—> 2> 3-4-1. Many types of microwave circulators are in use today. However, their princi- ples of operation remain the same. Figure 4-6-4 shows a four-port circulator con- structed of two magic tees and a phase shifter. The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180°. The explanation of how this circulator works is left as an exercise for the reader, @ ® Magic tee Phase shifter Figure 4-6-4 A four-port circulator. = i s A perfectly matched, lossless, and nonreciprocal four-port circulator has a Matrix of the form 0 Se Sa Sia Su 0 Sas Su (4-6-12) Sy Sz 0 Su Su Sa So 0 ‘ i jatrix in Eq. Using the properties of S parameters as deseribed previously, the Sm © Scanned with OKEN Scanner478 Microwave Waveguides and Components = ns. | (4-6-12) can be simplified to ooo o+co “coo coon 4-6-2 Microwave Isolators An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one nent from reflections of other components in the transmission line. An ideal Bolg completely absorbs the power for propagation in one direction and provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction. Thus the isolator is usually called ux Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave gen: tors, such as klystrons and magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load aff the generating frequency. In such cases, the isolator placed between the genera and load prevents the reflected power from the unmatched load from returning generator. As a result, the isolator maintains the frequency stability of the generate: Isolators can be constructed in many ways. They can be made by termi ports 3 and 4 of a four-port circulator with matched loads. On the other hand. tors can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a rectangular waver as shown in Fig. 4-6-5. The isolator here is a Faraday-rotation isolator. Its ope= Principle can be explained as follows [5]. The input resistive card is in the y-> place and the output resistive card is displaced 45° with respect to the input card. The & magnetic field, which is applied longitudinally to the ferrite rod, rotetes the plane of polarization by 45°. The degrees of rotation depend on the length and ameter of the rod and on the applied de magnetic field. An input TE: domines: mode is incident to the left end of the isolator. Since the TEs: mode w dicular to the input resistive card, the wave passes through the ferrite red witt tenuation. The wave in the ferrite rod section is Totated clockwise by 45° and is mal to the output resistive card. As a result of rotation, the wave arrives at the on 4s? 4s° Direction i Resistive: of rotation > is vane oy \ ee a \, Mazzi \ Bieta '. Reflected Fer ey oe vector Input wavepuid Figure 4-65 Parada, a =e @ scanned with OKEN Scanner