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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Water war" redirects here. For the type of mock combat, see Water fight.
"Water warfare" redirects here. For the video game, see Water Warfare.
Ethiopia's move to fill the dam's reservoir could reduce Nile flows by as much as 25% and devastate
Egyptian farmlands.[1]
Causes[edit]
See also: Climate security
Water scarcity has most often led to conflicts at local and regional levels.
[13]
Water is a vital element for human life, and human activities are closely
connected to availability and quality of water.[14] Water is a limited resource.
Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable
water can exceed supply, or because control over access and allocation of
water may be disputed, or because water management institutions are weak or
missing. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures on affected parties to
obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or outright
conflict.
Tensions and conflicts over water now occur more frequently at the subnational,
rather than the transnational, level. Violence between pastoralists and farmers
in sub-Saharan Africa are on the rise. Attacks on civilian water systems during
wars that start for other reasons have increased, such as in Yemen, Syria, and
Iraq.[15] Water scarcity can also exacerbate conflicts and political tensions which
are not directly caused by water. Gradual reductions over time in the quality
and/or quantity of fresh water can add to the instability of a region by depleting
the health of a population, obstructing economic development, and
exacerbating larger conflicts.[16]
Climate change and the growing global populations also combine to put new
pressures on limited water resources and increase the risk of water conflict. [17]
Predictions[edit]
Over the past 25 years, politicians, academics and journalists have frequently
expressed concern that disputes over water would be a source of future wars.
Commonly cited quotes include: that of former Egyptian Foreign Minister and
former Secretary-General of the United Nations Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who
forecast, "The next war in the Middle East will be fought over water, not
politics"; his successor at the United Nations, Kofi Annan, who in 2001 said,
"Fierce competition for fresh water may well become a source of conflict and
wars in the future," and the former Vice President of the World Bank, Ismail
Serageldin, who said the wars of the next century will be over water unless
significant changes in governance occurred. Moreover, "it is now commonly
said that future wars in the Middle East are more likely to be fought over water
than over oil," said Lester R. Brown at a previous Stockholm Water Conference.
[18]
The water wars hypothesis had its roots in earlier research carried out on a
small number of transboundary rivers such as the Indus, Jordan and Nile.
These particular rivers became the focus because they had experienced water-
related disputes. Specific events cited as evidence include Israel's bombing of
Syria's attempts to divert the Jordan's headwaters, and military threats by Egypt
against any country building dams in the upstream waters of the Nile.
Another factor raising the risks of water conflicts is growing competition for
water in water-scarce regions, where necessities for water supply for human
use, food production, ecosystems and other uses are running up against water
availability. Extreme hydrologic events such as floods and droughts are also
worsening the risks of water conflicts. As populations and economic
development increase, water demands can also increase, worsening
disagreements over the allocation and control of limited water in some regions
or countries, especially during drought, or in shared international watersheds. [12]
Water resources that span international boundaries are more likely to be a
source of collaboration and cooperation than war. Scientists working at
the International Water Management Institute have been investigating the
evidence behind water war predictions. Their findings show that, while it is true
there has been conflict related to water in a handful of international basins, in
the rest of the world's approximately 300 shared basins the record has been
largely positive. This is exemplified by the hundreds of treaties in place guiding
equitable water use between nations sharing water resources. The institutions
created by these agreements can, in fact, be important factors in ensuring
cooperation rather than conflict.[19]
Categories[edit]
Water-related conflicts can be categorized as follows: [20]
Responses[edit]
Cooperation[edit]
Transboundary institutions can be designed to promote cooperation, overcome
initial disputes and find ways of coping with the uncertainty created by climate
change.[26] The effectiveness of such institutions can also be monitored. [26]
The Indus River Commission and the 1960 Indus Water Treaty have survived
two wars between India and Pakistan despite the two countries' mutual hostility,
proving a successful mechanism in resolving conflicts by providing a framework
for consultation, inspection and exchange of data. The Mekong Committee has
functioned since 1957 and outlived the Vietnam War of 1955–1975. In contrast,
regional instability results when countries lack institutions to co-operate in
regional collaboration, like Egypt's plan for a high dam on the Nile. As of 2019
no global institution supervises the management of trans-boundary water
sources, and international co-operation has happened through ad
hoc collaboration between agencies, like the Mekong Committee which formed
due to an alliance between UNICEF and the US Bureau of Reclamation.
Formation of strong international institutions seems [original research?] to provide a way
forward – they encourage early intervention and management, [citation needed] avoiding
costly dispute-resolution processes.
The Israel/Jordan Project Prosperity[27][28] water-for-energy deal, with the
cooperation of the UAE, will bring solar generated electricity from Jordan to
Israel, and Israel will provide desalinated water to Jordan. The UAE will assist
with the installation of the solar power system in Jordan.
One common feature of almost all resolved disputes is that the negotiations had
a "need-based" instead of a "right–based" paradigm. Irrigable lands, population,
and technicalities of projects define "needs". The success of a need-based
paradigm is reflected in the only water agreement ever negotiated in the Jordan
River Basin, which focuses in needs not on rights of riparians. In the Indian
subcontinent, the irrigation requirements of Bangladesh determine water
allocations of the Ganges River.[citation needed] A need-based, regional approach
focuses on satisfying individuals with their need of water, ensuring that
minimum quantitative needs are met. It removes the conflict that arises when
countries view the treaty from a national-interest point-of-view and move away
from a zero-sum approach to a positive-sum, integrative approach that equitably
allocates water and its benefits.[citation needed] This means that both equity and
efficiency of water use systems become significant, particularly under water
scarcity. The combination of these two performance factors should occur in the
context of sustainability making continuous cooperation among all the
stakeholders in a learning mode highly desirable. [29]
Sustainable management of water resources[edit]
The Blue Peace framework developed by Strategic Foresight Group in
partnership with the governments of Switzerland and Sweden offers a unique
policy structure which promotes sustainable management of water resources
combined with cooperation for peace. By making the most of shared water-
resources through cooperation rather than mere allocation between countries,
the chances for peace can increase.[30][need quotation to verify] The Blue Peace approach has
proven effective in (for example) the Middle East [31][32] and the Nile basin.[31][33]
Programs by the United Nations[edit]
The UN UNESCO-IHP Groundwater Portal aims to help improve understanding
of water resources and foster effective water management. But by far the most
active UN program in water dispute resolution is its Potential Conflict to Co-
operation Potential (PCCP), which is in its third phase, training water
professionals in the Middle East and organizing educational efforts elsewhere.
[34]
Its target groups include diplomats, lawmakers, civil society, and students of
water studies; by expanding knowledge of water disputes, it hopes to
encourage cooperation between nations in dealing with conflicts.
UNESCO has published a map of trans-boundary aquifers.[35] Academic work
focusing on water disputes has yet to yield a consistent method for mediating
international disputes, let alone local ones. But UNESCO faces optimistic
prospects for the future as water conflicts become more public, and as
increasing severity sobers obstinate interests.
Arbitration by international organizations[edit]
International organizations play the largest role in mediating water disputes and
improving water management. From scientific efforts to quantify water pollution,
to the World Trade Organization's efforts to resolve trade disputes between
nations, many types of water disputes can be addressed through current
frameworks and institutions.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) can arbitrate water disputes presented by
its member states when the disputes are commercial in nature. The WTO has
certain groups, such as its Fisheries Center, that work to monitor and rule on
relevant cases, although it is by no means the authority on conflict over water
resources.
Still, water conflict occurring domestically, as well as conflict that may not be
entirely commercial in nature may not be suitable for arbitration by the WTO.
Because water is so central to agricultural trade, water disputes may be subtly
implicated in WTO cases in the form of virtual water,[36][37] water used in the
production of goods and services but not directly traded between countries.
Countries with greater access to water supplies may fare better from an
economic standpoint than those facing crisis, which creates the potential for
conflict. Outraged by agriculture subsidies that displace domestic produce,
countries facing water shortages bring their case to the WTO.
The WTO plays more of a role in agriculturally based disputes that are relevant
to conflict over specific sources of water. Still, it provides an important
framework that shapes the way water will play into future economic disputes.
One school of thought entertains the notion of war over water, the ultimate
progression of an unresolved water dispute—scarce water resources combined
with the pressure of exponentially increasing population may outstrip the ability
of the WTO to maintain civility in trade issues. [38]
Due to record low rainfall in Summer 2005, the reservoir behind Sameura Dam runs low. The
reservoir supplies water to Takamatsu, Shikoku Island, Japan.
Research[edit]
Some research from the International Water Management Institute and Oregon
State University has found that water conflicts among nations are less likely
than is cooperation, with hundreds of treaties and agreements in place. Water
conflicts tend to arise as an outcome of other social issues. [80] Conversely,
the Pacific Institute has shown that while interstate (i.e., nation to nation) water
conflicts are increasingly less likely, there appears to be a growing risk of sub-
national conflicts among water users, regions, ethnic groups, and competing
economic interests. Data from the Water Conflict Chronology show these
intrastate conflicts to be a larger and growing component of all water disputes,
and that the traditional international mechanisms for addressing them, such as
bilateral or multilateral treaties, are not as effective. [81] Some analysts estimate
that due to an increase in human consumption of water resources, water
conflicts will become increasingly common in the near future. [82][83]
Naho Mirumachi and John Anthony Allan proposed the Transboundary Water
Interaction Nexus (TWIN) approach in 2007 as a two-dimensional method to
approaching water conflict and cooperation. [84] This model neglects the
conventional linear continuum of conflict and cooperation and instead sees the
two as coexisting and not mutually exclusive. They postulate that not all
cooperation is good, and not all conflict is bad. [85] The TWINS approach can also
serve as a useful final step after separate. analyses on cooperative methods
and conflict intensity measures.[86] The model is split into two parts—the
horizontal scale (measures cooperation intensity) and the vertical scale
(measures conflict intensity).