sehy , Why study literature? When there are so many things to study today, why study erature? Traditionally, at least two answ have been given to this question, One Is that Iterature is fun. It's delightful, One of the basle purposes Of Iterature has always been to entertain, and anything that is genuinely entertaining has value’ The other answer is that literature teaches us many things. It not only delights, It instructs. Those two answers are 3s old, or older than the Roman poet Horace. Let us first look more closely atthe second of these two answers and see what literature teaches us. What is erature? Let us begin by asking the question, "What is literature?" First ofall, what s literature all about? What is its subject? Its subject is nothing less than human life, human experience. Every poem, play or story deals with some aspect of human life and experience. It has sometimes been said that literature is like a mirror that reflects life for us. What, by contrast, is the subject of linguistics? In linguistics, we look at language itself, but in literature, we use language to look at life. Literature, as one of the humanities, thus parts company with the sciences. The sciences, like linguistics, all specialize (and analyze}, looking only at one aspect of reality, whereas the humanities generalize (and synthesize), looking at the whole of life. How then, does literature deal with life? Does it deal with life in a concrete or an abstract way? We can say that literature presents human experience; it doesn't discuss it. It shows; it doesn't tell. It appeals, to our senses and to our feelings as well as to our minds. It enables us to see, hear and feel characters in action, In a sense, it recreates experience. Philosophy also takes human life or experience as Its subject, but it deals with life in a theoretical rather than a concrete way. To cite just one example, 2 philosopher might write a book explaining to us the defects of the philosophy called. “utlitarianis bu 7: in which he exposed concretely, through story, the problems with utilitarianism. He enables us, in this way, not only to understand the problems with our minds, but also to see and hear them with our senses and feel them with our hearts as well We have said that literature reflects life. How then is a novel about a twenty-four hour period (such as James Joyce's Uiysses) different from a book that merely records everything that happened in twenty Four hours? Or how is a movie different from someone with a movie camera who simply walks around at random for two or three hours and shoots whatever he sees? Don't both "reflect" life? But literature doesn't simply record life—it interprets it. It doesn't simply reflect life—it focuses it. It's a mirror, but a special kind of mirror. It's a mirror in which we can see ourselves even more clearly, more vividly than in an ordinary mirror. Through a process sometimes called "artistic selection” the writer or poet or movie maker simplifies experience, yet at the same time he clarifies and deepens it. He selects that which is most important, most basic. In other words, he tries to make sense out of life. He reflects on the meaning of life. So there is implicit in every poem or play or story a "worldview," a set of values. Literature (as well 25 philosophy) asks and answers the "big questions": 1} Where have we come from? 2) Where are we going? 3) What is the meaning of our existence? Literature not only asks these questions in a searching and eloquent way, but also provides us with a wide variety of possible answers. Literature According to Plato and Aristotle ‘Scanned with CamSeanner7 all that 1s not fh Knowledge” says Thomas De Quincy. We shall study the liters so power and eet #9 communicate OF Power i aso referred as creative writing whlle evaluation of caeg pote and evaluation erature ve writing Is referred as eicicm, The critical enquiry had begun almost in the 4th century B.C. in Greece, Socrates, was the frst critic who examined poetry as a part of his mona phil moral philosopher and not a literary critic. Plato's critical ab ‘The Symposium, The Republic and The Laws. In The lon, imaginative literature, but in The Republic which i treatise on hs concen oy Ide Poetry on moral and philosophical grounds, Tis oF Weal State, he rejected Plato, the great disciple of losophy. Plato was basically a Pato was a great moral philosopher and his primary concentration was to induce moral valves in the sestre eon 19 seek the ultimate Truth. So when he examines poetry his tol is rather mona not aesthetic. He confused aesthetics with moralty and ultimately concluded pocty an ad imitative in nature, On the other hand, Aristotle ~ the most distinguished disciple of Pato wes « itl scholar, logician and practical philosopher. The master was an inspired genius every way greater than the disciple except in logic, analysis and commonsense. He is known for his critical tree () The Poetics and (i) The Rhetoric, dealing with art of poetry and art of speaking, respectively. Aristotle examines poetry as a form of art and evaluates its constituent elements on the basis of ite aesthette beauty. For the centuries, Aristotle had been considered as a law-giver inthe field of crtciem in Europe, Aristotle actually observed the then available forms of literature and analyzed them and codified the rules. In his work he has described the characteristics of Tragedy, Comedy and Epic in elaborative manner. But unfortunately, the library of Athens was burnt down in which the most part of his treatise was lost whatever is available at present is considered as The Poetics. Fortunately we find a detaled ote on Tragedy, which throws light also on the fundamental elements of good literature. In his theory of Mimesis, Plato says that all art is mimetic by nature; art is an imitation of life. He believed that ‘idea’ is the ultimate reality. Art imitates idea and so it is imitation of reality. He gives an. example of a carpenter and a chair. The idea of ‘chair’ first came in the mind of carpenter. He gave physical shape to his idea out of wood and created a chair. The painter imitated the chair of the carpenter in his picture of chair. Thus, painter's chair is twice removed from reality, Hence, he believed that art is twice removed from reality. He gives first importance to philosophy as philosophy deals with the ideas whereas poetry deals with illusion ~ things which are twice removed from reality. So to Plato, Philosophy is superior to poetry. Plato rejected poetry as it is mimetic in nature on the moral and philosophical grounds. On the contrary, Aristotle advocated poetry as it is mimetic in nature. According to him, poetry is an imitation of an action and his tool of enquiry is neither philosophical nor moral. He examines poetry as a piece of art and nat as.a hook of preaching or teaching. Aristotle replied to the charges made by his Guru Plato against poetry in particular and art in general. He replied to them one by one in his defence of poetry. Plato says that art being the imitation of the actual is removed from the Truth. It only gives the fiaiess of a thing in concrete, and the likeness is always less than real. But Piato fails to explain that a gives something more which is absent in the actual. The artist does not simply reflect the real ie manner ofa mirror. Art cannot be slavish imitation of reality. Literature isnot the exact reproduction of life in all its totality. It is the representation of selected events and characters necessary h a coherent action forthe realization ofthe artist's purpose. He even exalts, idealzs and imaginatively reereses 4 world which has its own meaning and beauty. These elements, present nat are absent inthe row one rough real. While 2 poet creates something less than realty he atthe same times creates somite more as well. He puts an idea of the reality which he perceives in an object. This ‘more’, a ‘Scanned with CamSeannerand perception, isthe alm of the artist. Artistic creation cannot t be fi ri Not the creation in concrete terms of things and beings alti critieted on the ground that iis Thus con: the Truth but leads us to the essential reality of life, ‘sidered, it does not take us away from Plato again says that art is bad because it does not inspire vi teaching the function of at? Ist the alm of the artist? The function ef mee ste aly. But is Communicate experience, express emotions and represent life, It should never ec eee et function of ethics which is simply to teach morality fan artist succeeds in plessng co eset ith the sense, he is a good artist. If he fails in doing so, he is a bad artist. 1 1 Us in the aesthetic here is no other crit worth. RA.Scott James observes: "Morality teaches. Art does not attempt to tose ieamey —— is thus or thus that Ife is percelved to be, That fs my bit of reality, say the artist. Take Won een draw any lessons you like from t= that Is my account of things as they ae~if thes any veloe ova evidence of teaching, use it, but that isnot my business: | have given you my rendering, my acca’: fon, my dream, my illusion ~ call it what you will. If there Is any lesson init itis yours to drain mine to preach.” Similarly, Plato's charges on needless lamentations and ecstasies at the imoginery events of sorrow and happiness encourage the weaker part of the soul and numb the faculty of res, These charges are defended by Aristotle in his Theory of Catharsis, David Daiches summarizes frictorec views in reply to Plato's charges in brief: “Tragedy (Art) gives new knowledge, yields aesthetic satisfaction and produces a better state of mind.” Plato judges poetry now from the educational standpoint, now from the philosophical one and then from the ethical one. But he does not care to consider it from its own unique standpoint. He does not define its aims. He forgets that everything should be judged in terms of its own aims and objectives, its ‘own criteria of merit and demerit. We cannot fairly maintain that music is bad because it does not paint, or that painting is bad because it does not sing. Similarly, we cannot say that poetry is bad because it does not teach philosophy or ethics. If poetry, philosophy and ethics had identical function, how could they be different subjects? To denounce poetry because it is not philosophy or ideal is clearly absurd. History of literature ‘The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry which attempts to provide entertainment, enlightenment, or instruction to the reader/listener/observer, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces. Not all writings constitute literature. Some recorded materials, such as compilations of data (e.g., a check register) are not considered literature, and this article relates only to the evolution of the works defined above. Literature and writing, though connected, are not synonymous. The very first writings from ancient Sumer by any reasonable definition do not constitute literature—the same is true of some of the early Egyptian hieroglyphics or the thousands of logs from ancient Chinese regimes. Scholars have often disagreed concerning when written record-keeping became more like “literature” than anything else; the definition is largely subjective. Moreover, given the significance of distance as a cultural isolator in earlier centuries, the historical development of literature did not occur at an even pace across the world. The problems of creatg a uniform global history of literature are compounded by the fact that many texts have been lost over the millennia, either deliberately, by accident, orby the total disappearance ofthe originating culture. Mush has been written, for example, about the destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the 2st century Bt, and the innumerable key texts which are believed to have been lost forever to the flames, Te deliberate wsuppression of texts (and often their authors) by organisations of either a spiritu temporal nature further shrouds the subject. 3 ‘Scanned with CamSeannererta xs, however, may be isolated which have a qualifying role as literature’ frst tir freon, marcus Include Eple of Gilgamesh, in its Sumerian version predating pany aes Egyptian Book ofthe Dead written down in the Papyrus of An in approximately 1250 B¢ bay ene dates from about the 18th century BC. Ancient Egyptian literature was not inclided in early see the history of literature because the writings of Ancient Egypt were not translated ie fs lies of languages until the 19th century when the Rosetta stone was deciphered. ‘uropean Many texts handed down by oral tradition over several centuries before they were fixed in written f. are dificlt or impossible to date. The core ofthe Rigveda may date to the mid 2nd millennlum Be ye Pentateuch is traditionally dated to the 15th century, although modern scholarship esti b tes part to date to the 10th century BC at the earliest. Hes tials plas Homer's lliad and Odyssey date to the 8th century BC and mark the beginning of Classical YritiQuitys They also stand in an oral tradition that stretches back to the late Bronze Age. Indian gruti texts post-dating the Rigveda (such as the Vajurveda, the Atharvaveda and the Brahmanas, as well as the Hebrew Tanakh and the mystical collection of poems attributed to Lao Tze, the Tas te Ching, date to the Iron Age, but their dating is dificult and controversial. The great Hindu epics were also transmitted orally likely predating the Maurya period. China ‘TheiGlassicofPaetry (or Shijing) is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, comprising 305 works by anonymous authors dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. The Chu Ci anthology (or Songs of Chu) is a volume of poems attributed to or considered to be inspired by Qu Yuan's verse writing, Qu Yuan is the first author of verse in China to have his name associated to his work and is also regarded 2s one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese classical literature. The first great author on military tactics and strategy was Sun Tzu, whose The Art of War remains on the shelves of many modern military officers (and its advice has been applied to the corporate world as well). Philosophy developed far differently in China than in Greece—rather than presenting extended dialogues, the Analects of Confucius and Lao Zi's Tao Te Ching presented sayings and proverbs more directly and didactically: The Zhuangzi is composed of a large collection of creative anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables; a masterpiece of both philosophical and literary skill, it has significantly influenced writers and poets for more than 2000 years from the Han dynasty to the present. Among the earliest Chinese works of narrative history,ZU6"ZHUAA is a gem of classical Chinese prose. This work and the Shiji or Records of the Grand Historian, were regarded as the ultimate models by many generations of prose stylists in ancient China. Hebrew Literature The books that constitute the Hebrew Bible developed over roughly a millennium. The oldest texts seem to come from the eleventh or tenth centuries BCE, whilst most of the other texts are somewhat later. They are edited works, being collections of various sources intricately and carefully woven together. ‘The Old Testament was compiled and edited by various men over a period of centuries, with many scholars concluding that the Hebrew canon was solidified by about the 3rd century BC. The works have been subject to various teary evaluations (both secular and religious). Friedrich Nietzsche wrote the Jewish Old Testament, there are men, things and speeches in so grand a style that Greek and Indian “ ‘Scanned with CamSeannerliterature have nothing to compare to it. One stands with swe and bet Tenants of what man once was... The taste for the Old Testament Is a tango ore Hes tremendous "smallness". Suchstone of "greatness" and Classical antiquity Greek literature Ancient ae society placed considerable emphasis upon literature, western literary tradition to have ‘begun with the epi n rt | pic poems The Iliad i elants in the literary canon for their skillful and vivid BepRGtORS of war apes ee crema love and hatred. Notable among later Greek a asa genre. A playwright NamedgAGSEhYIUS changed Western literature forever when he Introduced the ide dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting. In doing so, he essentially invented “dome ne Orestela trilogy of plays is seen as his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were Sophocles and Guripides: Sophocles is credited with skilfully developing irony as a Iterary techn most famously in his play Oedipus the King. Euripedes, conversely, used plays to challenge societal norms and mores—a hallmark of much of Western literature for the next 2,300 years and beyond—and his works such as Medea, ThesBacchae and THE Trojan:Women are still notable for their ability to challenge our perceptions of propriety, gender, and war. Aristophanes) a comic playwright, defines and shapes the idea of comedy almost as Aeschylus had shaped tragedy as an art form—Aristophanes' most famous plays include the Lysistrata and The Frogs: Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues of Plato, who converted the give and take of Socratic questioning into written form. Aristotle, Plato's student, wrate dozens of works on many scientific disciplines, but his greatest contribution to literature was likely his Poetics, which lays out his understanding of drama, and thereby establishes the first criteria for literary criticism. The New Testament is an unusual collection of texts—John's Book of Revelation, though not the first of its kind, essentially defines apocalypse as a literary genre. Latin literature In many respects, the writers of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire chose to avoid innovation in favor of imitating the great Greek authors. Virgil's Aeneid, in many respects, emulated Homer's lliad Plautus, a comic playwright, followed in the footsteps of Aristophanes; Tacitus’ Annals and Germ follow essentially the same historical approaches that Thucydides devised (the Christian Ori Eusebius does also, although far more influenced by his religion than either Tacitus ace 7 been by Greek and Roman polytheism); Ovid! and his (Metamorphoses explore the sare Ge ns again in new ways. It can be argued, and has been, that the Roman authors, far Fenians ee copycats, improved on the genres already established by their Greet p fores a Metamorphoses creates a form which is a clear predecessor of the stream of on few literary styles is undeniable is that the Romans, in comparison with the Greeks, innovate re of their own. jwas the fir .e satire extensively a5 : 0 literature — Horace rst to us tool for argument, and Juvénal made it into a weapon. ‘Scanned with CamSeannerand his The City of God do for religious literature essen ‘ysmuatinesobadion® 2"¢ hi: sential Philosophy, but Augustine's approach was far less conversational and mare quent Plato had done for perhaps the frst true autobiography, and it gave rie to the genre of corners His Confessions is more popular than ever. ional litera indi ture which is now Knowledge traditions in India handed down Philosophi Phical Bleanngs and theolo the two traditions ofShrut] and Simity meaning that which is learnt and te Which i indluded the Vedas. It is generally believed that the Puranas are the oxy Saye ‘works such have influenced countless other works, including Balinese;Kecak and other performances such as shadow : Puppetry (wayang), and many Euroy Srature has an important position in the rise of Buddhism. Classical Sancirn Mawes hose in the Maurya and Gupta periods, roughiy Spanning the 2nd century BC to the cool 8th century AD. Middle Ages Europe After the fall of Rome (in roughly 476), many of the literary approaches and styles invented by the Greeks and Romans fell out of favor in Europe. n the millennium or so that intervened between Rome's il and the Florentine Renaissance, medieval literature focused more and more on faith and fatty related matters, in part because the works written by the Greeks had not been preserved in Europe. and therefore there were few models of classical literature to learn from and move beyond. What litle there was became changed and distorted, with new forms beginning to develop from the distortions, Some of these distorted beginnings of new styles can be seen in the literature generally described as Matter of Rome, Matter of France and Matter of Britain. Following Rome's fall, Islam's spread across Asia and Africa brought with it a desire to preserve and build upon the work of the Greeks, especially in literature. Although much had been lost to the tavages of time (and to catastrophe, as in the burning of the Library of Alexandria), many Greek works remained ‘extants they were preserved and copied carefully by Muslim scribes. In Europe Hagiographies, or “lives of the saints", are frequent among early medieval texts. The writings of Bede—Historia i ‘and others continue the faith-based historical tradition begun by Eusebius in the early 4th century. Playwriting essentially ceased, except for the mystery plays and the passion plays that focused heavily on conveying Christian belief to the common people. Around 400 AD the PrudentiePsychomachia began the tradition of allegorical tales. Poetry flourished, however, in the hands of the , whose courtly romances and shomseariaene amused and entertained the upper classes who were their patrons, Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote works which he claimed were histories of Britain. These were highly fanciful and included stories of Merlin the ; le i it .ddition of the mythologies of magician and King Arthur. Epic poetry continued to develop with the addi en of inna! Northern Europe: (BEOWLIF and the )NGFSE) sagas have much in common Heid approaches to war and honor, while poems such as Dante's Divine Comedy and Geoffrey Chaucer Canterbury Tales take much different stylistic directions. il of Clermont. The crusades In November 1095 - Pope Urban Il preached the First Crusade at the Council of SE ewok, would affect everything in Europe and the Middle East for many years to oe aaa be transformed by the wars between these iwo Tass on scientific along with everyihing else, pa thse i ome image of the knight would take on a different significance. 6 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerinvestigation and the preservation of the Greek philosophical writings would eventually affect Euro pean literature. Between Augustine and The Bible, religious authors had numerous aspects of Chris ir i tianit Furthey and interpretation, more than any other single person mete turn theology into a kind of science, in part because he was heavily Influenced by Aristotle apace! were returning to Europe in the 13th century. le, whose works Islamic world The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was revmneononedina and. One Nights a, Which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by Scheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by thy the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another [5] All ede ta were often called “Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript. This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic’ source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French transiaior, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller from Aleppo. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and somarvel8 were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away" this is a process that continues, and finally culminat® in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are naw common in madern fantasy, such as genies) ji magic lamps, etc. When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go. ‘A number of stories within the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) also feature science fiction elements. One example is "The Adventures of Bulukiya", where the protagonist Bulukiya's quest for the herb of immortality leads him to explore the seas, journey to the Garden of Eden and to Jahannam, and travel across the cosmos to different worlds much larger than his own world, anticipating elements oftgalacti¢ science fiction; along the way, he encounters societies of jinns, mermaids, talking serpents, talking trees, and other forms of life. In another Arabian Nights tale, the protagonisi Abdullah the Fisherman gains the ability to breathe underwater and discovers an underwater submarine society that is portrayed as an inverted reflection of society on land, in that the underwater society follows a form of primitive communism where concepts like money and clothing do not exist. Other Arabian Nights tales deal with lost ancient technologies, advanced ancient mae that went astray and catastrophes which overwhelmed them." The City of Brass" features 2 grove of travellers on an archaeological expedition across the Sahara to find an ancient lost city and — ° recover a brass vessel that Solomon once used to trap a jinn, and, along the way, encoun mummified queen, petrified inhabitants, lifelike humanoid robots and Gutériata, — eed dancing without strings, and a brass horseman robot who directs the party towards i ie ane "The Ebony Horse" features a robot in the form of a flying mechanical horse controll 's Tale” sa robot in could fly into outer space and towards the Sun, while the "Third Qalandar's Tale also. ued a "The City of Brass" and "The Ebony Horse” can be co" the form of an uncanny boatman. examples of proto-science fi 7 ‘Scanned with CamSeannernsidered the greatest epic of ttallan Ierature, derived of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islami Hadith and the Kitab al-Mira) (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before se "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heavy <* writings ofelbamrabis The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works af qoute sPiitual William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such wy 2 oce'te Peele and Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, ead On eee’ The Battle of Moorish Othello as its title character. These works = aisle mie ie Featured a delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century v<"™| Marsh Many features the Machometi, Arabic literature fbn Tufail (Abubacer) and thn al-Nafis were pioneers ofthe philosophical novel. Ibn Tufal wrote the fi fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to alGhazall tre incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus ar 4 response to Ibn Tufall's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus} who were autodidactic feral childcen living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plat and eventually becoming the first example of 3 science fiction novel. ‘Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), is the first example of a science fiction navel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction. A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English. Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist. The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Moweli’s story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.[citation needed] ‘Among other innovations in Arabic literature was Ibn Khaldun's perspective on chronicling past eras by fully rejecting supernatural explanations, Khaldun essentially invented the scientific or sociolog'e approach to history. Persian literature mous in the west is the become the most fat ea by the Persian mathem: erses of four lines. From Persian culture the book which would, eventually, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. The Rubaiyat is a collection of poems by astronomer Omar Khayyam (1048-1122). "Rubaiyat" means "quatrains": v 8 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerExamples of e Bare ey Person protoscence Fiction include Al-Farab Earth from a distant planet, anieenee Sorat te of va bin Aafoa soar 803enag + and elements such as the fying ea mute man who Pet.[25] ey Ottoman literature The two primary streams of Ottoman writ Jewish literature Medieval Jewish fiction often drew on ancient Jewish legends, and was written in a varie including Hebrew and Judeo-Arabic. Liturgical Jewish poetry in Hebrew flourshca neuen seventh and eighth centuries with the writings of Yose ben Yose, Yanai, and Eleazar Kalir Later Jewish Boets in Spain, Provencal, and Italy wrote both religious and secular poems in Hebrews Particularly Prominent poets were the Spanish Jewish poets Solomon ibn Gabirol and Yehuda Halevi I eddiion ey Poetry and fiction, medieval Jewish literature also includes philosophical literature, mystical (Kabbalistic) literature, ethical (musar) literature, legal (halakhic) literature, and commentaries on the Bible, India Early Medieval (Gupta period) literature in India sees the flowering of Sanskrit drama, classical Sanskrit poetry and the compilation of the Puranas. Sanskrit declines in the early 2nd millennium, late works such as the Kathasaritsagara dating to the 11th century, to the benefit of literature composed in Middle Indic vernaculars such as Old Bengali, Old Hindi. China ie in Chir ir Itiple new forms developed Lyric poetry advanced far more in China than in Europe prior to 1000, as multiple new fe in the Hancring, and Song dynasties: perhaps the greatest poets of this era in Chinese literature were Li Bai and Du Fu. text, found seated in it it jamond Sura, a key Budd! inting be; Tang Dynasty China. A copy of the Diamond , t ul rea in China in adele 20th century, is the oldest known dated printed book, with a printed date of 868, The method used was block printing. -1095 AD) was the author of the Dream Pool Essays The scientist, statesman, and general Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD) aT er aaicies (1088), a large book of scientific literature that included the oldest de 5 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner‘compass. During the Song Dynasty, there was also the enormous hist compiled into 294 volumes of 3 milion written Chinese characters by the ran natacn tne 2 the year 1084 AD, The true vernacular novel was developed in China durin lo 8 the Mi needed] Some authors feel: that: China originated the novel font hts ee fame 80} teton Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong (in the 14th century), although others feel that this eple le herpes tet novel in key ways.{citation needed! Fictional novels published during the Ming peciad pone from the Margin and the Joumey to the West, which represent two of the Four Great ented eee oat coon lassical Novels of Chinese iahl Tongjian, Japan Classical Japanese literature generally refers to literature produced during t would consider a golden era of art and literature. The Tale of Genji rent ih coma ty tac Shikibu i considered the pre-eminent masterplece of Helan fiction and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of a novel. It is sometimes called the world’s first novel, the first modern novel, the first romance novel, or the first novel to still be considered a classic. Other important works of this period include the Kokin Wakasha (905), a waka-poetry anthology, and The Pillow Book (990s), the latter written by Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival, Sei Shénagon, as an essay about the fife, loves, and pastimes of nobles in the Emperor's court, The ircha poem, now one of two standard orderings for the Japanese syllabary, was also written during the early part of this period. ‘The 10th-century Japanese narrative, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, can be considered an early ‘example of proto-science fiction, The protagonist of the story, Kaguya-hime, is a princess from the Moon who is sent to Earth for safety during a celestial war, and is found and raised by a bamboo cutter in Japan. She is later taken back to the Moor by her real extraterrestrial family. A manuscript illustration depicts a disc-shaped flying object similar to a flying saucer. In this time the imperial court patronized the poets, most of whom were courtiers or ladies-in-waiting. Editing anthologies of poetry was 2 national pastime. Reflecting the aristocratic atmosphere, the poetry was elegant and sophisticated and expressed emotions in a rhetorical style. Renaissance Had nothing occurred to change literature in the 15th century but the Renaissance, the break with medieval approaches would have been clear enough. The 15th century, however, also brought Johann ‘Gutenberg and his invention of the printing press, an innovation (for Europe, atleast) that would change Inerature forever. Texts were no longer precious and expensive to produce—they could be cheaply and rapidly put into the marketplace. Literacy went from the prized possession of the select few to a much jon (though by no means universal). As a result, much about literature in broader section of the populati Europe was radically altered in the two centuries folowing Gutenberg's unveling of the printing press in 1455. printer and published English language texts including Le Morte d’Arthur (a collection of oral tales of the Arthurian Knights which is a forerunner of the novel) and Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. These are an indication af future directions in Reratur®. With the arrival ofthe printing press a process begins in which folk yarns and legends are callected within aframe story and then mass published. 10 William Caxton was the first English ‘Scanned with CamSeannerIn the Renaissance, the focus on learning for lear 3 rai popularized the sonnet as a poetic form Glovennl Sense its privileged position in the universe, whi it » which had far-reachit literature and its approach to humanity, hierarchy, and truth Early modern period ‘A new spirit of science and inve: h s stigation in Europe was part of a general understanding which began with the European invasion of the New World in wor coma through the subsequent centuries, even up to the present day. ond continues The form of writing now commonplac world—t origina sarly modern ri place across the world—the novel—ori f r n iginated from the early m Period and grew in popularity in the next century. Before the madern novel became established as a it itional % * ° form there first had to be a transitional stage when "novelty" began to appear in the style of the epic Plays for entertainment (as opposed to religious enlightenment) returned to Europe's stages in the early modern period. William Shakespeare is the most notable of the early modern playwrights, but numerous others made important contributions, including Christopher Marlowe, Moliére, and Ben Jonson. From the 16th to the 18th century Commedia dell'arte performers improvised in the streets of Italy and France. Some Commedia dell'arte plays were written down. Both the written plays and the improvisation were influential upon literature of the time, particularly upon the work of Moliére. Shakespeare, and his associate Robert Armin, drew upon the arts of jesters and strolling players in creating new style comedies. All the parts, even the female ones, were played by men (en travesti) but that would change, first in France and then in England too, by the end of the 17th century. The epic Elizabethan poem The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser was published, in its first part, in 1590 and then in completed form in 1597. The Fairie Queen marks the tra 1 period in which “novelty” begins to enter into the narrative in the sense of overturning and playing with the flow of events. Theatrical forms known in Spenser's time such as The Masque and the Mummers’ Play are incorporated into the poem in ways which twist tradition and turn it to political propaganda in the service of Queen Elizabeth I. The earliest work considered an opera in the sense the work is usually understood dates from around 1597. It is Dafne, (now lost) written by Jacopo Peri for an elite circle of literate Florentine humanists who gathered as the "Camerata”. Cervantes's Don Quixote de la Mancha has been called "the first novel" by many literary ropean novels). It was published in two parts. The first part was 615. It might be viewed as a parody of Le Morte d’Arthur (and in which case the novel form would be the direct result of This is fully in keeping with the spirit of the age of ed in giving 2 satirical twist to the stories Miguel de scholars (or the first of the modern Eu! published in 1605 and the second in 11 other examples of the chivalric romance), poking fun at a collection of heroic folk legends. il ightenment which began fram about this time and deligh satirical t snd ideas ‘of the past. it's worth noting that this trend toward satiising previous writings was only mode possible by the printing press. Without the invention af mass-produced copies of a book t would not 11 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerpossible to assume the reader will have seen the e; within the text. arlter work and will thus Understand th fe references ‘The new style in English poetry during the 17th century was metaphysical poets were John Donn ine, George Herbert, Andrew Marve movement. The Henn Y tual investigation ofthe The metaphysical poets Ind It, instead of accepting Oliver Is 'mporarily banned all theatre, festivals, jesters, mummers plays and nl Cromwell's rule temporarily b; 1 , festivals, j al i oo ivolities, The ban was lifted when the moni varchy was restored with lig Lane theatre were favorites of King Charles. = Sharks This BEises ee oo is one of the highest development era of the modem prose novel. An allegorical novel, The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which I | t John Bunyan in 1678, shite Come was Other early novelists include Daniel Defoe (born 1660} and Jonathan Swift (born 1667). Modern literature 18th century The early 18th century sees the conclusion of the Baroque period and the incipient Age of Enlightenment with authors such as Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau or Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. The late 18th century in Germany sees the beginning Romantic (Novalis) and Sturm und Drang (Goethe und Schiller} movements. 19th century In Britain, the 19th century is dominated by the Victorian era, characterized by Romanticism, with Romantic poets such as William Wordsworth, Lord Byron or Samuel Taylor Coleridge and genres such as the gothic novel. In Germany, the Sturm und Drang periad of the late 18th century merges into a Classicist and Romantic period, epitomized by the long era of Goethe's activity, covering the first third of the century. The conservative Biedermeler style conflicts with the radical Vormarz in the turbulent period separating the end of the Napoleonic wars from the Revolutions of 1848, In Denmark, the early 19th century Golden Age produced prolific literary authors such as Seren Kierkegaard and Hans Christian Andersen. In the later 19th century, Romanticism is countered by Realism and Naturalism. The late 19th century, known as the Belle Epoque, with its Fin de siécle retraspectively appeared as a "golden age" of European culture, cut short by the outbreak of World War lin 1914. n ‘Scanned with CamSeanner20th century ‘The main periods of 20th century literature 2nd Postmadern lerature,foering fom roughly 4900 yon as a rule of thumb, by World War Il. Popular literature dev ba foe science fiction. For the most part of the century mostly ignored by a genres develop their own establishments and critical awards, the British Fantasy Award (since 1971) or the Mythopoete Awar ipartite division, Modernist literature 180 respectively, divided, own wees sth fn instream literary criticism, these Such as the Nebula Award (since 1965) ds (since 1971), . GREEK AND ROMAN GODS AND AGODDESSES Greek Name a Name Description ‘on a feohiord Poseidon Neptune Godofthe sea Cronos Saturn Father of Zeus Aphrodite Venus Goddess of Love Hades Pluto God of the Underworld Hephaistos Vulcan God of the Forge Demeter Ceres Goddess of the Harvest Apollo Apollo God of Musicand Medicine Athena Minerva Goddess of Wisdom Artemis Diana Goddess of the Hunt Ares ‘Mars God of War Hermes Mercury ‘Messenger of the Gods Dionysus Bacchus God of Wine Persephone Proserpine Goddess of Underworld Eros Cupid God of Love Gaia Gaea Goddess of Earth | EDGAR ALLAN POE Edgar Allan Poe (/pou/; born Edgar Poe; January 19, 1809 - October 7, 1849) was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. Widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States amd ‘American literature as 2 whole, he was one of the country's earliest practitioners of the short story. Poe is generally considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and career. Born in Boston, Poe was the second child of two actors. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year. Thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan, of Richmond, Virginia. Although they never formally adopted him, Poe was with them well ito young ‘adulthood. Tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of secondary education for the young man. Poe attended the University of Virginia for one semester but left due to lack of money. Poe quarreled with Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. it was at this time his publishing career began, albeit humbly, with an anonymous collection of poems, Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827), eredited only to "a Bostonian". With the death of Frances Allan in 1829, Poe and Allan 13 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerreached a temporary rapprochement. Later faling as an officer's ead firm wish to be a poet and writer, Poe parted ways with John Allan, wlet at West Point and declaring for weed is focus to prose and spent the mest several yeas wor reriodicals, becoming known for his own style of literaty critic Ing for terary Journals a rary criticism. His wor nals and several tes, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York th na cae him ta srowe among eps Clem. his 13-year-old cousin. In January 1845 Poe published his poem "The hee ues. Hi wife ded of ubercorls two yeas at pba. Fryers +The Rave’ tant pecan ls com Journal, The Pern (later renamed The Styuus, though he Shel eee ones Pro Ores 7,892 8, hid nati eonebise al iously attributed to alcohol, brain c SEs See is brine and tuberculosis, and other agents. ‘ongestion, cholera, drugs, heart disease, rabies, suicide, Poe and his works influenced literature i in the United States and around the an 1e world, specialized fields, such as cosmology and cryptography. Poe and his work appear crane ai culture in literature, music, films, and television. A number of his hames are dedicated ical tay The Mystery Writers of America present an annual award known as the Edgar Award for istingulshed work in the mystery genre. Elements of Fiction A. Plot-events that form a significant pattern of action with a beginning, a middle and an end. They move from one place or event to another in order to form a pattern, usually with the purpose of overcoming a conflict. The piol is more formally called @ narrative. Elements of Plot: Beginning 4. Plot Line: @ graph plotting the ups and downs of the central character's fortunes. A very conventional plot might look like the one above. 2. Initial Situation Who are the central characters? What do they aspire to? 'e? Does the setting contribute to the narrative? the protagonist(s}? What are the conflicts} that he or i. Characters: ii, Setting: Where/when do the characters liv iii, Conflicts: What are the challenges facing she (or they) will have to overcome? ‘The beginning is often called the introduction or exposition. By establishing the characters, setting and initial conflicts, the beginning "sets the scene” for the rest of the narrative. Dickens' famous opening line in A Tale of Two Cities, "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times," is a classic piece of exposition that helps establish the social and political background of the novel. Rising Action 3. Incentive Moment: 14 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner1. Which event thrusts itself into the tension of the character the story? Anew event frequentl jostles the smoothness of things nd cre ns eB the action of + and changes the course of action, 4. Episodes: After the introduction, a story usually 4 r the . presents a seri : building from one situation Lo the rent. A new ephode for scene) bec aves Inthe plot, change, or when something realy important interrupts what has been happening. With oon nett episode, the conflict becomes more and more intense, demanding some sort of eceluren eee jon, The Climax 5. Climax: the critical point at which the central character Is about t probable outcome of the main conflict is finaly revealed (i. the Sarna pln re hes ech its climax. In a Shakespearian tragedy, the climax occurs when the main character's vmomentur switches from success to failure. Beyond that point, the ending is inevitable. However, the climax does not mark the end of conflict; it only determines how the conflict will be decided. The climax usually ‘occurs anywhere from 50% to 90% of the completed story. Falling Action 6. Falling Action (or Resolution or Denouement): the events that occur after the climax that tie up “loose ends"; they perform the necessary plot actions to fulfill the protagonist's fortunes that are now clear after the climax. It is a'tricky part of a narrative to write as the author has to decide which parts of the plot to tie up and which to leave as questions for the reader to think about (or leave for a future story). Part of the decision regarding what to tie up and what to leave open often depends on the extent to which the author wants to satisfy the reader's need for a sense of justice or closure. 7. Epilogue: the part that tells the reader what happens to the characters well after the story is finished, It's seen in longer narratives (like novels and movies) rather than short fiction, but even then it is only used occasionally. B. Author's Role in Plot 1. Plot grows out of the characters. 2. The author is always in control of what happens; fiction manipulates events; itis created. 3. Central focus of the story has to be intriguing, and the author has to arrange events in such 2 way as to: i. Eliminate all events that are not significant, Ii. Make each succeeding event more and more intriguing unti of fiction is to entertain; how well are you entertained? il he reaches the climax. The purpose C. Plot Techniques 1. Suspense: Frequently involves dilemma, e.g. Caught in a bad situation with a choice in boating accident, you can save either your mother or your husband from drowning. 2. Flashback: The author waits until the story is moving and then flashes back to reveal biographical data or deep psychological reasons why a character acts as s/he does. Itfocuses more on why things happen, rather than on what happens. 15 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner43, Telescoping: It's a matter of economy. The author can't describe 3 relGuring the time the story covers. S/ehas to choose the spniene aon othe character or by saving they happened, without much description, Art attempts versimlude notre a ome 4, Foreshadowing: The outeume of 4 cunflit is often hinted at or foreshadowed” resolution. These clues are usually very subtle; you sont tia ahed pinged ae te cheaend you've Finished the story. Eatlyon in the novel Lord ofthe Flies, the boys ralla rock deen meses of the hill into the murky jungle below. The destruction of the follage ls a symbole hin vetaere come: the boys’ descent Into savagery and destruction. Open School describes foresiaden eases technique that writers use to make the events in thelr stories more believable. In foreshadeueas he reader is given little hints about an important future event. Something like providing clues in a inn ai novel, foreshadowing ensures that when an important event occurs, the reader thinks: “Oh, 1 Sout have seen that coming" rather than, "This doesn't fit anywhere in this piece!" Foreshadowing can be a small series of events leading up to a big event, or an event that is similar in a thematic way to something that happens later." Another example of foreshadowing in Lord of the Flies occurs just after the plane crash, The author, William Golding, describes the band of choirboys as dressed all in black and moving as if one creature. The black creature is led by Jack, which is a foreshadowing ofthe evil that will soon overtake him and his followers. D. Conflict in Plot Plot usually involves one or more conflicts, which are problems that need to be solved. The “movement towards a solution is what drives the narrative forward, and is what occupies most of the protagonist's time. The more rewarding plots are often built around mental, emotional and moral conflicts. Plots involving physical conflict, war, exploration, escapes often contain the most excitement and suspense. Here are the major types of conflict ‘1. Person vs. nature 2. Person vs. person 3, Person vs. society 4, Person vs. fate 5, Person vs, him/herself (e.g. facing a difficutt personal choice or a ditemma) ‘The first four types are said to be "external conflicts", while the last is "internal conflict” E. Setting is defined as the physical location and the time of a story. In short stories, one oF both of these elements are often not defined. Physical World in which Characters Live 4. Geographical location, topography, scenery, even the arrangement of abjects in a room can carry special significance. Note detail. 2, Spot words that ask you to hear, see and feel elements that make up and strengthen awareness of physical setting. b. Characters Revealed by Setting. 1. Physical objects surround characters in different ways and these differences reveal traits and changes in characters. 16 ‘Scanned with CamSeannera. Psychologically, spiritually, economically and phy Y a eal BL | Observe feelings and actions of characters with ne changes, often so does character. = c. Listen for any remarks characters make about thelr settin d._ Look for clues to characters in ubjects they have placed inthe oh heir phys spect to thelr surroundings; as setting world, c. Setting Revealed by Characters 1. Characters contribute clues about setting. 2. When time isn't made obvious, the reader can often make inferences ft acter er inferences from objects a character 3. Dress and dialect contain clues as to historical period in period in which regional setting and social levels within a region. SS d._ Plot Assisted by Setting 1. Some stories or plots can take place only in certain setting igs. Actions governs i customs and mores. - ey races 2. Traditions established over many generations exert great influence on what characters do. 3 Physical nature also creates conditions that affect plot: setting can confine action as, for example, on the sea, or on a mountaintop. e. Atmospheric Setting 4. The mood is reliant on the words and tone of description; a jingle can be light, full of life, and exciting, or, dark, foreboding, and full of evil. 2. The selling of a Victorian drawing rour elicits an atmosphere of restraint and decorum. 3. Atmosphere can be overdrawn (as in many Harlequin romances) and become gooey manufactured emotion. f. Theme Revealed by Setting 1. Some authors skilfully use atmosphere to introduce and reinforce the theme of the novel; what happens in setting (flood) happens to characters (changed course of action). 2. Setting may reveal how man sees nature, they may show hate, agony, courage, et. or men’s struggle for insignificant things. F, Mood or Atmosphere: The moad is the feeling the reader gets while reading the story. ‘The author helps to create the mood by using carefully chosen descriptive or evocative words. It can be compared to the use of music in films. Examples of mood are: hostile, optimistic, threatening, ominous, bitter, defiant, etc... G. Theme: The theme is a recurring social or psychological issue, like aging, violence, alienation or maturity. The author or poet weaves the theme into the plot, which is used as a vehicle to convey it. The tile of the story or poem Is often of significance in recognizing the theme. What is theme? It's the unifying or central concept of a story. 7 ‘Scanned with CamSeannert's a theory of life which acts as the unifying force in a aoe SON, or the universal truth which the sto The simplest way of defining theme is this: isthe description of " (e.g. “the human condition"). Of the basic challenges of mankind in most stories it’s not just a simple moral, which i |, which is usually what'an author thi ar thinks about th ve th he theme, Identifying a story's theme: Start with a clear idea of the character's situation and the plot fe character lot. Why did the chara 'S act as they Examine closely the central conflict. Overcominga conflict is often the basis of the recurrent human challenge in the theme. Look closely at the events and/or characters that s i i eleaee eem relevant to the main line of action. Why are Does the author offer an explicit view point about th 1e theme, or does s/he me many points of view? = oe Se the Look for literary devices such as symbolism or irony. They often reveal key elements of the theme, ‘H. Symbolism: In literature, a symbol is an object, event or a character that's used to represent an abstract idea; it is something which stands for something else. Symbols are clues to what's gaing on in the story and often stand for key parts of the theme. A symbol is related to metaphor and simile insofar as it's a type of figurative (indirect/dual) language. The key thing to remember is that readers aren't told that something is a symbol, unlike a metaphor (the flower of my love) or a simile (my love is like a flower). A symbol just sits there inside the story... readers are simply expected to understand its symbolic existence. White Dove - Peace Santa/Mistletoe - Christmas Red Roses - Love Wedding Ring - Marriage/Eternal Love The mockinghird in Ta Kill A Mockingbird - a symbol of innocent people heing unjustly persecuted Napoleon in Animal Farm - Joseph Stalin, dictator of the USSR |. Point of View: What is the story's point of view? Different points of view allow for different ways of understanding the characters’ motives and events. J. Characters: Which sorts of characters inhabit the story? How do these characters add or detract from the story? K. Irony: Does the author employ irony? Is it used in specific instances, or is it revealed at the end of the narrative? What is the effect on the theme and you, the reader? LL Figures of Speech 1. Alliteration-this isa very common figure of speech that involves using words that begin with the same sound. For instance, “Sally sells sea shells by the seashore” is alliteration — and try saying it fast to see how difficult it is! it is often used in advertising siogans to creaie something catchy that more people will remember. 18 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner19 2, 10. Anaphora--uses a specific clause at the be; ginning of statement. For instance: “Good night and good luc" Cs Santen ne cates , e the same. The more itis used, the more of an emetional effect is can evoke among the 1e who are listening, Another example is "Mad world! Mad Iby William Shakespeare, kings! Mad composition!" from King John, Assonance—Remember the phrase “I Like Ike”? I i It was a very common phase for the Supported Dwight Eisenhower during his presidential run. This isa figure of speech that can on the vowel sounds in a phrase, repeating them over and over to great effect etresiees Hyperbole—"it was as big as a mountain! It was faster than rl i fast na cheetah! it was dumiver than rock!” This figure of speech makes things seem much bigger than they really were by using Brandiose depictions of everyday things. Hyperbole is often seen as an exaggeration that adds 2 bit of humor toa story. Irony—this figure of speech tries to use a word in a literal sense that debunks what has just been said. “Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the War Room!” from Dr. Strangelove is a great example. It is often used to poke fun at a situation that everyone else sees as a very serious matter. Metaphor-the use of metaphor compares two things that are not alike and finds something about them to make them alike. "My heart is a lonely hunter that hunts on a lonely hill” from a book by William Sharp is a good example of metaphor. Some writers try to use this style to. create something profound out of comparing two things that appear to have nothing at all in common. Simile—iwo things are compared thai are not really tive same, but-are used to make @ point about each other. “Life is like 2 box of chocolates; you never know what you're going to get” is a famous line from the movie Forrest Gump that illustrates the simile. This is often used to make an emotional point about something. The difference between simile and metaphor is that you can obviously see words "like" in the sentence. Metonymy-one word that has a very similar meaning can be used for another. Using the word “erown” for “royalty” or "lab coats” for “scientists” are two examples. In some ways it can be seen as a nickname for something else; for instance, “The White House said” doesn’t actually mean the White House said it (a house can’t speak!) but that the President said it. However, we all understand the meaning, and so the words are interchangeable. Onomatopoeia—is the use of a word that actually sounds like what it means. Good examples include “hiss” or "ding-dong” or “fizz.” These words are meant to describe something that actually sounds very much like the word itself. This is a trick often used in advertising to help convey what something is really like. Paradox--completely contradicts itself in the same sentence. Famous quotes that illustrate this, from George Orwel’s “1984” include: “War is peace. Ignorance is strength. Freedom is slavery. ‘Though we know these things aren’t true, they present an interesting paradox that makes @ person think seriously about what they have just read or heard. ‘Scanned with CamSeanner11, Personification—this Is a way of giving an in i tree quaked with fear as the wind approached" ree eect another. This can sometimes be used to invoke it more personable, friendly and relatable, 12, Pun-plays on words uses diferent senses of ferent word, to create something fun and interesting, For mo, founds that mak \8. For instance: “| i 6 up the day. Wooden shoe?" is a pun that actually vould ad Ike too to Holand some means “wouldn't you?” subtle that they can be tough to pickup unless you are really Istening torte puns are so type of shorthand. 14. Understatement-this is a situation in which the thing discussed is made to seem much les paportant than it realy is. This famous line from Catcher in the Rye Is a good example: "t hve ag have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny tumor on the brain.” Understatement can often be used to comedic effect. 45, Antithesis~is a contradiction that pits two ideas against eaci ather in a balanced way. “You're Gasy on the eyes, hard on the heart” is a line from a country song that illustrates this perfectly. This is often used to indicate just how something can be more than one thing at the same time. 16. Euphemism—Words that are used to soften the message are often considered euphemisms. “Passed away” is often used in place of “died” or “killed.” & “misunderstanding” might be used in place of “fight” or “argument.” And who could forget “wardrobe malfunction,” which is a fancy way of saying “your clothes fell off.” 17. Oxymoron-puts two words together that seem to contradict each other. “Military intelligence,” “real phony,” “civil war,” and “silent yell” are all examples of an oxymoron. Many people use these to promote the humor in a situation, THE CASKOFAMONTILLADO > Ex wadiay ver Lyge glut Edgar Allan Poe THE thousand injuries of Fortunato | had borne as | best could, but when he ventured oon insult | i ill not suppose, however, that gave owed revenge. You, who so well know the nature of my soul, will not sup utterance to 3 threat. At length | would be avenged; this was a point definitely, settled —but the very definitiveness with which it was resolved precluded the idea of risk. | must not only punish but puns with impunity. A wrong is unredressed when retribution overtakes its redresser. It is equally unredressed when the avenger fails to make himself felt as such to him who has done the wrong. i il. It must be understood that neither by word nor deed had I given Fortunato cause 10 ba my e004 wil. | continued, as was my in to smile in his face, and he did not perceive that my thought of his immolation, 20 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerie nad a weak point ~this Fortunato ~although in other regards hy : 1 wa feared. He prided himself on his connoisseurship in wine. Few Italians have the tgs and even the most part thelr enthusiasm is adopted to sult the time and opportunity, torrent eee Sa For the British and Austrian millionaires. In painting and gemmary, Fertanan’ toe ase mmBesture upon quack, but in the matter of old wines he was sincere, In this respeet did not Men pcantrvmen, asa I was skiful in the Halian vintages myself, and bought largely whenever Lecuid nim materia It was about dusk, one evening during the supreme mad - . iness of the car my friend. He accosted me with excessive warmth, for he had Gen Seer a motley. He had on a tight-fitting parti-strined dress, and his head was surmounted hy the cone oon and bells. |was so pleased to see him that! thought | should never have done wringing hishand. | said to him ~"My dear Fortunato, you are luckih rT ; ly met. How remarkably well you are looki Ihave received a pipe of what passes for Amontillado, and | have my doubts." eevee 'How?" said he. "Amontillado, A pipe? Impossible! And in the middle of the carnival!" replied; “and | was silly enough to pay the full Amontillado price without consulting "Ihave my doubts, you in the matter. You were not to be found, and I was fearful of losing a bargain. “Amontillado!" “"thave my doubts." “Amontillado!" “And | must satisfy them." “Amontillado!" "As you are engaged, | am on my way to Luchresi. If any one has a critical turn it is he. He will tell me ~ "Luchresi cannot tell Amontillado front Sherry.” “and yet some fools will have it that his taste is a match for your own. "Come, let us go." “Whither?” “To your vaults." Luchresi-" “My friend, no; | wll not impose upon your good nature. | perceive you have an engagement. have no engagement; ~-come." “My friend, no. It is not the engagement, but the severe cold with which I perceive you are afflicted. The .d with nitre." vaults are insufferably damp. They are encruste 21 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner"tet us go, nevertheless. The cold is merely noth for Luchresi, he cannot distinguish Sherry from Amontit! Youhave been imposed illado." ‘Upon. And as Thus speaking, Fortunato possessed himself a u of my arm; and # roquelaire closely about my person, i suffered hie te hy meteors focan Of Bak tk and drawing Mm my palazzo, There were no attendants at home; them that I should not return until the mornin house, These orders were sufficient, 1 as soon as my back was turned, ime. had told it orders not to stir from the disappearance, one and all, ig, and had given them ! exp well knew, to insure their immediate took from their sconces two flambeaux, and giv t fambeaux, and giving one to Fortunato, bowed hi , im thi h re it ° rooms to the archway that led into the vaults. | passed down a long and winding eae wes im to be cautious as he followed. ‘We came at length to the foot of ‘the descent, and stood topes upon the damp ground of the catacombs of the Montresors, . ome ‘The gait of my friend was unsteady, and the bells upon his cap jingled as he strode, “The pipe," he said. “It is farther on," said |; "but observe the white web-work which gleams from these cavern walls.” He turned towards me, and looked into my eves with two filmy orbs that distilled the rheum of intoxication. ""Nitre?" he asked, at length. “"Nitre," I replied. "How long have you had that cough?" “Ugh! ugh! ugh! —ugh! ugh! ugh! -ugh! ugh! ugh! ~ugh! ugh! ugh! —-ugh! ugh! ugh!" My poor friend found it impossible to reply for many minutes, “It is nothing," he said, at last. "Come," | said, with decision, "we will go back; your health is precious. You are rich, respected, admired, beloved; you are happy, as once I was. You are 2 man to be missed. For me it is no matter. We will go back; you will be ill, and I cannot be responsible, Besides, there is Luchresi "Enough," he said; "the cough's a mere nothing; it will not kill me. | shall not die of a cough." d no intention of alarming you unnecessarily —but you should rie ~trce* vemdhec: “and, woken, Rie True tue," repled “andj iI defend us from the damps. use all proper caution. A draught of this Medoc wil it it lay upon the Here | knocked off the neck of a bottle which I drew from a long row of its fellows that lay upor mould. the wine. "Drink," | said, presenting ios with a leer. He paused and nodded to me familiarly, while his bells jingled. He raised it to his li 22 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner“I drink," he said, "to the buried that repose around us,” “And I to your long lif He again took my arm, and we proceeded, “These vaults," he said, "are extensive.’ ‘The Montresors," | replied, “were a great and numerous family." “forget your arms." "A huge human foot d'or, in a field azure; the foot crush ieee heres fal 'eS 2 serpent rampant whose fangs are “And the motto?" lemo me impune lacessit.” j00d!" he s: The wine sparkled in his eyes and the bells jingled. My own fancy grew warm with the Medoc. We had passed through long walls of piled skeletons, with casks and puncheons intermingling, into the inmost Tecesses of the catacombs. | paused again, and this time | made bold to seize Fortunato by an arm above the elbow, “The nitrel" | said; "see, it increases. It hangs like moss upon the vaults. We are below the river's bed. ‘The drops of moisture trickle among the bones. Come, we will go back ere it is too late. Your cough ~" “It is nothing,” he said; "let us go on. But first, another draught of the Medoc.” | broke and reached him a flagon of De Grave. He emptied it at a breath. His eyes flashed with a fierce light. He laughed and threw the bottle upwards with a gesticulation I did not understand. taoked at him in surprise. He repeated the movement ~a grotesque one. "You do not comprehend?" he said. “Not |," replied. "Then you are not of the brotherhood." “How?” "You are not of the masons." "Yes, yes," I said; "yes, yes." "You? Impossible! A mason?" 23 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner“A mason," | replied. "A sign,” he said, "a sign." this," lanswered, producing from beneath the folds of my roquel a trowel, You jest," he exclaimed, recolling a few paces. "But let us proceed to the Amontillado.” “Be it so," | said, replacing the tool beneath the "I sald, cloak and again offering him m i heavily. We continued our route in search ofthe Amontilado, We passed noun avangest lon’ lescended, passed on, and descending again, arrived at a deep crypt, in which the foclnen of dao caused our flambeaux rather to glow than flame. emotes At the most remote end of the crypt there appeared another less spacious. Its walls had been lined with human remains, piled to the vault overhead, in the fashion of the great catacombs of Paris. Three sid OF this interior erypt were still ornamented in this manner. From the fourth side the bones had! heen thrown down, and lay promiscuously upon the earth, forming at one point a mound of some size. Within the wall thus exposed by the displacing of the bones, we perceived a stil interior crypt or recess, in depth about four feet, in width three, in height six or seven. It seemed to have been constructed for no especial use within itself, but formed merely the interval between two of the colossal supports of the roof of the catacombs, and was backed by one of their circumscribing walls of solid granite. It was in vain that Fortunato, uplifting his dull torch, endeavoured to pry into the depth of the recess. Its termination the feeble light did not enable us to see. "Proceed," | said; "herein is the Amontillado. As for Luchresi --" “He is an ignoramus,” interrupted my friend, as he stepped unsteadily forward, while | followed immediately at his heels. In niche, and finding an instant he had reached the extremity of the niche, and finding his progress arrested by the rock, stood stupidly bewildered. A moment more and | had fettered him to the granite. In its surface were two iron staples, distant from each other about two feet, horizontally. From one of these depended a short chain, fram the other a padiack. Throwing the.links about his waist, it was but the work of a few seconds to secure it. He was too much astounded to resist. Withdrawing the key | stepped back from the recess. * | said, “over the wall; you cannot help feeling the nitre. Indeed, it is very damp. Once "pass your hand, you. But | must first render you all more let me implore you to return, No? Then | must positively leave the little attentions in my power. “The Amontillado!" ejaculated my friend, nat yet recovered fram his astonishment. "True," I replied; "the Amontillado." As said these words | busied myself among the pile of bones of witch | have before spoken. Towing them aside, t soon uncovered a quantity of building stone and mortar. With these materials and with tne aid of my trowel, | began vigorously to wall up the entrance of the niche. 11 | discovered that the intoxication of Fortunato had id first tie ye masonry wher Thad scarcely laid the first tier of th T had of this was a low moaning cry fram the depth in a great measure worn aff. The earliest indication 24 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerof the recess. It was not the cry of a drunk en a second tier, and the third, and the fourth; and then ree ets tHe long and obstinate silence. | laid “ aid the lasted for several minutes, during which, th my labours and sat down upon the bones, Wh level with my breast. | again paused, and feeble rays upon the figure within, A succession of loud and shrill screams, bursting suddenly from the thy to thrust me violently back. For a brief moment | hesitated, trembled, to grope with it about the recess; but the thought of an instant the solid fabric of the catacombs, and felt satisfied. | reapproached the wal, who clamoured, | re-echoed, | aided, | surpassed them in volu clamourer grew still. Kewas now midnight, and my task was drawing to a close. | had completed the eighth, the ninth and the tenth tier. | had finished a portion of the last and the eleventh; there remained but a single stone to be fitted and plastered in. | struggled with its weight; | placed it partially in its destined position. But row there came from out the niche a low laugh that erected the hairs upon my head. It was succeeded by a sad voice, which | had difficulty in recognizing as that of the noble Fortunato. The voice said-- “Hal hal ha! ~he! he! he! -a very good joke, indeed ~an excellent jest. We will have many a rich laugh about it at the palazzo ~he! he! he! ~over our wine —he! he! he!" “The Amontillado!" | said. “Hel he! he! he! he! he! yes, the Amontillado. But is it not getting late? Will not they be awaiting us at the palazzo, the Lady Fortunato and the rest? Let us be gone.’ "Yes," I said, “let us be gone." ‘or the lave of God, Montresor!" "Yes," I said, “for the love of God!" But to these words | hearkened in vain for a realy. | grew impatient. I called aloud — “Fortunato!” No answer. | called again — "Fortunato!" 1s aperture and let it fall within. There came forth in i {ta torch through the remainin wera coy aogleg ofthe nf was the dampness of the catacombs that made return only a jingling of the bells. My heart grew sic ness of the cata mr itso.! hastened to make an end of my labour. | forced the last stone into its position; | plastered it up. ‘Against the new masonry I re-erected the old rampart of bones. For the half of a century no mortal has disturbed them. In pace requiescat! The Unicorn in the Garden James Thurber ‘Scanned with CamSeannerthical beast," int me the garden. The unicorn was still th 2 high heart een ar an he pulled upa ily and g vere Was a unicarn in his garden, the man went upstairs and roused hi sed his wife again. "The unicorn," i 1 he said" "His wi He en "ate a lily.” His wife sat u by," she said, "and | am going to have you put in the ronby fac” rece searsueemeutae her back on him. Th ; . The man walked slow vere; now he was browsing, among the le ave It to him. The unicorn ate it gravely, With The man, who hi it who had never liked the words "booby" and " es h nd "booby hatch," and wh 3 shining morning when tee was ana inthe gen, ou ratret, WE so tht "he said, He walked over to the door. "He has a golden h . : tld Rennie sea back tees golden horn in the middle of his forehead,” he told garden to watch the unicorn; but the uni sat down among the roses and went tossleep. er eee eae {As soon as the husband had gone out of the house, the wife got up and dressed as fast as she could. She was very excited and there was a gloat in her eye. She telephoned the police and she telephoned a psychiatrist; she told them to hurry to her house and bring a straitjacket. When the police and the ist arrived they sat dawn in chairs and looked at her, with great interest. psychiat My husband," she said, "saw a unicorn this morning.” The police looked at the psychiatrist and the psychiatrist looked at the police. "He told met ate 2 ily," she said, The psychiatrist looked at the police a the police looked at the psychiatrist, "He told me it had 2 golden horn in the middle ofits forehead,” She said. At a solemn signal from the psychiatrist, the police leaped from their chairs and seized the wife. They had a hard time subduing her, for she put up 2 terrific struggle, but they finally subdued her. Just as they got her into the strait-jacket, the husband came back into the house. “Of course not," said the husband. "The saw a unicorn?" asked the police. aid the psychiatrist. "Take her away. I'm " “That's all | wanted to know, as ajaybird." "Did you tell your wife you unicorn is a mythical beast. sorry, sit, but your wife is as crazy jon. The husband lived So they took her away, cursing and screaming and shut her up in an institu happily ever after. ‘ARose for Emily William Faulkner 1 died, our whole town went to her funeral: the men through a sort of ; the women mostly out of curiosity to see the inside of he’ had seen in at least tet WHEN Miss Emily Grierson combined gardener and coo} respecttul affection for 2 falen ‘monument, house, which no one save an old man-servant—2 years. i Jas and spires at i ‘ance been white, decorated with cupO tt was a big, squarish frame house that had oe en ie ad onc pres scrolled balconies in the heavily lightsome style of 26 ‘Scanned with CamSeanner