Partial Fractions Proper Rational Expressions Firstly, this only works for Proper Rational Expressions, where the degree of the top is less than the bottom, ‘The degree is the largest exponent the variable has, «Proper: the degree of the top is less than the degree of the bottom. proper 2 degree of top is 1 P @—1 degree of bottom is 3 + Improper: the dearee of the top Is greater than, or equal to, the degree of the bottom. P= 1 degree of top is 2 FHI — degree of bottom is 1 Improper: Factoring the Bottom It is up to you to factor the bottom polynomial. See (Factering in Algebra But don't factor them into (complex numbers) ... you may need to stop some factors at quadratic (celled irreducible quadratics because any further factoring leads to complex numbers): Example: (x2—4)(x2+4) + x2—4 can be factored into (x-2)(x+2), * But x24+4 factors into complex numbers, so don’t do it So the best we can do is (x-2)(x+2)(x744)So the factors could be a combination of » linear factors * irreducible quadratic factors When you have a quadratic factor you need to include this partial fractior Bux + Cy (Your Quadratic) Factors with Exponents Sometimes you may get a factor with an exponent, like (x-2)9 ... You need a partial fraction for each exponent from 4 up. Like this: Example: (x-2)8 tas partial fractions +2 _4_4s X-2(x=2)? (x-2)7Example: 1 (x2+2x+3)2 Has partial fractions: Bixt+C, , Bx +C> x242x4+3 0 (x24+2x43)? A Big Example Bringing It All Together Here is a nice big exemple for you! x2415 (x43)? (x2+3) * Because (x+3)2 has an exponent of 2, it needs two terms (Ay and Ap). + And (x2+3) is 2 quadratic, so it will need BX + C: 2. x2415 eA yg A og +158 BX+C (x+3)?(x?+3) xt3 (x43)? x 43 Now multiply through by (x+3)2(x2+3): x2415 = (x43)(x243)Ay + (x243)AQ + (x+3)2(Bx + C) There is a zero at x = —3 (because x+3=0), so let us try that (-3)?+15 = 0 + ((-3)?+3)Az +0 And simplify it to: 24 = 12Az so Ay=2Let us replace Ap with 2: x? +15 = (x43)(x743)Ay + 2x?46 + (x+3)?(Bx + C) Now expand the whole thing XP+15 = (XF43KFIX2+9)A] + 2X24+6 + (xF4+6x2+9x)B + (x24+6x+9)C Gather powers of x together: x2 415 = x3(Ay+B)+x2(3A, +6B+C+2)+x(3A,+9B+6C)+(9A,+6+9C) Separate the powers and write as a (Systems of Linear Equations) xa: 0 =A, 4B x2; 1=3A)46B+C42 Xi 0 =3A;+9B+6C Constants: 15=9A,+6+9C Final Result: Ay=1/2 Ap=2 -(1/2) C=1/2 And we can now write our partial fractions: x?2445 i 2 x41 (x+3)20243) —2(+3) * (x43)? * 2(x243)Summary + Start with a Proper Rational Expressions (if not, do division first) + Factor the bottom into: * linear factors * or “irreducible” quadratic factors + Write out a partial fraction for each factor (and every exponent of each) + Multiply the whole equation by the bottom + Solve for the coefficients by * substituting zeros of the bottom + making 2 system of linear equations (of each power) and solving + Write out your answer!‘Substitution Rule For Indefinite Integrals wf 3) os(w — In w) dw Hide Soaton © inthis case took ike we have cosine wih an inside ncton and soles use tata the substitution wewotnw dua (1-5) de So, 6s withthe frst example we worked the stuf in front ofthe cosine appears exacly inthe differential, The integral then, [( Don't forget to go back to the orignal variable in the problem, 3) co(w— In) do [oostnae in(u) +e in(w —Inw) +€ oy [reu- 1) ody nie Sotation® ‘Again, itooks lke we heve an exponentalfuncton wth an inside function (ie. the exponent) and it toks ike the substution should be, uady'—y — du=(8y-1dy ‘Now, with the exception ofthe 3th sttfin front ofthe exponental appears exact inthe differential, Recall however that we can factor tne 3 aut ofthe integral and so R wont cause any problems. 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