Harlow Gale and the Origins of the Psychology of Advertising

Author(s): John Eighmey and Sela Sar

Source: Journal of Advertising, Vol. 36, No. 4 (Winter, 2007), pp. 147-158
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20460820
Accessed: 19-09-2016 21:02 UTC

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20460820?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted
digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about
JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms

Taylor & Francis, Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of
Advertising

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 HARLOW GALE AND THE ORIGINS OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADVERTISING
John Eighmey and Sela Sar

ABSTRACT: Harlow Gale taught psychology at the University of Minnesota from 1895 to 1903 and supervised one of the
first laboratories in experimental psychology in the United States. The Gale archival files at the University of Minnesota
and the citations of scholars who followed reveal the depth of Gale's innovativeness and influence as the founder of the
psychology of advertising. He was the first to undertake experimental studies on the effects of advertising and established
concepts and methods that are still followed today. Gale's accomplishments in theory and methods are numerous. They
precede associational learning models of brand equity, rank order measurement, advertising involvement, attitude toward
the ad, and low-involvement learning.

Harlow Stearns Gale (1862-1945) was a seminal thinker about
the psychology of advertising in the midst of the advertis
ing era called the "Modern Period" by advertising research
pioneer Daniel Starch. These were the years from 1850 to
1911 (Starch 1923). Gale had been among the first of the
30 American graduate students who traveled to Germany
in the late 1800s to study psychology at the University of
Leipzig under Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental
psychology (Benjamin and Baker 2004). On his return to
the United States in 1895, Gale was given responsibility for
the experimental psychology laboratory at the University of
Minnesota, and instituted a program of experiments and sur
veys on the psychological effects of advertising (Gale 1900).
Acknowledged for innovativeness in his own time (Griffith
1923; Scott 1908; Starch 1914), Gale's achievements are little
known today despite their centrality to contemporary studies
of the effects of advertising and persuasion.
In analyzing Harlow Gale's program of studies in the context
of his contemporaries and in the light of current theories, this
paper reveals how startlingly advanced he was in his time. The
analysis serves as a basis for reflection on contemporary theory
and research on the psychology of advertising and as a source
for stimulating thinking concerning the ideas that underlie
major concepts in contemporary theories and methods.
Gale was the first to undertake advertising surveys and
experiments concerning the effects of advertising on atten
tion and memory. Indeed, he appears to have been the first
person-or at least among the very first-to conduct psycho
logical experiments concerning attention. He was also the
John Eighmey (Ph.D., University of Iowa) is the Raymond 0.
Mithun Land Grant Chair in Advertising in the School ofJournalism
and Mass Communication, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities.
Sela Sar (Ph.D., University of Minnesota) is an assistant professor of
advertising in the Greenlee School of Journalism and Communica
tion, Iowa State University, Ames.
first scholar to propose a conceptual definition of advertising.
Substantiation for Gale's original accomplishments comes from
his contemporaries (Adams 1916; Griffith 1923; Scott 1908;
Starch 1914), from historians of advertising (Coolsen 1947;
Presbrey 1929), from historians of psychology (Benjamin and
Baker 2004), and from materials in four boxes of archival files
at the University of Minnesota.
Gale followed a productive programmatic approach to
study attention and memory for advertising. He developed
concepts and methods that predated the approach later used
by Daniel Starch in his tests of magazine advertising. He was
also the first to create his own mock-up of advertising stimuli
to better isolate the precise nature of the concepts he wished to
test. In discussing his findings, Gale articulated ideas similar
to "attitude toward the ad" with both affective and cognitive
aspects, central and peripheral cues, issue involvement, per
sonal influence, and unconscious attitude formation. In both
his approach and reflections on his findings, Gale can be seen as
a path-maker in the application of theory and scientific meth
ods to the study of advertising and the process of persuasion.
ADVERTISING AT THE TIME OF
GALE'S STUDIES
In his landmark text Principles of Advertising, Daniel Starch
described the decade of the 1880s leading up to Gale's research
as a time of rapid growth in advertising (Starch 1923). Starch
reported that the number of newspapers and magazines in
the United States doubled from 10,000 to 20,000 between
1880 and 1890. He also found the growth rate for amount
of advertising to be even more dramatic. During the 1880s,
for example, the number of annual advertising pages in the
monthly Century Magazine increased from 200 to 900.
The design of print advertising also changed dramati
cally during this time. The Kodak ads in Figure 1 show how
manufacturers advanced beyond description and drawings
to combine words and visuals in ways that would attract

Journal of Advertising, vol. 36, no. 4 (Winter 2007), pp. 147-158.

? 2007 American Academy of Advertising. All rights reserved.
ISSN 0091-3367 / 2007 $9.50 + 0.00.
DOI 10.2753/JOA0091-3367360411

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
148 TheJournal of Advertising

FIGURE 1
Kodak Magazine Advertisements Show Advances in Creativity

The . is n Kodak
W.1,gh, Pocket
Kodak.
PRICE, ?lao X/

"FKO1)AK C"AN' 00A

{_ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~*l~ 't..i Tb

A .-1 VAKs e* Big PicturesA itle_

rt- -.I. .L*.f -aAn."y - " -- fw bc t*".vdIt itl
A OIVIS$NO F o LfAlORft
A_y s. . &w.
.a . r, -..v- -. .-*-.. -
KODAK Urn"
- ,... ~~~~~~~~.i.. n-e.e
APJ5TsusvtsRLSQIrtzsn J5JI IA
itlF.4."..~ .~....-.' OA
baera.. __
7Zi.S. *~?. ~ ...~. .. "One Button Does It."
be.. 14.. K..t.^ h -*.c e.I #ee..g eeb.ls ., KM .t-*-'-""R " "Mi

tbt.' t+#t *t iet .-.tb *t.^tl i, ftt ' - _ .,.. ...k a.....:. ....."... . .d. . .K. . V

* I ! ls a tt t; rf sv1 esr ;: ys <? nf bse'twd [ ttturcnt s-st

Nt be~~~~AKODAK PRt1MCftP.
KODAIKS 53S.00 to 5.55.00.

THE EASTIAN DRY PLTE AND FPllc CO.1

flee.e~ 10.te4.U,. ROCHESTER. N. Y.

18808 18095 1899

Source: Ellis Collection, reprinted with permission from the J

attention, demonstratewasproduct
the test of theory. Steffens
features,reported, "[T}he and
laboratorypro
related imagery. where we sought the facts and measured them by machinery
was a graveyard where the old idealism walked as a dreadful
GALE AND ghost"NEW
THE (1931, p. 149). SCIENCE
OF PSYCHOLOGY In 1894, prepared as an experimental psychologist, a 32
year-old Harlow Gale returned to his boyhood home in Min
These rapid changes in advertising were noticed by Harlow neapolis. At that time there were no psychology departments
Gale, who was uniquely qualified to recognize and study the in American universities. In the spring of 1895, Gale joined
effects of these newly emerging attention structures in the the faculty of the University of Minnesota as a member of the
mass media. In 1883, while a sophomore at Yale, a chancePhilosophy Department (Gale 1904, p. 9). He was hired as an
reading of a copy of the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical instructor of "physiological psychology" and given responsibil
Research called Gale's attention to empirical studies of mental ity for the university's laboratory for experimental psychology
life and reasoning (Gale 1900). After completing his B.A. in (see Figure 2 for a 1896 photograph of Gale). The laboratory
1885, he undertook postgraduate studies in economics at theconsisted of "a few pieces of psychological apparatus" gath
University of Minnesota, philosophy at Yale and Cambridge, ered by the university's previous instructor in experimental
and experimental psychology at Leipzig (Kuna 1976a). psychology. It was there, until 1903, that Gale taught a series
Gale credits Professor Wilhelm Wundt for providing himof courses in psychology, including a seminar that involved
with three and a half years of "inestimable profit" working in students in conducting studies on "the psychology of advertis
the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University ing" (Gale 1904).
In 1895, in the midst of the increasing visibility of con
of Leipzig (Gale 1900). Letters in the archival files reveal that
Gale and the progressive journalist Lincoln Steffens became sumer advertising, Harlow Gale became interested in "people's
friends in Germany, studied together taking courses fromcommercial actions as influenced by street car and magazine
Wundt, and enjoyed a lifelong correspondence. Steffens quoted advertising" as an application of his training in the emerging
Professor Wundt as saying, "We want facts, nothing but facts," field of experimental psychology (Gale 1900). Up until that
and that theories were only aids to experimentation, which time, the subject of human attention had received scant experi

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 Winter 2007 149

mental attention in the laboratories of the new psychologists FIGURE 2

(Scripture 1895, p. 94). Harlow Gale in His Office in 1896

GALE'S INTEREST IN ADVERTISING

Indeed, Scripture noted the importance of "bigness" and repeti
tion in advertising, and observed, "It is a curious fact that the
keenness of business men often leads them to unconsciously
anticipate the discoveries of science." Scripture decried the
lack of experiments concerning attention, "The scientific
psychologists are deeply to blame-as I am included in the
reproach I can speak freely-for not having by experiment and
measurement rescued this chapter from the clutch of the old
psychology." Scripture further observed: "[S}ome of the most
energetic experimenting has been carried on by advertisers on
account of the business interests involved. The very principles
they have discovered are just the ones we should make use of
ourselves and in teaching others." Source: Copyright by the University of Minnesota; used with the permis
sion of the University of Minnesota Archives.

GALE'S MODERN DEFINITION

OF ADVERTISING
In the fall of 1895, perhaps influenced by Scripture's comment chival files at the University of Minnesota (see Figure 3). Gale's
on the "keenness of business men" in anticipating scientific single-page questionnaire began with a paragraph stating his
discoveries and references to advertising, Gale undertook his interest in the "mental processes which go on in the minds of
own discovery process to develop a conceptual definition of customers from the time they see the advertisement until they
advertising. Until that time, advertising was variously defined have purchased the article advertised." He explained that the
as "salesmanship in print," or, more generally, as salesman questionnaire was designed to solicit the input of experienced
ship by means of all kinds of media employed by advertisers. advertisers with respect to the goals of advertising, the range
Fowler's Publicity, the 1,016-page authoritative encyclopedia on of media used to advertise, and the best ways of advertising.
the practice of advertising at that time, stated: "[A]dvertising Twenty questionnaires were answered and returned.
as the writer sees it is a presentation of anything by any me On studying the questionnaire responses, Gale concluded
dium of connection. It travels by paper and press, by paint that the list of advertising media was long and that "it is hard
and brush, by pen and pencil, by wire, by spoken words and to draw the line at what is advertising." He noted the impor
by everything that can transmit sound or character" (Fowler tance of the more commonly used media such as newspapers,
1889, p. 30). Indeed, this "persuasion in the media" approachmagazines, posters, and signs. He went on to provide an exten
to defining advertising is well represented today in introduc sive list of other approaches, including calendars, notebooks,
tory advertising textbooks. toys, banners, samples, coupons, delivery wagons, and floats.
Gale sought advice from advertising specialists at the outset With a wide-ranging list thus in mind, Gale concluded, "[T}he
of his work on advertising. Among those he consulted were direct kinds of advertising might be characterized as any inten
Nathanial Fowler, the contemporary authority on publicity; tional means used to associate in the buyer's mind any article
George Kissam, owner of the leading agency placing streetcar or group of articles of commerce with a particular make of that
advertising on a national basis; and F.W. Decker, a leading article or with a particular seller of it" (1900, p. 40).
piano manufacturer and national advertiser (Gale 1900). In In this way, Gale can be seen as drawing on the concept
the fall of 1895, Gale sent a survey questionnaire to about of association to define advertising conceptually and in a sur
two hundred business firms in Minneapolis and St. Paul. prisingly modern brand equity-oriented manner. To Gale, it
This is one of the earliest efforts to apply the survey method
appears that advertising could be seen as a commercial and
to psychological studies. G. Stanley Hall, who had studied purposeful process to strengthen associations between a brand
with Wundt several years prior to Gale, had just begun to name and the desired aspects of the group of products (or
use the survey method in his laboratory at Clark University product category) to which the brand belongs. Gale's mental
(Kuna 1976b). process-oriented definition of advertising can also be seen as
An original copy of Gale's questionnaire was found in his ar encompassing elements of public relations and sales promotion.

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
150 The Journal of Advertising

FIGURE 3
Gale's 1895 Questionnaire

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
Question Blank No. 3 In Experimental Psychology. For the Study of Advertisiag

AT THE University of Minnesota we are making a psychological investigation of advertisements. It is atn entirelv niew field
for psychological work and onie of great and increasing importance. It is our aim to find the mental processes which go on in the
minds of the customers from the time they see the advertisement until they have purchased the article advertiswd. To get down to
the bottom of our subject anid make our work successful, we need the aid of experienced advertisers, and to thztt enid we have sent out
this circular with the following questions and will be greatly indebted to votn if you will send us vour answers to themn Please return
answers to H. Gale, University of Minnesota.
Advertisemenits seeni to have two aims, viz:
1. To attract attention.
2. To induce to buy.
It you have any corrections to make with this they will be gladly received.
We have classified the chief waYs of advertising into four groups, viz:
1. Magazines and periodicals.
'2. News-papers anid handbills or posters.
3. Show-windows.
4. Painted signs and placards.
Do you know of any- other ways of advertising?

What are the best ways you have found in your experience for attracting attentioni under these four ways of advertisinig?

Please name them in the order of their importance from best to poorest.

Source: Copyright by the University of Minnesota; photograph of the Harlow Gale questionnaire used with the permission of the University of Minnesota
Archives.
Note: Gale's 1895 questionnaire was number 3 in a series.

Indeed, his approach can be seen as consistent with today's
views about integrated marketing communication.
The leading advertising media in Gale's day were newspa
pers and magazines, however, and the traditional "salesmanship
in print" became the commonplace definition of advertising.
In his classic 1923 advertising text, Daniel Starch reinforced
the media-based approach by defining commercial advertising
as "the offering of a commodity, usually through print, in such
a manner that the public may be induced to buy it." This is
a more descriptive approach, in contrast to Gale's analytical
focus on the mental process underlying brands and their mean
ing to consumers. Gale's approach also appears more open to
innovation in terms of the kinds of actions that could be seen
as advertising. As such, Gale's ideas have particular relevance
today as rapidly developing new media provide continuous
access to an increasing number of information sources and as
mass media and interpersonal communication intersect in the
electronic media.
ORIGIN OF RANK ORDER MEASUREMENT
IN SURVEYS
The first section of Gale's questionnaire asked respondents to
list the best ways of calling attention to an ad and to "name
them in the order of their importance from best to poorest."
This has been credited as the first application of rank order
measurement (also known as the "order of merit" approach) in
survey research (Strong 1938, p. 397). This accomplishment is
sometimes credited to the psychologist Raymond Cattell, who
reported using the method in 1900. But Gale's 1895 survey
of advertising practitioners clearly demonstrates that he was
likely the first to employ the method.

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Psychology historian David P. Kuna (1979) researched the
origins of the order of merit method and concluded that Gale
and Cattell came to this method independently. However,
Kuna noted that Gale went beyond the ranking process em
ployed by Cattell to inquire about the reasons study partici
pants gave to explain their judgments. This approach was later
adopted by advertising researchers Walter Dill Scott (1903,
1908) and Daniel Starch (1914), as well as many others in the
succeeding years.
GALE'S FIRST EXPERIMENT ON ATTENTION
TO ADVERTISING
Gale seized on the mass media context and the importance of
the attention-getting capacity of advertising: "[Iln the midst
of the intense competition of this flood of advertising material,
the first question is as to the comparative attention-power of
the different means" (1900, p. 40). He viewed this as "a prob
lem of involuntary attention"-a process of selecting what to
attend to in the context of a highly competitive information
environment. This led Gale to further observe, "For if one de
liberately and voluntarily seeks or reads one advertisement over
others, then the attention problem is pushed farther back as to
the reasons which made the seeker want to find that particu
lar advertisement" (1900, p. 40). Thus, advertising provided
Gale with a context in which he could study processes of both
attention and reasoning. These studies were conducted in as
sociation with students in his advanced psychology courses.
One of these courses was an 1895 seminar in the psychology of
advertising that could be said to be the first university course
concerning the psychology of advertising.
To study the process of attention, Gale focused on the
characteristics of verbal and visual elements of magazine
advertising to, as he put it, "see what would catch one's at
tention" (Gale 1900). His approach involved contrasting the
verbal and visual elements of ads in addition to a distinction
he called "relevancy" and "irrelevancy." This distinction may
have been inspired by Scripture's observations about the rela
tionships between attention and memory in connection with
advertising. Scripture had noted the power of absurd elements
as one of the leading techniques to gain close attention and
memorability. Scripture wrote, "You cannot forget the absurd
pictures by means of which publishers and players advertise
their new wares" (1895, p. 248).
Gale contrasted the effects of four elements: relevant verbal
elements, relevant visual elements, irrelevant verbal elements,
and irrelevant visual elements. Relevant items were seen as
those that "refer in general or in particular directly to the
article or matter advertised. Irrelevant items were seen as hav
ing no association with the article, such as "an attractive girl
in an advertisement of varnishes" (Gale 1900). As Gale soon
discovered, however, "There are of course all degrees of direct
This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Winter 2007 151
or remote associations, so that sometimes there is much doubt
as to the relevancy or irrelevancy of cuts or text matter."'
Gale's first experiment concerned the attention-getting
aspects of 164 "complete pages taken from the advertising
portions" of three monthly magazines: Century, Harpers, and
Cosmopolitan. He referred to these pages as "Series A." Inspec
tion of these publications indicates that these "complete pages"
of advertising were most likely either the full page inside the
front cover page that was divided into four quarter-page ads or
later pages in the publications containing a range of ad sizes
with one column of editorial content. His study participants
were university students. It is interesting to note that Gale
called the study participants "reagents," a term that reflects
his view of the role of the study participants' mental processes
as they observed advertising stimuli and reported what they
saw. As "reagents," it was their mental process of transforming
stimulus information into meaningful and memorable infor
mation that Gale sought to understand. His first experimental
approach was to use eight respondents (four men and four
women) in a method involving them in an extended series of
exposures to ad pages.
Scripture described the common apparatus for exposing
stimuli for attention tests in 1895 as consisting of shutter
like devices or a slide projection method. Gale was skilled in
the technology of photography; however, he appears to have
adapted a darkroom technique initially employed by Wundt
in his laboratory in Leipzig (Nicolas and Ferrand 1999). In
Gale's approach, individual study participants were seated at
a table in a darkened room while an observer asked them to
report on briefly illuminated stimulus materials. A half-candle
power electric light was flashed so briefly that the participants
were able to see "only one thing" on a single page that was
displayed vertically about two feet from the participant. Each
page was given 5 exposures and the participants generally
viewed no more than 12 different pages each day. Following
this approach, Gale (1990) reported that he accumulated
responses to 3,155 trials across what would have amounted
to 631 sittings.
Daniel Starch evaluated results of Gale's experimental
approach in his book Principles of Advertising. Starch noted
Gale's focus on the attention and interest value of words and
images, as well as his use of exposure of actual print ads in a
manner that "approximated the condition of a reader seeing
the advertisement in different mediums or repeatedly in the
same medium" (Starch 1923, pp. 501-502). Clearly, the con
ceptual structure and the experimental method of Gale's first
experiment can be seen as the origin of concepts such as the
"noted" and "seen-associated" scores for visuals, text blocks,
and brand names employed in the classic Starch Test of the
attention-getting capabilities of magazine advertising. That
Gale recognized the advertising process whereby brand asso
ciations are developed is revealed by his further observation:
152 The Journal of Advertising

FIGURE 4 pants should be classified as relevant or irrelevant items. In

Summary Section for the Series of Five Ad Exposures an attempt to clarify this question, he conducted a follow-up
in Gale's First Experiment experiment for which he prepared a series of 12 pages (his "Se
ries B") especially selected to reflect combinations of relevant
TOTAL EXPOSURES and irrelevant words and visuals (Gale 1900). For example,
OBSERVER
__ RW. IW. jRC. IC. |0. "Special Sheet #1" displayed clippings from ads consisting of
Horton ............ 240 29 143 53 1 8 "two relevant and two irrelevant words, each a quarter page." In
Holtnes ............ 146 32 126 42 20 analyzing the responses of the study participants, Gale reported
Brill ............ 123 25 87 44 1i that the makeup of the stimuli was faulty, citing the difficulty
Mills .. 155 13 81 41 25
of constructing complete ads that effectively represented only
Male Totals... 764 99 437 180 64
one of the four conceptual distinctions: relevant word, irrel
-McGregor ...... 201 28 120 78 12 evant word, relevant visual, irrelevant visual. However, Gale
-Hooker ..... ... 122 27 94 95 21
-Donaldson..... 188 29 85 82 9 did once again find that the male respondents were more likely
-Evans .... 239 37 110 104 30 to focus on verbal elements, whereas the female respondents
Female Totals 650 121 409 359 72 reported more of a balance between the verbal and visual ele
Male andi ments they reported.
Female Totals 14A4 220 '346 539 136 In the fall of 1899, Gale returned to the question of relevant
and irrelevant attention factors by constructing 13 experi
Source: Gale 1900, p. 42.
mental pages ("Series C") with which he attempted to equally
represent the numbers of relevant and irrelevant stimuli placed
in each of the quarter-page sections of his stimulus pages (Gale
1900). Using the same experimental apparatus as the first
"But in our trials, many of the long-advertised or used soaps
two experiments, eight men and five women served as study
or typewriters were inseparably associated with their special
names" (Gale 1900, p. 42). participants for a total of 1,345 trial exposures. The results
of his specially constructed pages favored irrelevant visual
Gale's results for his first experiment show that 60% of the
responses to the first exposure in the series of five trials forelements, and Gale again came to question the fairness of the
stimuli with respect to the issue of relevancy. He made one
each page consisted of verbal cues, while the remaining 40%
more attempt, by constructing six new pages ("Series D") on
were visual cues. Across the five exposures to each ad page (see
Gale's Table 1 in Figure 4), the results for this experiment which each of the visual stimuli was presented with its corre
indicated2 that the male respondents were more likely to focus sponding brand name. Not surprisingly from today's vantage
on verbal elements in the ads (58% of their responses), while point, these results favored "relevant cuts." But Gale was also
female respondents reported a balance between the verbal (50% concerned about his difficulty in controlling the sizes of the
of their responses) and visual elements they reported (Gale visual and verbal elements, a matter that would have favored
1900). Here we see Gale not only focusing on the differential the visual elements he cut from the magazine ads.
effects of stimuli, but also considering their effects over time Gale moved ahead by preparing 10 pages ("Series E") that
(repeated exposures) and individual differences arising outappear
of to be the first mock-up ads constructed for a psychol
the characteristics of the message recipients. Writing about ogy experiment. Each page featured only one brand, and the
Gale's first experiment more than two decades later, Starch pages were assembled to represent the various permutations of
observed, "The results indicate that as soon as the novelty relevant
of and irrelevant words, as well as relevant and irrelevant
the irrelevant material has worn off the advertisement loses visual elements, excluding the two possible combinations
interest, whereas the strictly relevant material maintains of in irrelevant words and cuts (Gale 1900). Eight male study
terest because it actually furnishes something for further participants viewed the series of 10 pages following Gale's
consideration" (1923, p. 502). procedure of five trials for each page. He reported that the
results reflected those of his first experiment (or "Series A").

GALE'S PROGRAM OF EXPERIMENTS Verbal cues represented 56% of the responses, with relevant
ON ADVERTISING words accounting for 31 % of these. Gale also found that the
dominance of relevant verbal cues increased with repetition.
Gale embarked on a series of studies designed to probe the
Assessing the overall picture of his initial studies, Gale saw his
methodological weaknesses he observed and questions he had
experiments as "confirmatory at least of rw. [relevant words]
about the process of reasoning. His second experiment focused
having the highest attention power" and as showing the "value
on his concern about the subjectivity that was involved of
in relevant text matter is increased when we come to arrange
deciding whether the items reported by his study particiour statistics to show the effects of repetition."

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Here, Gale's results can be seen as foreshadowing current
theory concerning attitude change. For example, one proposition
that underlies much current work in attitude change research
is that increasing levels of involvement will lead to increases
in consumer motivation to process information relevant to the
issue (as opposed to irrelevant information) (Petty and Cacioppo
1979). Gale's findings, which can be seen as an indication of
the role of strong arguments in connection with close attention,
demonstrate the value to theorists of revisiting and reflecting on
the earliest work in the field of the psychology of advertising.
ATTENTION VALUE OF PAGE POSITION,
TYPE SIZE, AND TYPE DESIGN
Edward Scripture had identified "bigness" as the "first law of
attention" and observed, "American advertisers in the past and
also in the present rely chiefly on the law of bigness" (Scripture
1895, p. 93). To examine the attention value of position on the
page, Gale selected four words (bicycle, piano, battle, and soap)
and constructed four stimulus pages that rotated the position
of the words from top to bottom in quarter-page sections (Gale
1900). For these pages ("Series F"), eight study participants
were given a series of 10 trials employing the "electric light"
exposure method. Gale found that the four words were seen
"practically the same number of times," but that the quarter
page section just above the middle was the first seen in 52% of
the trials. The section just below the middle was next (21%),
the top section was third (12%), and the bottom section was
fourth (5%). A follow-up study ("Series G") with different
words and mixtures of type size produced the same result.
Gale also examined attention values when pages were fur
ther divided vertically at the midsection with each half further
divided into four equal sections. As shown in Figure 5, the
position of each of the four words was rotated across four test
pages ("Series H"). For this study, Gale modified his previous
experimental setting to simulate an exposure procedure in the
fashion of the camera shutter method mentioned in Scripture's
psychology book. Gale's study participants viewed the stimu
lus pages at a distance of two feet while looking through an
apparatus he described as "a large photographic shutter with
an aperture of two inches" aimed at the middle of the page.
Gale reported, "[T}he distance was sufficient to bring the
whole sheet within the range of readable vision, while a very
slight eye-movement was sufficient to bring any part of the
sheet within the point of clearest vision" (1900, p. 55). A later
advertising researcher criticized Gale's shutter apparatus as
directing the attention of study participants to the middle of
the page (Adams 1916). It is possible that Gale shared this
concern. He returned to his original "darken room" approach
for the remainder of his advertising experiments.
Gale found what he described as "quite a decided advantage
for the left half of the page," which he attributed to "our habit
This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Winter 2007 153
FIGURE 5
One of the Four Test Pages for Gale's Second Study of
Page Position
Samiple of Series H.
3oap Piano
Bicycle 5Jat/le
Sianlo Soap
Battle 53icyC/e
Source: Gale 1900, p. 53.
of reading from left to right." Within each vertical half-page
section, he found the sections just above and just below th
midsection to be favored. He found a clear gradation of a
tention related to type size, and speculated that the sligh
advantage for "fancy" over "plain" type might be due to both
the "slant" of the fancy type and the slightly larger amount
space taken up by fancy type, although it was classified co
mercially as the same type size.
ATTENTION VALUE OF COLORS
AND THE ROLE OF AFFECT
Gale observed that advances in printing technology we
enabling use of color on magazine pages that approached t
quality of signs and bulletin boards of that time period (Ga
1900). Although Scripture's text covered perception of color in
detail (Scripture 1895), no connection was made to the matter
of attention, indicating that Gale may have been one of th
first to examine this issue from a theoretical and experiment
perspective. To identify exact colors, Gale turned to Bradley's
Color Chart, an industry standard for color specification, a
selected the standard colors of red, orange, yellow, green, blu
purple, black, and white. To prepare experimental stimul
Gale mounted one-inch squares against a white backgroun
and one-inch circles against a black background. Returni
to the setting of his first experiment, he illuminated each ca
momentarily, rotating the cards 90 degrees between exposures
Nine male and seven female study participants underwent
trial exposures for each of the two background colors.
Gale discovered interesting main effects relating to th
background color and the gender of study participants. Again
the white background, black was clearly the most attentio
getting color for men, whereas red was most attention gettin
for women. Against the black background, green was by f
the most attention-getting color for men, whereas green and
154 The Journal of Advertising
red tied as the strongest attention-getting colors for women.
Gale compared these results to a separate "census" he had
conducted concerning the favorite colors of men and women.
In that survey, he had discovered that red was the color most
liked by women, whereas green was the color most disliked
by both men and women.
This finding, along with the numbering system implied by
the language "Question Blank No. 3" inserted in his survey of
advertising practitioners, signals that Gale may have conducted
more than one survey using the "order of merit" approach to
questionnaire design. Moreover, Gale saw the connections
among liking, disliking, and attention values. He reflected, "It
is interesting to find that, while the value of white and black
together is apparently due to the strength of the stimulus by
contrast, the high attention value of red with the females cor
responds to its being the color most liked by females, while
green is the color most disliked by both males and females"
(Gale 1900, p. 57). It was more than three decades later that
the noted psychometricianJ.P. Guilford (1934) conducted his
studies on the affective value of colors.
ADVERTISING INFLUENCE: RECALL,
INVOLVEMENT, AND PURCHASING
Gale moved beyond attention factors to consider matters re
lating to "the conscious as against the unconscious effects of
advertising" by inquiring about what his study participants
remembered from advertising (Gale 1900, p. 57). For example,
in a survey of 65 men and 36 women who were among his
students, Gale found that while almost all of his respondents
could recall the brand name for a dress braid, only "about
half' of each group (men and women) could correctly report
clearly communicated sizing information concerning what he
described as a "much advertised dress braid." Inquiring about
the contents of advertising for a range of heavily advertised
and widely remembered brand names, Gale noted that many of
his students could not remember the contents of the advertis
ing, notwithstanding their familiarity with the brands. Gale
commented from these findings, "{TThe results added more
evidence to our increasing knowledge of the large part of our
mental life which, paradoxical as it seems-goes on uncon
sciously" (1900, p. 58). In this connection, he noted issues that
anticipate the more recent studies of low-involvement learning
in connection with advertising and mass media.
Indeed, Gale observed, "The question of the proportion of
men and women who are influenced by advertising is of much
psychological and practical interest" (1900, p. 57). Between
the years 1896 and 1900, for a wide range of product catego
ries, Gale posed such questions as "If you were going to buy
some toilet soap, what kind would you buy and why would
you buy that kind?" (1900, p. 58). He further probed this issue
with a question that asked survey participants "whether they
This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
would buy an article from their own experience of it, from
the experience or recommendation of their friends, from hav
ing seen it advertised, or whether they could give no reason"
(1900, p. 58). He summarized the overall results of a survey
of 79 men and 58 women as indicating that 31% of the men
and 35 % of the women made purchase decisions based on ad
vertising rather than personal experience or recommendations
of friends (see Figure 6).
Gale noted that for "articles in which they have had little
or no personal experience, about half of those answering would
seek for the experience of some friend before buying these
articles or go to those firms they found trustworthy for other
articles and would thus not be guided by advertising." Gale
also noted the distinctions between the role of advertising
in attracting new purchasers and encouraging brand loyalty
by previous purchasers when he observed, "much advertis
ing is not for gaining new customers, but to hold their old
customers by not letting them forget the continued existence
of those articles or firms which they have found trustworthy
by experience."
REASONING: CENTRAL VERSUS PERIPHERAL
Gale further pursued the role of the reasoning process to
explain how one advertisement might "move" readers more
than another. In a manner that can be seen as anticipating the
recent research concerning the Elaboration Likelihood Model
(ELM), Gale prepared a series of six mock-up magazine ads for
the product categories of soaps, pianos, home furnishings, and
clothing (Gale 1900). As shown in Figure 7, the series of ads
for soap explored variations in the number and combinations
of cues concerning brand names, product attributes, product
benefit claims, a promotional offer, and source credibility. Gale
did not manipulate contrasting levels of involvement in his
research, but can be seen as examining an array of cues on his
continuum from relevant to irrelevant in the fashion of the
central versus peripheral routes to attitude change posited in
the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion (Petty and
Cacioppo 1981).
The members of a group of 72 men and 33 women were
asked to read through the fictitious ads in the manner of what
we would now call a conventional portfolio test. The order
of the ads was varied across the study participants. Gale in
structed his study participants to imagine they were in a new
city and needed to identify the firm to which they would go
first, then second, and so on until they rank-ordered all six
choices in each of the four product categories. This instruc
tion concerning the frame of reference to be used by the study
participants can be seen as not only giving them a point of
view, but also as serving to heighten the level of involvement
in the information. His study participants were then asked to
state their reasons for making each of the choices. Here we
 Winter 2007 155

FIGURE 6
Gale's Table Summarizing Advertising Influence

PROPORTION OF PERSONS INFLUENCED BY ADVERTISING IN

ARTICLES OUTSIDE OF THEIR USUAL EXPERIENCE.
TABLE XV.
MALEs-79. Exnerience Advertising F'EMALES-58. Experience A dvertising
Knitting Yarn. 30 23 Shaving Soap. 16 22
Baking Powvcer 38 39 Men's Clothes. 28 24
Violin ......393 ......... .3 ............... 31
Total . 107 95 Total ......... 67 77
Percentag .53. 47. Percentage. 46.4 53.4

Source: Gale 1900, p. 58.

FIGURE 7
Ad Copy for Gale's Six Mock-ups of Soap Advertising

SOAPS.
No. 1. Our Velvet Soap is attractieve to touch, sight and odor.
Onrental Perfume & Soap. Co.
No. 2. Colonial Soap. Richard Endicott & Co. FouIded i1n 1831.
No. 3. Soap Special Sale at "Swanson's Mammoth."
4SLilly"'-8 cakes for 37 ets.
"Queen's Own"-6 cakes for 34 ets.
Omaha Packing Co.'s new "Expansion" -6 cakes for 29 cts.
Texas Cattle Co's "Get there"-6 cakes for 23 cts.
Swanson's "Pride"-6 cakes for 21 cts.
"#Gold Standard" S " 4 S 19 '
Limit of one dozen to each purchaser.
No. 4. America Soap. Government Standard. Official tests by U. S.
chemist shows less than a half of one per cent of impun'ties. Eagle Soap Co.
No. 5. Free. A durable toy balloon given away for three days with each
purchase of four cakes of Universal Soap.
No. 6. Patronize Home manufactures. Flour City soap at their home
score.

Source: Gale 1900, p. 60.

also see Gale's advanced application of the order of merit ap
proach, employing follow-up questions as a means of studying
the process of reasoning.
Figure 8 summarizes the results. Under his manipulation
to heighten advertising involvement, Gale found that his male
and female study participants focused primarily on what today
would be termed central arguments. Reasons such as age of
the company and reliability were given far more often than
others, signaling the participants' focus on a material sign of
reliable product performance. Gale also noted, "tMlen were
proportionately a little more influenced by age and women by
reliability and by what they called an attractive or good ad." He
interpreted his results as showing that "cheapness influenced
our male answers more in favor of an ad, and the females more
against the ad" (Gale 1900, p. 65).
ATTITUDE TOWARD THE AD
Gale was interested in unconscious reasoning and sought
to determine the specific nature of the ad claims associated

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
156 The Journal of Advertising

Figure 8
Gale's Summary Table for the Impact of Various Advertising Claims

TABLE XX.
SUMMARY FROM THE FOUR SETS OF ADS. OF THE MAIN REASONS
FOR OR AGAINST AN AD.; FOLLOWED THRO SIX CHOICES.

ist Choice.I 2d Choice. 3d Choice. Ith Choice. I5th Cboice. 6th Choie.
REASON. _
M. IF. j b. F M F. M. P. M. P. M. F.
Age .. 75 212' 88 17 36 1() 23 18 11 8 1 1
Reliable ....... 46 29 4 21 26 27 3 6 8 2 .. 1
Attractive,
Good Ad.. 23 15 31 19 30 27 29 10 17 9 5 2
Cheap,
Bargains.. 24 9 23 5 27 15 37 18 74 33 70 71
Qualities
Stated 5 6 20 11 1 11 20 8 5 3
PricesI
Stated ...... 8 1 12 1 9 7 1 .. a I 1I
Style; .. 7 4 17 4 7 1 10 9 1 7 9 a
Fake,
No Brag.
Good.-I .,. *... * I*. .3 1 __9 St_ _ 68 35
Source: Gale 1900, p. 64.

ADVERTISING
with the response "attractive or good ad." In his study of six AND PERSONAL INFLUENCE
mock-up ads, he had placed his study participants in the role
Gale concluded
of conscious evaluation of his mock-ups. The appearance of his analysis of the tests of mock-up ads with

the response "attractive or good ad" invited him reflection

to pursue on the relative influence of advertising and person
the possibility of unconscious reasoning. In this connection, He noted that in the results for his final exp
experience.
mentmock
Gale further analyzed his data to identify the specific (see Figure 8), "about 60 % of our answers made th
up ads that were associated with the "attractive or good ad" from the age or reliability of the firm" (Gale 190
first choice

reason shown in Figure 6. He reported, "This reason p. 67). was

Gale took this to indicate that his study participan
"tried to
given 24 times for choosing No. 1 in the soap set, where thesubstitute for their own want of experience with th
firms
'attractive' itself probably suggested this reason to some; the experience of the public who had dealt with them"
and
(1900,
it was given ten times for No. 2, where it apparently p. 67). That he saw this as a sign of the importance
meant
personal
reliable" (Gale 1900, p. 66). Across all four products in hisinfluence is demonstrated by his further observatio
that "Many of our answers objected vigorously to having
study, Gale described the majority of the ad characteristics
underlying the "attractive or good ad" response aschoose a firm
"giving a without a chance to get the advice of some fri
or person
description or stating the qualities of the articles," as well as who knew the firms" (Gale 1900, p. 67). Moreov
age and reliability. Yet Gale decided to retain theGale saw these experimental results as consistent with t
category
"attractive or good ad" in his table of results because results of his earlier survey on the influence of advertising (s
it showed
"how unconsciously many people reason and cannot indeedfrom which he had found that about 31% of the m
Figure 6)
and
give the real reason when they try." Clearly, here Gale 359%
can be of the women made purchase decisions on the b
of advertising,
seen as having recognized the "duality" of the unconscious and with the remainder (just over 60%) guided
personal
conscious aspects of the attitude toward the ad concept that experience or the experience of others.

was articulated more than 80 years later (Shimp 1981).

Gale's method of tracing the ad characteristics associatedADVERTISING AS SUGGESTION
with consumer explanations for their ad preferences is sug
Gale
gestive of approaches that could be applied today to was clearly an acute observer, one who appears to ha
advance
beenof
understanding of the cognitive and emotional aspects the first to demonstrate the importance of concepts an
the
concept of attitude toward the ad. methods applied to the realities of low-involvement learni

This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

In his concentration on advertising as involuntary communica
tion, taking place in the form of suggestion, Gale can be seen
as a visionary for advertising theory. He concluded:
Having the simple name constantly forced before one's indirect
vision is enough to make many people react sufficiently to get
the article. And this without necessarily any curiosity or other
reason, but simply as a case under our general law of sensory-mo
tor or idea-motor reaction. This law merely sums up the natural
tendencies to put into motion and carry out any perception or
idea we may get. Thus the final buying of the often-impressed
article is very similar to all the forms of suggestion-within
hypnotism or in the commoner forms [of suggestion] about us
every day-which are being recognized as forming such a large
part of our motor life. (Gale 1900, p. 69)
Gale clearly saw a direct connection between attention and
purchase interest when he stated, "Having the simple name
constantly forced before one's indirect vision is enough to make
many people react sufficiently to get the article" (1900, p. 69).
He saw this as explained by "our general law of idea-motor
reaction" (Gale 1900, p. 69). In his discussion of the process
of suggestion, Gale expressed farsighted ideas that relate to
Zajonc's research on the relationship between repeated expo
sures to a stimulus and attitude toward the stimulus (Zajonc
1968). That this phenomenon can take place when study
participants are unaware of exposure to a stimulus has also
been demonstrated (Wilson 1979).
GALE'S THEORETICAL AND
METHODOLOGICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS
The pioneering advertising researcher Walter Dill Scott wrote,
"Gale seems to have been the first to apply experimental
methods to advertising" (1908, p. 252). Henry Foster Adams,
psychology scholar and author of the book Advertising and Its
Mental Laws, wrote, "I am indebted to Gale, Hollingworth,
Strong, Scott, and Starch for much of my material" (Adams
1916, p. vi). Frank Presbrey's comprehensive book on the
history and development of advertising identifies Gale as the
first to write on the subject of the psychology of advertising
and Scott's 1903 Atlantic Monthly articles and book on the
psychology of advertising as the beginnings of "the study of
appeal as a science" (Presbrey 1929, pp. 441-443).
Gale's contemporary, Henry Foster Adams, made the most
prescient assessment of Gale's impact. Adams remarked: "[Nlot
enough exact and scientific observations have been made to
inform us of the relative strength of the different interests of
the human being. In fact, it is a problem which is practically
incapable of direct solution. By indirect means, however, it
is possible to obtain a considerable amount of information
in regard to the strength of the different human interests"
(Adams 1916, p. 128). Adams continued, "The method was
This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Winter 2007 157
first employed, in connection with advertising, by Gale at
Minnesota, and was later elaborated and worked out in very
great detail by Hollingworth and Strong at Columbia" (1916,
p. 128). Referring to Gale's study of the relative strengths of
combinations of relevant and irrelevant cues presented in a
series of mock-up ads, Adams identified Gale as the initiator
of experimental designs to examine the relative strengths of
alternative message appeals.
CONCLUSIONS
With his advanced education in experimental psychology and
interest in advertising as an accessible everyday phenomenon
revealing of human perception and reasoning, Harlow Gale can
be seen as the original thinker when it comes to the theory and
psychology of advertising. His 1900 paper "On the Psychology
of Advertising" set forth his conceptual approach, methods,
and results with a level of detail reflecting current expectations
for reporting on empirical research. The citations of Gale's
concepts, methods, and accomplishments by Scott, Starch,
and Strong clearly speak to his influence on their work and,
thereby, to the larger world of advertising theory and practice.
Indeed, the University of Minnesota reprinted Gale's 1900
manuscript in 1920 because of widespread interest on the part
of advertising researchers (Poffenberger 1928).
Gale was a scholar of many interests and a true progressive
near the height of the Progressive Era. He published scholarly
papers in areas such as the psychology of child development,
the psychology of music, suggestive therapeutics (hypnotism),
and pedagogical approaches in the classroom (Gale 1904). One
of his papers was published in a 1902 issue of International
Socialists Review. Indeed, it appears that Gale's interests and
approaches were too progressive for a Midwestern university in
the early 1900s. In 1903, Gale's role as an officer in the Anti
Imperialist League of Minneapolis and his active opposition to
the conquest of the Philippines by the United States led to his
termination from the university (Gale 1904). Gale remained in
Minneapolis working for the city as a public works inspector
and stayed in contact with his friends at the university.
Today, as in the time of Harlow Gale, advertising is a com
munication process driven by creativity and experimentation
that continues to present "strategic research materials" for
those who study attention and persuasion. By virtue of both
its accessibility and dependence on new ideas and approaches,
advertising presents a highly productive arena for Wilhelm
Wundt's ultimate challenge to theory-that it must survive
the test of experimentation. What Gale saw both as a respite
from "artificial book psychology" and as an opportunity to test
his perspectives with "very live and real psychology" has be
come a body of knowledge researchers continue to pursue under
the name Gale first gave it: the psychology of advertising.
 158 The Journal of Advertising
As envisioned by Gale, and inspired by Wundt's approach to
the relationship of theory to measurement and experiment, the
very latest advertising practices present themselves as sources
of theoretical interest to be conceptualized and explained.
Following Gale's interest in "the very real" leads us to focus
on the latest developments in advertising as sources of theo
retical interest, rather than on established advertising message
approaches in traditional media. Indeed, Gale would ask us,
"What is advertising today?" His answer would likely involve
observing the latest techniques, consulting with practitioners,
and formulating surveys leading to an analytical-not a de
scriptive-approach to a new definition. Gale took particular
note of the intersection between advertising and personal
experience. He was the first psychologist of advertising to see
certain advertising appeals as signaling credibility based on
reliance on a brand by many consumers, and to connect that
appeal to the importance to consumers of interpersonal com
munication in the marketplace. Today, one might speculate
that Gale would be focusing on how reasoning phenomena
take place when advertising messages find themselves in the
midst of the self-generating interpersonal networking milieu
of Internet communications. Over a century after his visionary
ideas, Gale's work reminds us to look to the leading edges of
advertising practice and consumer behavior to develop theory,
and to revisit the work of original thinkers for perspective and
inspiration.
New York: Doubleday.
NOTES Scott, Walter Dill (1903), The Theory of Advertising, Boston:
Small, Maynard.
1. The term "cuts" refers to visual elements in print advertis
ing, such as illustrations, symbols, and other nontext illustrative Maynard.
elements.
2. It should be noted that William S. Gossett's first paper on
statistical distributions appeared in Biometrika in 1906. It appears
that Gale, in using a small number of study participants for his
experiments, attempted to gain confidence in his findings by
observing his study participants by means of repeated measures,
or trials.
REFERENCES
Adams, Henry Foster (1916), Advertising and Its Mental Laws,
New York: MacMillan.
Benjamin, Ludy T, and David B. Baker (2004), From S?ance to
Science: A History of the Profession of Psychology in America,
Belmont, CA: Wads worth/Thompson.
Coolsen, Frank G. (1947), "Pioneers in the Development of Ad
vertising, "Journal of Marketing, 12 (1), 80-86.
This content downloaded from 154.59.124.102 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 21:02:43 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Fowler, Nathaniel C. (1889), Fowler's Publicity, Boston: Publicity.
Gale, Harlow (1900), "On the Psychology of Advertising," in
Psychological Studies, Minneapolis: Harlow Gale, 36-69.
-(1904), Ideals and Practice in a University: A Pedagogical
Experiment, Minneapolis: Privately printed.
Griffith, Coleman Roberts (1923), General Introduction to Psychol
ogy, New York: MacMillan.
Guilford, J. P. (1934), "Affective Value of Color as a Function of
Hue, Tint, and Chroma," Journal of Experimental Psychology,
17,342-371.
Kuna, David P. (1976a), "The Psychology of Advertising, 1896
I9I6," Ph.D. diss., University of New Hampshire.
-(1976b), "The Concept of Suggestion in the Early His
tory of Advertising Psychology, "Journal of the History of the
Behavioral Sciences, 12, 347-353.
-(1979), "Early Advertising Applications of the Gale
Cattell Order-of-Merit Method," Journal of the History of the
Behavioral Sciences, 15, 38-46.
Nicolas, Serge, and Ludovic Ferrand (1999), "Wundt's Laboratory
at Leipzig in 1891," History of Psychology, 2 (3), 194-203.
Petty, Richard E., and John T Cacioppo (1979), "Issue Involve
ment Can Increase or Decrease Persuasion by Enhancing
Message-Relevant Cognitive Responses," Journal of Personal
ity andSocial Psychology, 37 (10), 1915-1926.
-, and-(1981), Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and
Contemporary Approaches, Dubuque, IA: William Brown.
Poffenberger, Albert T (1928), Psychology in Advertising, New
York: A.W. Shaw.
Presbrey, Frank (1929), The History and Development of Advertising,
-(1908), The Psychology of Advertising, Boston: Small,
Scripture, E. W. (1895), Thinking, Feeling, Doing, New York:
G.P. Putnam.
Shimp, Terence A. (1981), "Attitude Toward the Ad as a Media
tor of Consumer Brand Choice," Journal of Advertising, 10
(2), 9-15.
Starch, Daniel (1914), Advertising: Its Principles, Practice, and
Technique, New York: Scott, Foresman.
-(I923), Principles of Advertising, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Steffens, Lincoln (1931), The Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens, vol.
1, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Jovanovich.
Strong, Edward K. (1938), Psychological Aspects of Business, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Wilson, William R. (1979), "Feeling More Than We Can Know:
Exposure Effects Without Learning" Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 37 (June), 811-821.
Zajonc, Robert B. (1968), "Attitudinal Effects of Mere Expo
sure, " Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Monograph
Supplement, 9 (February), 1-27.