496 Chapter M4 Membrane Separations ‘Thus, the required membrane surface area is 639,000/40 = 16,000 £2, The membrane is packaged in pressure-vessel ‘modules of 4,000 ft each. Thus, four modules in parallel are used, as shown in Figure 14.2b. A disadvantage of the men ‘brane separator in this application is the need to recompress the recycle hydrogen to the reactor inlet pressure. Unlike di tllation, where the energy of separation i usually heat, the en- ergy for gas permeation isthe shaft work of gas compression. ‘Membrane separation is an emerging unit operation. Important progress is still being made in the development of efficient membrane materials and the packaging thereof for the processes listed in Table 14.1. Other novel methods for ‘conducting separation with barriers fora wider variety of tures are being researched and developed. Applications covering wider ranges of temperature and types of membrane materials are being found, Already, membrane separation processes have found wide application in such diverse indus tsies as the beverage, chemical, dary, electronic, environmen- tal, food, medical, paper, petrochemical, petroleum, pharma- ceutical, and textile industries. Some of these applications are sivenin Table 1.2andincluded in Table 14.1. Often, compared to other separation equipment, membrane separators are more ‘compact, less capital intensive, and more easily operated, con- trolled, and maintained, However, membrane separators are usually modular in construction, with many parallel units required for large-scale applications, as contrasted with the more common separation techniques, where larger pieces of equipment are designed as plant size becomes larger. ‘The key to an efficient and economical membrane separation process is the membrane and the manner in is packaged and modularized. Desirable attributes ‘of a membrane are (1) good permeability, (2) high selectiv- ity, @) chemical and mechanical compatibility with the processing environment, (4) stability, freedom from foul- ing, and reasonable useful life, (5) amenability to fabrica- tion and packaging, and (6) ability to withstand large pres- sure differences across the membrane thickness, Research and development of membrane processes deals mainly with the discovery of suitable membrane materials and their fabrication. ‘This chapter discusses types of membrane materials, membrane modules, the theory of transport through mem- ‘brane materials and modules, and the scale-up of membrane separators from experimental performance data. Emphasis is, on dialysis, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, gas permeation, pervaporation, and ultrafiltration, but many ofthe theoretical principles apply as well to emerging, but not-yet commer- cialized, membrané processes such as membrane distilla- tion, membrane gas absorption, membrane stripping, mem brane solvent extraction, perstraction, and facilitated transport, which are not covered here. The status of indus- trial membrane separation systems and directions in research to improve existing applications and make possible new applications are considered in detail by Baker etal. [5] in a study supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and by a host of contributors in a recent handbook edited by Ho and Sirkar (6}, which includes emerging membrane processes, The book, “Membrane Technology and Applica tions” by Baker [49], isa comprehensive treatment of theory and technology. 14.1 MEMBRANE MATERIALS ‘Almost all industrial membrane materials are made from natural or synthetic polymers (macromolecules). Natural polymers include wool, robber, and cellulose. wide variety of synthetic polymers has been developed and commercial- ized since 1930. Synthetic polymers are produced by poly- merization of a monomer by condensation (step reactions) or ‘addition (chain reactions, or by the copolymerization of two different monomers. The resulting polymer is catogorized as having (1) long linear chain, sich as lineae polyethylene; (2) a branched chain, such as polybutadiene; (3) a thre dimensional, highly erss-linked structure, such as phenol formaldehyde; or (4) a moderately cross-linked structure, such as butyl rubber, The linea-chain polymers soften with an increase in temperature, are often soluble in orgagic so vents, and are refered to as thermoplastic polymers. At the other extreme, highly crosslinked polymers do not soften appreciably, are almost insoluble in most organic solvents, and are referred to a8 thermosetting polymers. OF more interest in the application of polymers to membranes is a classification based on the arrangement ot conformation of the polymer molecules, At low temperatures, typically below 100°C, idealized polymers can be tlassified as glassy or erystalline. The former refers to a polymer that is britle and glassy in appearance and lacks any crystalline structure (ie, amorphous), whereas the latter refers to a polymer that is brittle, hard, and stiff, with a crystalline structure. If the temperature of a glassy polymer is increased, a point, called the glass-transition temperature, Ty, may be reached where the polymer becomes rubbery. If the temperature of @ crystalline polymer is increased, a point, called the melting temperature, Try is reached where the polymer becomes & ‘melt, However, a thermosetting polymer never melts. Many polymers have both amorphous and crystalline regions, that is, a certain degree of crystallinity that varies from 5 t0 90%, making it possible for some polymers to have both a T, and a Tw. Membranes made of glassy polymers can operate below or above 7; membranes of crystalline polymers must